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3
C H A P T E R

Listening and
speaking: focus
on listening

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) (Department of Basic

Education, 2011) views listening and speaking as a unit. In this chapter we consider
listening and in Chapter 4 we will focus on speaking. By discussing the two legs of
this language domain individually, we do not advocate isolating the legs. We do so
for the sake of an in-depth discussion as listening and speaking are both crucial to
all learning.
In this chapter we want to investigate the role of “listening” in a language pro-
gramme and as described by the CAPS as a language skill. CAPS refers to oral work
that takes place at the beginning of the day and to focused activities. We provide
tips and practical ideas for the teacher to help achieve the objectives of “listening”
in the Foundation Phase. We also pay attention to related aspects such as aural
development, different kinds of listening, the behaviour that characterises a good
listener, learners with hearing impairments, auditive perception, and the use of sto-
ries to develop listening ability.
However, it is essential that we first consider what the CAPS expects regarding lis-
tening. We repeat that “listening” is not dealt with in isolation. The prescribed inte-
grated approach avoids any type of linear progression from listening to speaking, to
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reading and then to writing. These skills are all interwoven and are presented as
such in this literacy programme. Nevertheless, there is consensus that listening is
the first step in a child’s natural acquisition of language (MacNaughton & Williams,
2004).
MacNaughton and Williams (2004: 118) draw attention to the important social
role that listening plays in the life of the young learner, a matter already discussed
49
by the author Joan Tough in her book, Listening to children talking (1976). It is
important for a learner’s self-image that the adult listens to him as he strives to com-
municate. The teacher also plays a vital role in modelling good listening behaviour,
as stated by Kilfoil and Van der Walt (1997).

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The Foundation Phase teacher should know exactly what learners are expected
to achieve as regards listening and speaking. Hence we give the overview of skills to
be taught for each grade of this phase as contained in the CAPS. This then also
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illustrates the progress from one grade to the next.

Although listening and speaking are not separated in the classroom situation,
those aspects specifically aimed at listening are printed in italics. As already said, we
do so in this manuscript for the sake of comprehensiveness.
Please note that only the overview of listening and speaking skills is included (see
p. 51). Refer to the CAPS for a more detailed discussion (per term and grade) of
the requirements for content, concepts and skills that learners should master
regarding all aspects of language learning.

3.2 SHOULD LISTENING BE TAUGHT?

Listening involves the process of hearing a message, recognising the sounds and
interpreting (processing) them by attaching meaning to what has been heard
(Mayesky, 2006: 360). Many people feel that listening comes naturally and does not
need to be taught. However, if we bear in mind how much teaching time in the
classroom depends on listening, we realise how necessary good listening skills are
and how important it is to develop these skills in order for learners to use auditive
stimuli to their full advantage. Sampson et al. (2003: 92) quote Lundsteen as stat-
ing: “It might be said that we listen to a book a day; speak a book a week; read a
book a month and write a book a year.”
Furthermore, Sampson et al. (2003) refer to research done by Paul Rankin, in
1928, which found that learners spent 45% of class time listening, 30% speaking,
16% reading and 9% writing. They quote Chaney and Burk and their more modern
research conducted in 1998 which demonstrated a similar division of class time.
From this it seems clear that listening is used more than any of the other lan-
guage domains for the acquisition of knowledge and the gathering of information.
It is thus necessary that special attention should be paid to the auditory sense, and
the ability to listen attentively and to understand what is heard.
A further argument for the need to develop good listening habits in learners is
the prevalence of poor listening skills demonstrated daily in society, for example:
• One’s thoughts wander while one listens to lectures or speeches.
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• People often interrupt one another, and do not hear one another out in full.
• Misunderstandings arise.
• People forget directions, names, numbers and appointments.
• People often request that the speaker repeats what he has just said.
• A person reacts to a previous point made during a conversation that has already
50 moved on to other topics.

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LISTENING AND SPEAKING: FOCUS ON LISTENING 3

OVERVIEW OF THE LANGUAGE SKILLS TO BE TAUGHT IN THE HOME LANGUAGE GRADES R–3
Listening and speaking
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Grade R Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3

