CHAPTER SIX
ENERGY BALANCE
6.1 Introduction
The energy balance presented in this chapter quantifies all heat and mechanical energy inputs and
outputs at each process stage, consistent with the First Law of Thermodynamics: the total energy
entering a system equals the total energy leaving it (Green & Southard, 2019). All heat duties are
expressed in megajoules per hour (MJ/h), with kilowatts (kW) provided for reference. The energy balance
is performed at the same design basis as the mass balance in Chapter Five: 300 operating days per year,
24 hours per day, and 7,200 operating hours per year.
The energy balance reveals that the pyrolysis co-products — solid char (S-07), non-condensable syngas
(S-08), and uncondensed phenolic vapour (S-10) — contain substantially more combustion energy than is
required by the dryer (D-101) and the pyrolysis reactor furnace (EX-101) combined. The plant is therefore
thermally self-sufficient, with a large exportable surplus of on-site combustion energy from the char boiler.
This finding is consistent with the published energy analysis of pyrolysis-based CNSL extraction at
comparable scales (Garkal & Bhande, 2014).
6.2 Energy Balance Design Basis
Table 6.1 presents the thermophysical and process parameters adopted in all energy balance
calculations throughout this chapter.
Parameter Value Reference / Basis
1.5 kJ/(kg·K) (30–100°C); 1.7 kJ/(kg·K)
Cp, cashew nut shells (dry) Green & Southard (2019)
average (30–500°C)
Cp, liquid water 4.18 kJ/(kg·K) Steam tables
Latent heat of water evaporation at 100°C 2,257 kJ/kg; 2,201 kJ/kg at 120°C Steam tables
Cp, tCNSL vapour (phenolic) 2.0 kJ/(kg·K) Estimated; phenolic oils
Estimated; high-MW
Latent heat of tCNSL condensation 350 kJ/kg
phenolics
Pyrolysis reaction enthalpy (endothermic) 600 kJ/kg dry shell Bridgwater (2012)
Perry's (Green & Southard,
Rotary dryer thermal efficiency 70%
2019)
Pyrolysis reactor furnace thermal Perry's (Green & Southard,
75%
efficiency 2019)
Char net calorific value 49 MJ/kg Garkal & Bhande (2014)
Non-condensable syngas net calorific
12 MJ/kg (CO + H₂ + CH₄ mixture) Bridgwater (2012)
value
Uncondensed phenolic vapour net calorific 30 MJ/kg (light phenolic fractions) Estimated
Parameter Value Reference / Basis
value
Specific energy input, hammer mill
40 kJ/kg (30–50 kJ/kg range) Green & Southard (2019)
(biomass)
Cooling water temperature: inlet / outlet 25°C / 40°C (ΔT = 15°C) Design assumption
Impeller power number Np (pitched-blade
2.0 Green & Southard (2019)
turbine)
Agitator speed, M-101 70 rpm (1.167 rps) Chapter Four
0.78 m (D_imp = 0.5 × D_tank; V_tank
Blending tank impeller diameter Calculated
≈ 3 m³)
Blend mixture density 920 kg/m³ (weighted average) Chapter Five
Table 6.1: Energy Balance Design Basis Parameters
6.3 Stage-by-Stage Energy Balance
Stage 1: Rotary Dryer D-101
The rotary dryer reduces shell moisture from 20% to 10% (wet basis) at a feed rate of 2,518 kg/h,
evaporating 280 kg/h of water. Three heat duties are identified: (i) raising the free moisture from 30°C to
100°C before evaporation; (ii) evaporating that moisture at 100°C; and (iii) raising the dry shell matter
from 30°C to the dryer exit temperature of 65°C. Rotary dryer thermal efficiency is taken as 70% (Green &
Southard, 2019).