• Listens to stories • Listens to stories • Listens to stories • Listens for the main
and acts these out and expresses and poems and idea and for detail in
• Listens and feelings about the answers higher- stories and answers
responds to simple story order questions open-ended
questions • Listens to • Listens to a complex questions
• Listens to and instructions and sequence of • Listens to a story
repeats rhythmic announcements and instructions and and works out cause
patterns, and copies responds responds and effect
correctly appropriately appropriately • Expresses feelings
• Listens to and recalls • Listens without • Listens without about a text and
simple word interrupting, taking interrupting, gives reasons
sequences in order turns to speak and showing respect for • Listens to a complex
(e.g. big, beg, bag) asking questions for the speaker, asking sequence of
• Names and points to clarif cation questions and instructions and
parts of the body • Listens, enjoys and commenting on what responds
responds to picture was heard appropriately
• Sings simple songs
and does action and word puzzles, • Talks about personal • Engages in
rhymes riddles and jokes experiences and conversation as a
• Talks about personal more general news social skill, accepting
• Talks about pictures
in posters, theme experiences and • Tells a story that has and respecting the
charts, books, etc. feelings a beginning, middle way others speak
• Tells a familiar story and end • Makes an oral
• Matches and sorts
things according to that has a beginning, • Expresses feelings presentation (e.g.
shape, colour, etc. middle and end about a story or tells personal news,
• Answers closed- and poem and gives describes something
• Participates in
open-ended reasons experienced,
discussions and
questions • Answers open-ended recounts an event)
asks questions
• Role-plays different questions and • Tells a short story
situations justifies answers with a simple plot
• Participates in class • Makes up own and different
discussions rhymes characters
• Uses terms such as • Role-plays different • Uses language
sentence, capital situations imaginatively (e.g.
letter, full stop • Participates in tells jokes and
riddles)
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discussions, and
reports back on the • Interviews people for
group’s work a particular purpose
• Uses terms such as • Uses terms such as
noun, adjective, subject, verb, object,
verb, pronoun, question, statement,
preposition, comma, command, synonym,
question mark, antonym, 51
paragraph exclamation mark

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3.3 HEARING AND LISTENING

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McDonough and Shaw (2003: 116) argue that learners need to have a reason to lis-
ten and that certain factors influence listening and hearing. These include the
number of people participating in a conversation, their individual roles, as well as
the level of background noise. Older people often feel that children today do not
listen. Although this may be true to an extent, it is not because children are disobe-
dient or naughty. The prevalence of television and computer games has brought
about a situation where people (including children) are more in tune with the visu-
al than the auditory. They use the images to construct meaning, without necessarily
according meaning to the sounds accompanying the images. In the past, radio was
the main source of entertainment and information, and it demanded good listen-
ing skills; this is not the case with television.
Furthermore, parents and teachers repeat instructions endlessly, thus reinforc-
ing the lazy listening habits of children. Children soon learn that listening the first
time is not necessary as the message will be repeated.
Boredom may be another reason why learners do not listen and therefore do not
know what is happening in the classroom. Often the most intelligent learners, who
may not be challenged in the classroom, become bored. These learners then with-
draw to their own imaginary world, which is far more interesting for them than the
classroom situation.

3.3.1 Auditory problems

The first step a teacher should take when a learner does not listen in class is to
make sure that the problem does not have a physical cause. The inability or
reduced ability to hear can manifest as a learner who constantly asks for instruc-
tions to be repeated, who continues with his own activities and does not react to an
instruction, who turns his head to listen with his “good” ear, who waits to see what
classmates do before he starts, and who clearly is mentally absent from the class.
A learner who cannot hear properly will not turn his head when someone
behind him whispers. This simple test can be used to find out if a learner is hard of
hearing.
Hardness of hearing can be temporary if a learner suffers from sinusitis or upper
respiratory tract infections. If it appears that the learner genuinely cannot hear
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properly, the teacher should request the parents to have the learner’s ears tested.
As a result of the policy of inclusivity in our schools, learners with impaired hear-
ing may be included in mainstream classrooms. Teachers can apply the following
few basic principles to help such learners:
• Ensure that any hearing-impaired learner can see the teacher’s mouth when she
52 speaks to the class, as many hard-of-hearing learners have learnt to lip-read.
• Seat the learner in the front of the class.
• Make sure that the learner has heard each instruction by checking that he is not
lost or hesitant to start a task.

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LISTENING AND SPEAKING: FOCUS ON LISTENING 3

• Encourage classmates to look directly at their hearing-impaired friend when they
talk to him.
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• Learn simple sign language or the finger alphabet. This will be effective only if
the learner knows it too. Cooperate with parents on this matter.
• Motivate classmates to have empathy for the hearing-impaired learner and to
accommodate him in communication situations where such a learner may feel
lost.

3.3.2 Auditive development and the school beginner

Even though a learner may hear well and have no hearing problems, he may still be
unable to comprehend what he hears. Good listening ability includes being able to
interpret the information heard through the ears.
It is especially those children who are taught in a language other than their
home language who can hear, but who cannot always understand. Learners who are
not taught in their home language may find the vocabulary and grammar of the
language used in the classroom difficult. As a result of their diminished compre-
hension, their ability to listen may also be restricted. In South Africa, where we pro-
mote a policy of multilingualism, teachers should be especially sensitive to the situa-
tion of learners who are taught in a language other than their home language, and
should use as many listening opportunities as possible to support these learners.
Hence, time should be spent on stimulating the memory and attaching meaning to
that which the learner hears in the classroom.
The inability of a learner to listen effectively may result from the following:
• The learner may come from a home where nobody has a conversation with him.
No time is spent developing his language proficiency, and he has no opportuni-
ties to listen to stories.
• He may have a deficient ability to concentrate. He cannot sit still long enough to
listen.
• He may be overwhelmed by auditory input. He is incapable of distinguishing
between that which is important and that which is not. He is lost in a maze of
auditory input.
• He chooses not to listen, because if he listens he will have to carry out instruc-
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tions, which deprives him of playtime. He “closes” his ears.

• He may take a long time to understand what he hears if he is taught in a lan-
guage other than his home language. In such a situation, the teacher must be
very patient.

In the classroom, the learners’ listening abilities should be developed in authentic

53
situations, for example by listening to stories and taking part in discussions. Percep-
tual exercises can also be used to develop their auditive abilities, but should not
form part of the readiness programme to prepare learners for authentic learning
situations. So-called learning readiness programmes, in which certain skills are

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taught as prerequisites to language and other forms of learning, are not prescribed
by the national curriculum, and such activities should be integrated into other
learning situations.
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Auditory perception refers to the interpretation of auditory impulses in the

brain. The better this ability is developed, the better the learner will be able to
make sense of the impulses he receives through his ears.
The following perceptual exercises, which can be presented as games, can help
learners to develop an awareness of sound:
• Learners are told to close their eyes and identify sounds. The teacher can make
these using objects in the classroom: ringing a bell, or striking sticks, wooden
blocks or lids against one another. She may record sounds on a tape or CD, such
as a dog barking, a tap running or a door creaking, or she may use sounds out-
side the classroom, such as different types of vehicles (auditory discrimination).
• Learners listen to music notes and use their hands to indicate whether a note is
high or low, loud or soft (auditory discrimination).
• They clap in rhythmic patterns (auditory memory).
• They say the sequence of sounds they hear in a word. For example, in the word
“cat” they would say c-a-t (auditory sequencing).
• They listen to words the teacher says and identify the words that sound the same
– book, car, look. They also identify words that begin with the same sound –
man, can, mouth, (auditory discrimination). Later learners can identify the same
sounds at the end of a word – (l) ball and bill, (d) bad and bed, as well as the
sound in the middle of a word – (a) bad, man (auditory discrimination).
• Learners listen to the sounds that form a word and put them together to form
the word (for example, c-a-t sounds the word “cat” (auditory closure)).
• They listen to and identify words spoken against background noise. For example,
a tape or CD of sea sounds may be played in the background while the teacher
sounds or pronounces particular words. The learners recognise and repeat the
words (auditory foreground-background discrimination).

3.4 KINDS OF LISTENING

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As scholars and others acknowledge, listening involves various skills and aspects.
Sampson (Sampson et al., 2003: 97) quotes Lundsteen when she states:
Listening is a transactive process that involves many facets, including receiv-
ing, focusing, attending, discriminating, assigning meaning, monitoring and
remembering.
54
This implies that different kinds of listening occur in the classroom. McDonough
and Shaw (2003: 120) also write about listening skills. According to Crawley and
Merrit (2004: 175–178), there is a difference between listening for pleasure and lis-

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LISTENING AND SPEAKING: FOCUS ON LISTENING 3

tening for information. Activities that reinforce listening for pleasure include ask-
ing learners to listen to music and to draw what they visualise, or to create a radio
or television advertisement. Activities that reinforce listening for information
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include giving instructions to learners to perform certain actions. If at all practical,

learners can be taken on a silent walk (i.e. no speaking) through the school. Back
in the classroom they should report on what they heard.
The following types of listening can be distinguished, although this does not
imply that only one type of listening takes place at a time:
Simple listening takes place when learners identify the source of a sound without
attaching specific meaning to it, for example passing traffic, a falling pencil, the
sound of wind, birds whistling or a telephone ringing.
Discriminative listening means that learners compare different sounds to distin-
guish similarities and differences, for example high and low notes on a musical
instrument, loud or soft sounds, long or short sounds, words that sound the same
or different, words with the same or different initial, middle or final sounds.
Interpretive listening takes place when listeners interpret what they hear. It
includes skills such as deducing meaning, interpreting a character’s emotions and
drawing conclusions.
Listening for information implies that learners are capable of repeating facts,
names, situations or other information gathered from a passage read to them. It
also occurs when learners react to oral suggestions or follow oral instructions.
Listening in order to organise ideas is the ability to listen to a story or passage and
to recall the chronology correctly, to summarise aspects of a discussion or to organ-
ise statements and points of view from different discussions in a new presentation.
Listening for the main points implies that learners are capable of identifying core
information as well as information that reinforces the main points.
Listening to identify different points of view takes place when learners develop a
sensitivity for aspects such as tone of voice, reasonableness, sarcasm or irritation,
and implies an ability to notice differences between ideas and points of view when
they listen to discussions.
Critical listening means that learners are capable of analysing what they hear. It
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includes comparing ideas to choose the most suitable one. Critical listening enables
learners to recognise contradictory statements. It means being able to identify and
reject prejudice, stereotyping, exaggeration, untruths, verbal abuse, propaganda
techniques, half-truths and conflicting statements and ideas in oral texts. It implies
that learners listen in such a way that it enables them to evaluate text.
According to Strickland et al. (2004: 187), critical listening also comprises the fol-
lowing: 55
• Recognising the means a speaker uses to convince and influence listeners,
including aspects such as music, loaded words, intonation and emotional tech-
niques, such as shedding a tear in order to influence the listeners emotionally