(i) Heat to raise moisture to boiling point:
Q_heat_moisture = m_water × Cp_water × ΔT = 280 × 4.18 × (100 − 30) = 81.9
MJ/h
(ii) Latent heat of evaporation at 120 °C (dryer inlet air temperature):
Q_evap = m_water × λ_evap = 280 × 2,201 = 616.3 MJ/h
(iii) Sensible heat to raise dry shell matter (2,015 kg/h) from 30 to 65°C:
Q_shells = m_dry × Cp_shells × ΔT = 2,015 × 1.5 × (65 − 30) = 105.8 MJ/h
Total useful duty and gross heat supply accounting for dryer efficiency:
Q_useful = 81.9 + 616.3 + 105.8 = 804.0 MJ/h
Q_D-101 = Q_useful / η = 804.0 / 0.70 = 1,148.6 MJ/h = 319.0 kW
Stream / Duty MJ/h kW Basis
HEAT INPUTS
S-01: Raw shells + moisture (inlet,
— — Reference state
30°C)
Stream / Duty MJ/h kW Basis
Dryer gross heat supply (hot air, fired by
1,148.6 319.0 Q_useful / η = 0.70
boiler)
Total Heat Input 1,148.6 319.0
HEAT OUTPUTS
Q_heat_moisture: raise water 30 →
81.9 22.8 m × Cp × ΔT
100°C
Q_evap: evaporate 280 kg/h water at
616.3 171.2 m × λ_evap
120°C
Q_shells: heat dry matter 30 → 65°C 105.8 29.4 m × Cp × ΔT
Dryer heat losses (30% of gross) 344.6 95.7 (1 − η) × Q_gross
S-02: Water vapour discharged (S-03
— — Included above
energy balance)
Total Heat Output 1,148.6 319.0
Closure (Input − Output) 0 0 ✓
Table 6.2: Energy Balance Across Rotary Dryer D-101
Stage 2: Hammer Mill Crusher CR-101
Size reduction of dried shells from 50–200 mm to 10–50 mm requires mechanical energy proportional to
the mass throughput. A specific energy consumption of 40 kJ/kg is adopted for biomass hammer milling,
consistent with the range of 30–50 kJ/kg reported for lignocellulosic materials (Green & Southard, 2019).
The heat generated by mechanical work is dissipated into the crushed shell product and the surrounding
air; no active cooling is required at this duty level.
W_CR-101 = m_dried × E_specific = 2,239 × 40 = 89,560 kJ/h = 24.9 kW
Stream / Duty MJ/h kW Basis
ENERGY INPUTS
Electrical drive to hammer mill motor 89.6 24.9 40 kJ/kg × 2,239 kg/h
Total Energy Input 89.6 24.9
ENERGY OUTPUTS
Mechanical fracture work in crushed Dissipated as heat in
89.6 24.9
shells (S-05) product
Total Energy Output 89.6 24.9
Closure (Input − Output) 0 0 ✓
Table 6.3: Energy Balance Across Hammer Mill Crusher CR-101
Stage 3: Fixed-Bed Pyrolysis Reactor EX-101
The pyrolysis reactor is the most energy-intensive unit in the process. The heat duty has two components:
(i) sensible heat to raise the crushed shell feed (2,216 kg/h) from 30°C to the pyrolysis temperature of
500°C; and (ii) the endothermic heat of the pyrolysis reaction. An average specific heat capacity of 1.7
kJ/(kg·K) is used for the shell material across the full temperature range 30–500°C, accounting for its
progressive thermal softening and devolatilisation. The endothermic heat of pyrolysis for lignocellulosic
biomass is taken as 600 kJ/kg of dry feed (Bridgwater, 2012). The reactor furnace thermal efficiency is
75%.
(i) Sensible heat to raise shell feed to pyrolysis temperature:
Q_sensible = m_crushed × Cp_avg × (T_pyro − T_in)
= 2,216 × 1.7 × (500 − 30) = 1,770.6 MJ/h
(ii) Endothermic heat of pyrolysis reaction:
Q_reaction = m_crushed × ΔH_rxn = 2,216 × 600 = 1,329.6 MJ/h
Total useful duty and gross furnace heat supply:
Q_useful = 1,770.6 + 1,329.6 = 3,100.2 MJ/h
Q_EX-101 = Q_useful / η = 3,100.2 / 0.75 = 4,133.6 MJ/h = 1,148.2 kW
The reactor is heated indirectly by the on-site boiler, which is fired by the pyrolysis char (S-07), non-
condensable syngas (S-08), and uncondensed phenolic vapour (S-10). The energy content of these co-
product streams, calculated at the calorific values given in Table 6.1, is presented below and compared to
the reactor heat demand.
Q_char = 776 kg/h × 49,000 kJ/kg = 38,024.0 MJ/h = 10,562.2 kW
Q_syngas = 532 kg/h × 12,000 kJ/kg = 6,384.0 MJ/h = 1,773.3 kW
Q_uncond = 18 kg/h × 30,000 kJ/kg = 540.0 MJ/h = 150.0 kW
Q_boiler = 38,024 + 6,384 + 540 = 44,948.0 MJ/h = 12,485.6 kW
The surplus boiler capacity after supplying both the dryer and the reactor is:
Q_surplus = Q_boiler − Q_D-101 − Q_EX-101
= 44,948.0 − 1,148.6 − 4,133.6 = 39,665.8 MJ/h = 11,018.3 kW
The char and syngas co-products therefore supply 8.5 times the total heat demand of the dryer and
reactor combined, confirming that the plant is strongly thermally self-sufficient and can export a
substantial net steam or electrical output from the surplus boiler capacity.