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• Evaluating someone’s success as a speaker

• Planning how to use the speaker’s ideas in a next situation
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Creative listening takes place when learners attach emotional value to what they
hear and when the oral text appeals to them on an emotional level. For this to
occur, learners should be led to visualise the characters, the space, the emotions
and the incidents. They should develop these skills to the extent that they are able
to sketch on paper visual images that represent what they have heard. This also
includes aspects such as listening to music and identifying the feelings it arouses.
This ability is also demonstrated by descriptions of their own feelings regarding sto-
ries they listen to.

3.5 ACTIVITIES THAT PROMOTE LISTENING

Teachers should actively promote the different kinds of listening. The CAPS refers
to these kinds of listening as focused listening activities. As already stated, listening
development should take place in authentic situations. This implies that teachers
should create such situations (Kilfoil & Van der Walt, 1997; Crawley & Merrit,
2004: 175). Continually admonishing learners to listen is not conducive to develop-
ing listening skills. If learners do not listen, it means that they do not find the situa-
tion exciting enough. Thus, teachers are challenged to structure situations in such
a way that the learners will want to listen. The following can be useful in this regard:

• Make games sound interesting and fun because to play games learners must lis-
ten to the rules and instructions. If the learners want to play the game, they will
be motivated to listen.
• Ensure that the instructions for making an item are interesting. For example,
learners can be led, step by step, to draw forms and lines on a piece of paper,
which, if done correctly, forms an interesting picture.
• Encourage learners to read their written work to their classmates. Depending on
their ability, learners can write stories, poems, or a description to read to their
classmates. This not only encourages them to listen, but also to write. Because
the learners do not know what to expect, they will listen to the reader, as
opposed to learners having to listen to a classmate reading a passage from a book
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while they follow in their readers (reading books). This type of reading has a
negative impact not only on reading, but also on listening – nobody finds it stim-
ulating and learners “tune out”.
• Allow learners to listen to one another in a structured manner. The following
table is based on Sampson et al.’s (2003: 111) concept of good listener appear-
ance and reaction. They asked learners how listeners relate visually and aurally to
56
a speaker, and then they cooperated to develop a model of good listening behav-
iour.

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LISTENING AND SPEAKING: FOCUS ON LISTENING 3

 A good listener 
• Turns his body towards the speaker • Does not make a noise when someone is
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• Looks at the speaker with both eyes speaking

• Has pleasant facial expressions – looks • Takes turns to ask questions
friendly and nods his head • Says things such as “Your story makes
• Leans forward slightly in order to be able me think of ...”, or “I thought that it was
to see the speaker interesting when you said ...”
• Speaks about something related to that
which the speaker has spoken about

Because the learners had developed the model themselves, it was easier for them
to assess their own listening behaviour. They knew how to listen and had criteria
which they could apply.
When listeners become bored, teachers can turn to this model to focus the learn-
ers’ attention on a specific aspect of listening behaviour. They should rather not
resort to the ineffective “sit still and listen” technique.
Let us continue with our discussion on activities and hints that will promote lis-
tening skills.
• Allow learners to take part in class discussions and give their own opinions and
feelings about a matter, as they will be more prepared to listen than when they
may not contribute.
• Read different kinds of text aloud and encourage learners to take part without
evaluating their reading abilities. An instruction such as “I’ll read a sentence/
paragraph and you can read the next” encourages them to listen to the story
without the threat of the evaluation of their reading skills spoiling their listening.
• Enhance learners’ listening abilities through dramatic play and dramatisation
(see Chapter 4, Listening and speaking – Speaking) as they must listen to each
other to ensure that the drama activity makes sense. Another advantage of
dramatising a story that learners have just heard is that they have to remember
the sequence of events and interpret and understand the feelings of characters
(which may be beyond their own experiences). Through listening they acquire
language patterns, the rhythm of the language and vocabulary in an incidental
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way. They interpret the feelings and thought patterns of characters in the story,
and progressively learn more about feelings and moods.
• Create opportunities for learners to listen to poems and stories in rhyme and to
identify rhyming words. Teachers can write the identified rhyming words on the
blackboard and then guide learners, according to their potential and develop-
mental level, to classify these words. For example, consider these rhyming words
57
that have been identified by learners and written down by the teacher.

pat, sat, cat, mat

bring, string, snow, mow

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The teacher now helps the learners to identify verbs and nouns among these
words. A simple table may be used.
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Naming word Doing word

cat sat
mat pat
string bring
apple
snow mow

• Also allow learners to identify rhyming words in rhymes or songs and then, work-
ing in groups, to suggest more rhyming words.
• Do other similar classifying activities. For example, allow the learners to listen to
a description of a room and then to name all the furniture mentioned.
• Organise for the learners to take telephone calls or hold mock TV and radio
interviews for authentic listening opportunities which compel them to listen to
the other person in order to know how to respond or what to ask.
• Encourage the learners to listen for specific details when they listen to the read-
ing of a book, for example:
– Listen closely to hear who says ...
– Listen if you can hear whether ...
– At the end of the story you must be able to tell me where ...
– Why do we say she was a bit naughty?

These suggestions to improve listening ability are not only useful for developing the
ability to listen for detail, but also for developing elementary literature study skills,
because they focus the learners’ attention on the intrigue of the story, characters,
context and theme. By asking learners to listen for specific information, they are
introduced to the study of literature in a basic manner.

• Interrupt the reading of a book to the class to ask learners to predict what hap-
pens next. This encourages the learners to listen with comprehension in order to
make their predictions, and to continue listening in order to find out whether
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their predictions come true.

• Use the reading of books aloud to improve critical and creative listening. Read
the descriptions of critical and creative listening given above and plan exercises
accordingly.
• Use riddles as interesting listening opportunities. Besides promoting listening,
58 they also develop learners’ problem-solving skills.
• Use cassette or CD players to create specific listening opportunities. Record dif-
ferent types of oral text, such as radio serials (or use available story tapes or
CDs), the news, weather forecasts, interviews and other texts. (Be aware of copy-

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LISTENING AND SPEAKING: FOCUS ON LISTENING 3

right infringement.) Give the learners clear instructions: when they listen for
information, they must know what information to listen for; when they have to
listen critically, for example, to identify prejudice or to choose the best solution
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to a problem, they must be instructed to do so. If they listen only for enjoyment
they should listen so that they are able to say what they liked about the story,
what touched them, and so on. Use sound recordings with specific objectives in
mind. If learners simply listen without a specific aim, they cannot make optimal
use of the opportunity and they may be distracted easily. At first it may be neces-
sary to play the tape or disc more than once, until learners can cope with the
technique to listen for specific reasons.
• Use hand puppets manipulated by the teacher or learners themselves to pro-
mote listening because learners enjoy this activity and eagerly participate. (See
section 3.8.5 for more detail.)
• Inform learners that they will arrange pictures in the correct sequence after they
have listened to a story. This will encourage them to listen attentively.

Listening is a more passive concept than, for example, speaking and this character-
istic makes the teacher’s task more difficult because an interactive teaching
approach requires that the learners be intensively involved in the learning process.
Since learner involvement is not always obvious in listening activities, the above sug-
gestions should help teachers to structure and develop listening opportunities in
which learners are actively involved and do not only listen passively.

3.6 LISTENING GAMES

Chapter 2 on teaching and learning strategies discusses the value of play in the
classroom to ensure fun in the learning process. There are various listening games
that can be played to promote and develop learners’ listening abilities.
The following beanbag games provide fun while learners concentrate and listen:

• Learners stand in a circle. The teacher gently throws the beanbag to a learner,
who catches it and then has to think of a word which, for example, begins with
an s. (The selected letter is either one the teacher chooses (for reinforcement or
whatever reason) or one the learners choose.) The first learner throws the bag to
Copyright @ 2015. Van Schaik Publishers.

a second who must say another word that begins with s. Learners may not repeat
a word already used. If this happens, the learner must sit down until he is
“released” by another learner (another learner errs and takes his place). The
teacher determines the first letter. She must ensure that learners do not throw
the bag with force. Should this happen, she stands in the centre of the circle and
after saying a word also beginning with s, the learner with the bag throws it to
her and so she regains control. 59
• This game is based on a similar principle, but in this case the learners name
things they can buy in a shop. The first learner to whom the bag is thrown will,
for example, say: “I buy a book.” The next learner repeats the article the first one

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LITERACY IN THE FOUNDATION PHASE

bought and adds another, for example: “I buy a book and a pencil.” The third
learner repeats the first two articles and adds a third. Learners are compelled to
listen closely and to concentrate on the game. Teachers can place a few articles
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or products where learners can see them to help them think of words.
• The beanbag game can be further refined, for example, to include the division
of words into syllables in Grade 3. The teacher says a word and the learner to
whom the beanbag is thrown divides the word into syllables.

Broken telephone is a popular listening game. Learners sit in a circle. The first
learner whispers a message into the ear of the person next to him in the circle. The
message is passed in a whisper in a clockwise direction until the last person in the
circle gives the message aloud as he heard it. Learners find the garbled message
funny without realising that they are involved in a listening, concentration and
communication exercise.
Simon says is a game in which the learners’ reactions indicate whether they have
been listening closely or not. The teacher or one of the learners is the leader. She
stands in front of the class (or group) and gives the instructions on behalf of
Simon. For example: “Simon says touch your toes!” The learners do as instructed.
When the words “Simon says” are omitted, for example “Touch your toes!”, the
learners should not react. Any learner who does react cannot participate for a
round or two, must keep his hands in the air or place them on his head, and so on.