Stream / Duty MJ/h kW Basis
HEAT INPUTS
Furnace heat supply to reactor (from on-
4,133.6 1,148.2 Q_useful / η = 0.75
site boiler)
Stream / Duty MJ/h kW Basis
S-05: Crushed shells at 30°C (reference
— — Reference state
state)
Total Heat Input 4,133.6 1,148.2
HEAT OUTPUTS
Q_sensible: heat shells 30 → 500°C 1,770.6 491.8 m × Cp_avg × ΔT
Q_reaction: endothermic pyrolysis heat 1,329.6 369.3 m × ΔH_rxn (600 kJ/kg)
Reactor heat losses (25% of gross) 1,033.4 287.1 (1 − η) × Q_gross
S-06: tCNSL vapour leaving at 500°C
— — Accounted in C-101
(sensible heat carried out)
Total Heat Output 4,133.6 1,148.2
Closure (Input − Output) 0 0 ✓
Co-product energy released to on-
site boiler:
S-07: Char (776 kg/h × 49 MJ/kg) 38,024.0 10,562.2 Garkal & Bhande (2014)
S-08: Syngas (532 kg/h × 12 MJ/kg) 6,384.0 1,773.3 Bridgwater (2012)
S-10: Uncondensed vapour (18 kg/h ×
540.0 150.0 Estimated
30 MJ/kg)
Total boiler energy supply 44,948.0 12,485.6
Surplus after D-101 + EX-101 39,665.8 11,018.3 Available for export
Table 6.4: Energy Balance Across Pyrolysis Reactor EX-101 and On-Site Boiler
Stage 4: Shell-and-Tube Condenser C-101
The condenser removes heat from the tCNSL vapour stream (908 kg/h, entering at 500°C) in two stages:
first, sensible cooling of the vapour from 500°C to the condensation temperature (taken as the midpoint
35°C), and second, removal of the latent heat of condensation for the 890 kg/h that condenses to liquid.
The 18 kg/h that remains as uncondensed vapour (S-10) leaves at 35°C and is routed to the boiler. All
heat removed is absorbed by cooling water entering at 25°C and exiting at 40°C (ΔT = 15°C).
Q_sensible = m_vapour × Cp_vap × (T_in − T_out)
= 908 × 2.0 × (500 − 35) = 844.4 MJ/h
Q_latent = m_condensed × λ_tCNSL = 890 × 350 = 311.5 MJ/h
Q_C-101 = 844.4 + 311.5 = 1,155.9 MJ/h = 321.1 kW
The cooling water flow rate required:
m_CW = Q_C-101 / (Cp_water × ΔT_CW) = 1,155,900 / (4.18 × 15) = 18,424
kg/h
Stream / Duty MJ/h kW Basis
HEAT INPUTS
S-06: tCNSL vapour from EX-101 (908
1,155.9 321.1 Sensible + latent heat
kg/h, 500°C)
Total Heat Input 1,155.9 321.1
HEAT OUTPUTS
Q_sensible: cooling vapour 500 → 35°C 844.4 234.6 m × Cp × ΔT
Q_latent: condensation of 890 kg/h
311.5 86.5 m × λ_tCNSL
tCNSL
Total Heat Removed (to cooling
1,155.9 321.1
water)
Closure (Input − Output) 0 0 ✓
Cooling water flow required (ΔT = 15°C) — — 18,424 kg/h
Table 6.5: Energy Balance Across Shell-and-Tube Condenser C-101
Stage 5: Rotary Drum Vacuum Filter F-101
The vacuum filter operates at a gauge pressure of −0.05 MPa. The principal energy consumer is the
vacuum pump, which evacuates the filter drum. At the liquid tCNSL volumetric flow rate of 0.96 m³/h and
a pump efficiency of 60%, the indicative vacuum pump shaft power is small. No heat addition or removal
is required across the filter at the operating temperature of 25–40°C.
V_flow = m_liquid / ρ_tCNSL = 890 / 930 = 0.957 m³/h = 2.66 × 10⁻⁴ m³/s
W_vac = (V_flow × ΔP) / η_pump = (2.66 × 10⁻⁴ × 50,000) / 0.60 = 22 W ≈
0.02 kW
The vacuum pump power is negligible at this scale. In practice, the installed vacuum pump will be sized
for the drum surface area and system air leakage, with a typical installed power of 1–5 kW for a filter of
this duty. No energy balance table is presented for F-101 as the thermal duty is zero and the mechanical
duty is negligible.