3.7 LISTENING AND THE STORY

There is excellent literature as well as Web pages on the role of children’s literature
on language acquisition of young learners (Glazer, 1997; Davin & Van Staden,
2005). Although various sections of this book mention the story as an avenue
through which children can be actively involved in the learning process, it is such
an important genre in the Foundation Phase that it should receive special atten-
tion. Parents should be involved and should realise that reading with their
child(ren) is a wonderful way of spending time together (Potter & Parnes, 2002). A
story can be read out or told. Reading as opposed to telling a story is briefly com-
pared in the following table:
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Reading a story Telling a story

• The book is prominent. The reader inter- • The storyteller is central. She is not
prets the words of the writer through bound to a book, which implies that her
voice and facial expression. whole body can be used to draw the
learner to listen.

• Learners realise the value of the written • The story is intense and unique. It can
60
word. The text remains the same when never again be relived in the same way,
reread. which means that a close-knit relationship
exists between the story and narrator.

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LISTENING AND SPEAKING: FOCUS ON LISTENING 3

Reading a story Telling a story

• The learner can page through the book • The story is not always the same. The
afterwards, relive the story and later read narrator can adapt the story to a specific
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the text himself. audience.

• Eye contact is broken when the reader • Eye contact is maintained throughout.
concentrates on the text only. The situation is more intimate.

• It motivates learners to listen and to read • It compels listeners to pay attention while
by themselves. listening.

• Literature study implies that answers may • Answering questions relies on the learn-
be sought in a book. ers’ ability to listen and understand.

• Suitable books may be found to deal with • The storyteller can improvise a story to
problematic situations in the classroom. diffuse a situation (for example the teas-
After reading these, they can be related ing of a classmate who has forgotten his
to the classroom situation. glasses).

The above indicates that reading a story or telling a story plays an important role
in the Foundation Phase. Despite their differences, both methods are extremely
valuable in the academic as well as personal development of learners.

3.7.1 The value of stories

Children who have been exposed to the reading aloud or telling of stories at home
from earliest childhood, have an advantage over those who have not had this expo-
sure. Brand and Donato (2001: 3) state:
Children whose parents regularly read to them usually read more often and
more extensively. In addition, reading to young children develops their lan-
guage and conceptual skills. Children are thus better prepared to read inde-
pendently.

The value of stories is as follows:

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• One of the most important aspects of listening to stories is that they promote the
learners’ budding literacy (Howard & McCathren, 2003) by expanding their
vocabulary and ear for the structure of the language (Thomson, 2005).
• The learners’ frames of reference are enlarged. They link new concepts to the
known conceptual grid of their frames of reference and assimilate the new con-
cepts.
61
• The storytelling (or story-reading) occasion creates intimacy. Learners usually sit
on the carpet close to the teacher and they share a pleasant experience. This
promotes the learners’ social development. They learn to accommodate others
and to share and cooperate with them.

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• Learners become emotionally involved in the story, and this is one way in which
learners experience and develop value and norms.
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• Learners become aware of the realities of life. What they hear and learn from
stories helps them make sense of their surroundings. In a multi-ethnic, multicul-
tural and multilingual world, stories can be used to introduce the learners to
characters from different ethnic or cultural groups. Learners identify easily with
the characters as if they are real people (Beaty & Pratt, 2007). Fiona Freer (2005)
uses the story of Little Red Riding Hood to motivate learners to compile instruc-
tions (for Little Red Riding Hood to reach her grandmother).
• Stories stimulate and feed the learners’ imaginations. They are transported from
the here and now to a world visualised in their thoughts. This enables them to
understand symbolic meaning. Furthermore, imagination is necessary for cre-
ative thinking. Stories teach learners that other children experience the same
anxieties as they do. Through stories children learn to confront their fears and
solve problems. They learn that it is acceptable to be different – physically, emo-
tionally, intellectually and regarding language and culture. Stories present a
golden opportunity to promote tolerance, respect and appreciation for others in
a multicultural classroom. It is much more effective to address these issues
through stories than through mere discussion.
• Stories are associated with pleasant experiences. This then links enjoyment with
language and books. If learners enjoy stories, they realise that language offers
pleasant experiences and become positively orientated towards language experi-
ences. A love of reading starts when learners experience the joy of listening to
good reading.
• Stories create opportunities for thought. Creative questions (see Chapter 8 on
Thinking and reasoning) about the story encourage the learner to apply higher-
category thinking skills. Learners’ reasoning skills improve when they are guided
to make predictions about what will happen next; they learn to deduce meaning
and to “read between the lines”.
• Learners learn to evaluate. They evaluate the behaviour of characters and evalu-
ate stories by weighing them against each other and providing reasons for prefer-
ring one story to another.
• Finally, there is a correlation between reading stories – and especially reading to
Copyright @ 2015. Van Schaik Publishers.

a child from books – and scholastic success. By reading, one creates the need to
know more and to learn more from the world of books. The listening exercise
provided by the story situation improves the learners’ powers of concentration,
which generally has a positive influence on the learners.

3.7.2 When and what the teacher should read

62
Beegly and Prudhoe (2002: 23) state that teachers should read to the learners daily,
and more than once per day. The reading list, which should be suitable for the
learners’ ages and levels of development, should include informational text, poems
and new stories as well as old favourites. They also say:

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LISTENING AND SPEAKING: FOCUS ON LISTENING 3

We advocate using reading aloud to foster an appreciation of literature, to
enrich content area instruction, and provide transitions throughout the day.
For instance, after a particularly boisterous activity, we read something that
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helps everyone catch their breath and calm down. Following a particularly
intense experience, we read a piece that lets us blow off steam and have some
fun.

Joubert (1997: 4) emphasises the suitability of books for a specific target group. She
suggests that books which stereotype race, gender, culture and age should be avoid-
ed, an opinion reflected in the National Curriculum Statement (Department of Educa-
tion, 2002b) as discussed in the Addendum. She states as follows:
The roles of the sexes must be represented realistically as learners experience
them. There are mothers who are breadwinners and fathers who help in the
kitchen. There are grandparents who work hard and fill important positions
and who do not only sit on the verandah. Men may cry and women may be
strong. {own translation}

The outcome or objective envisaged by the listening exercise will determine the
choice of text. Sometimes the teacher may choose a book exactly because it stereo-
types people. Then it is selected to guide learners to listen critically so that they can
identify stereotyping. In such a case the class will discuss stereotyping and learners
will be made aware of it and advised to reject it. The same applies to exaggeration,
insulting remarks, propaganda or verbal abuse in books. Reading matter is specifi-
cally chosen for discussion and to promote the learners’ critical listening skills.
Again compare the types of listening discussed earlier in the chapter.
The stories that are read must relate to the learners’ experiences. To read a story
about a snowman to learners who have never seen snow is questionable. At first
glance it seems unacceptable. It would make sense only if the teacher wanted to
introduce the learners to snow. Then the story would be one of many sources about
snow and the envisaged outcome or objective would be to gather information.

3.8 APPROACHES TO STORYTELLING

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Gordon (2000: 147) discusses the art of storytelling as follows:

I once asked a storyteller to explain the difference between story reading and
storytelling. “Storytelling is atavistic,” he replied, “it links to some kind of
primeval human need to hear and experience and make sense of the world
through word of mouth.” Storytelling is personal and intimate, it derives from
63
a time before books and the written word. An oral story can be told and
retold, and each time it can be changed, embellished, elaborated or simpli-
fied. Storytelling is a dramatic improvisation, a symbiosis where speakers and
listeners construct and occupy worlds of their own creation.

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LITERACY IN THE FOUNDATION PHASE

He goes on to say that the listener is drawn into the world of the story through
voice, eyes and gesture. The listener becomes a participant in the story. He experi-
ences anger, anxiety, hopelessness and pleasure. Storytelling is interactive: it takes
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the listener to and fro between the roles of listener and participant. The storyteller
accomplishes this by correctly applying inflection, emphasis, tone of voice, pace,
pause and register.
The Foundation Phase teacher uses stories in her daily teaching methods. She
tells stories to help learners remember a certain sequence of letters in a word; she
uses stories to clarify new concepts and she weaves stories around the formation of
letters and numbers. She also creates an opportunity to read or tell stories specifi-
cally for the language experience. Storytelling, therefore, forms an integrated part
of what happens in every Foundation Phase classroom. Although not everybody is a
born storyteller, even the person to whom it does not come naturally can learn the
art of storytelling by practising and continuing to practise the art. Performing in
front of a mirror or a trial audience can help a person prepare to tell a story.
When a storyteller prepares a story, she should ask herself the following ques-
tions (also for practising in front of a small group):
• Do I know how to use my voice effectively? Do I vary the pitch, volume and pace?
Do I use the pause for dramatic effect?
• Am I static or do I use my body to convey the message?
• Does my facial expression contribute to the storytelling?
• Does my enthusiasm show and do I enjoy my performance?
• Does my use of media enhance the telling or do visual aids hamper the flow of
the story?
• Is my story suitable for the audience I plan it for?
• Will the story keep the listeners captivated?

The teacher should vary her approach to stories. If, for example, she always makes
use of pictures alone to support her stories, she diminishes the experience. Much
more than mere illustrations can be used to make the storytelling interesting and
pleasant.
Brand and Donato (2001: 5–45) identify a number of approaches to storytelling
and link them to different learning styles (see Chapter 2, section 2.2 for the discus-
sion of learning styles). A few relevant approaches are discussed below.
Copyright @ 2015. Van Schaik Publishers.

3.8.1 Traditional approach

In this approach no aids or props are used. The storyteller sits or stands in front of
the audience and tells the story from memory without any assistance. This is the
oldest form of storytelling and it relies heavily on the narrator’s voice, facial expres-
sions and gestures to carry the story across.
64
Elements in the story itself contribute to the success of the story, and repetition
plays an important part, for example the repetition of phrases in Jack and the
Beanstalk and The Three Little Pigs. Learners often know the story and they love to
hear it again.

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LISTENING AND SPEAKING: FOCUS ON LISTENING 3

Multicultural stories, folk tales, fables and well-known fairy tales such as Little Red
Riding Hood, Snow White and The Three Little Pigs lend themselves to this approach.
The advantage of this approach is that the narrator can tell this story any time. She
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knows the story and does not need to collect props beforehand.
The types of story mentioned need not be told in the traditional style only, and
the narrator may also make use of props if she wishes.

3.8.2 Adapted pantomime

In its original form pantomime is play-acting without speech, where motion and
mime tell the story. In adapted pantomime, gesture and motion accompany the
spoken word. The narrator usually wears comfortable, plain black, blue or brown
clothes to enable him to move easily and for the clothes merely to form a back-
ground for motion and gestures and not to attract attention.
The narrator demonstrates all the keywords and phrases with movement and ges-
tures. This makes the approach very effective for learners with aural or visual
impairments, as well as for those with barriers to learning or learners for whom the
story is in a non-home language.
When the narrator prepares the story it makes sense to underline the verbs in
the text and to plan how to interpret these through motion and gestures. The art is
to allow the story to flow and to make sure that gesture and motion form an inte-
gral part of the story. The gestures and movements must support the story line and
not impede the flow.
Here is an example. Possible gestures and motions are indicated in brackets: The
door opens slowly (open door). Her eyes grow as wide (form circles with hands around
eyes) as saucers. She leaps up (jumps onto the table) and sits on the cupboard.
As with all storytelling techniques, the narrator will benefit from practising in
front of a mirror. In this case the narrator must pay attention to large, flowing and
effective gestures and motions that support rather than hamper the story.

3.8.3 Characterisation
In this approach the narrator wears a costume to represent a specific character
from the story, usually the main character. She then tells the story from the per-
spective of this character, using the first person and the past tense. The narrator
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becomes the character in speech, appearance and conduct. Little Red Riding Hood
will, for example, be represented by her red cloak and basket. Learners are very
fond of this kind of narration. They love seeing their teacher act and talk like a sto-
rybook character. Fairy tales such as The Little Red Hen and Little Red Riding Hood are
very suitable.
Sometimes the main character can imitate some of the other characters in the
65
story, but this should be done with care. For instance, Little Red Riding Hood can-
not suddenly turn into a wolf while she still looks like Little Red Riding Hood; this
will spoil the effect of characterisation. Little Red Riding Hood may, however, say:
“Then I heard a strange growling sound. It sounded like this ...!”

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Because learners find this way of storytelling so authentic it provides a valuable

listening opportunity. The learners are carried away by the character. The following
tips may be of value:
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• Remain in character. The learners experience the situation as authentic and the
illusion should not be shattered by out-of-character actions such as scolding a
learner or reacting to a ringing bell or somebody passing by the classroom.
• Involve the learners in the story. Address a specific learner from the character’s
perspective, for example: “John, please look in my basket to make sure I remem-
bered to pack Grandma’s biscuits.” The learner will look in the empty basket and
say “Yes” or “No” depending on his own imagination, and Little Red Riding
Hood will react suitably to whatever answer is given. Little Red Riding Hood will
remain authentic when she asks learners: “Who do you think I saw on the bed
with enormous eyes, ears and mouth?”
• Make use of all available space during the narration. Little Red Riding Hood can
run from one end of the classroom to the other to get away from the wolf; she
can walk all the way through the classroom on her way to her grandmother’s
house, and she can hide from the wolf behind the learners (trees).

Create an opportunity for the learners to take part in the characterisation. Provide
enough props and parts of costumes such as hats, scarves, wigs, walking sticks, and
so on for the learners to use to become certain characters and to entertain each
other. This promotes speech as well as listening development. When the learners
master this technique, they can invent their own stories and each can become a
main character who tells a story.

3.8.4 Draw and tell

In this method of storytelling the narrator draws pictures while telling the story.
The drawings (no more than five or six) represent the main events in the story.
This approach combines observation and listening experiences. Learners have to
use both these skills to follow the story.
Unless the narrator can draw well, she should prepare the illustrations before-
hand. She sketches each picture lightly on a large piece of paper and places them
in sequence on a drawing board or easel. As the story unfolds, the narrator draws
Copyright @ 2015. Van Schaik Publishers.

the pictures with broad felt-tipped pens using the pencil outlines as a guide.
The narrator uses only two or three colours and mainly draws outlines. Her draw-
ing must accompany her storytelling, which means that she omits details in pictures
and uses bold strokes to draw the outlines. While drawing, the narrator must not
obstruct the drawing with her body, but must ensure that everybody is able to see
what she is doing. She must take care that learners with visual and aural impair-
66
ments sit close to her.
Afterwards the learners may use the illustrations to relate the sequence of
the events, or they may illustrate the course of the story with a few of their own
drawings.

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