Stage 6: Agitated Blending Tank M-101
The blending tank operates at 25–35°C without external heating or cooling; the mixing temperature is
maintained by the incoming stream temperatures. The energy input is the agitator mechanical power,
calculated using the standard impeller power correlation (Green & Southard, 2019):
P_agit = Np × ρ × N³ × D⁵
= 2.0 × 920 × (1.167)³ × (0.78)⁵
= 2.0 × 920 × 1.586 × 0.289 = 843 W = 0.84 kW
Where: Np = 2.0 (pitched-blade turbine power number), ρ = 920 kg/m³ (blend density), N = 70/60 = 1.167
rps (agitator speed), D = 0.78 m (impeller diameter). The mechanical energy is dissipated as heat in the
blend, but the quantity (0.84 kW raising 2,115 kg/h through 60 minutes) corresponds to a temperature rise
of less than 0.002°C, which is negligible for formulation quality purposes.
Stream / Duty MJ/h kW Basis
ENERGY INPUTS
Agitator motor (electrical drive) 3.0 0.84 Np × ρ × N³ × D⁵
Total Energy Input 3.0 0.84
ENERGY OUTPUTS
Heat dissipated into blend (S-16,
3.0 0.84 <0.002°C rise
negligible ΔT)
Total Energy Output 3.0 0.84
Closure (Input − Output) 0 0 ✓
Table 6.6: Energy Balance Across Agitated Blending Tank M-101
6.4 Overall Plant Energy Balance
Table 6.7 presents the overall plant energy balance, consolidating all heat and mechanical energy inputs
against all outputs and losses. The on-site boiler, fired by the pyrolysis char and syngas co-products, is
the sole energy source for the thermal sections of the plant. No external fuel purchase is required.
Energy Stream / Duty MJ/h kW Notes
ENERGY INPUTS TO PLANT
Combustion energy of char S-07 (776 kg/h ×
38,024.0 10,562.2 Garkal & Bhande (2014)
49 MJ/kg)
Combustion energy of syngas S-08 (532
6,384.0 1,773.3 Bridgwater (2012)
kg/h × 12 MJ/kg)
Combustion energy of uncondensed vapour
540.0 150.0 Estimated
S-10 (18 kg/h × 30 MJ/kg)
Electrical input: hammer mill CR-101 89.6 24.9 40 kJ/kg × 2,239 kg/h
Electrical input: agitator M-101 3.0 0.84 Np × ρ × N³ × D⁵
Total Energy Input 45,040.6 12,511.0
ENERGY OUTPUTS FROM PLANT
Heat supplied to rotary dryer D-101 (gross) 1,148.6 319.0 Q_useful / η = 0.70
of which: useful evaporation duty 804.0 223.3 (sub-item)
of which: dryer shell losses (30%) 344.6 95.7 (sub-item)
Heat supplied to pyrolysis reactor EX-101
4,133.6 1,148.2 Q_useful / η = 0.75
(gross)
of which: sensible + reaction duty 3,100.2 861.2 (sub-item)
of which: reactor furnace losses (25%) 1,033.4 287.1 (sub-item)
Energy Stream / Duty MJ/h kW Notes
Heat removed in condenser C-101 (to
1,155.9 321.1 Sensible + latent
cooling water)
Mechanical energy dissipated: CR-101 + M-
92.6 25.7 Negligible heat rise
101
Boiler combustion losses and stack
6,742.2 1,872.8 15% of Q_boiler
(estimated 15%)
Net surplus available for steam/power
31,767.7 8,824.4 Remaining after all duties
export
Total Energy Output 45,040.6 12,511.0
Closure (Input − Output) 0 0 ✓
Table 6.7: Overall Plant Energy Balance
6.5 Energy Balance Summary and Conclusions
Table 6.8 consolidates the heat and mechanical duties at each stage for rapid reference.
Heat Demand Heat Demand Mechanical
Unit Operation Source / Sink
(MJ/h) (kW) (kW)
D-101: Rotary Dryer 1,148.6 319.0 — Hot air from on-site boiler
CR-101: Hammer Mill — — 24.9 Electrical grid
On-site boiler (char +
EX-101: Pyrolysis Reactor 4,133.6 1,148.2 —
syngas)
C-101: Condenser −1,155.9 −321.1 — Removed by cooling water
F-101: Vacuum Filter — — ≈0.02 Vacuum pump (negligible)
M-101: Blending Tank — — 0.84 Agitator motor
ST-101 / PK-101 — — Negligible Ambient conditions
Total Process Heat Demand 5,282.2 1,467.2 25.8
Char + syngas + uncond.
On-site boiler energy supply 44,948.0 12,485.6 —
vapour
Q_boiler /
Energy self-sufficiency ratio 8.51× — —
Q_heat_demand
Net exportable surplus (after Steam / power export
31,767.7 8,824.4 —
boiler losses) potential
Table 6.8: Energy Balance Stage Summary
The energy balance closes at every individual unit operation and at the overall plant boundary. The
following key conclusions are drawn:
(i) The plant is thermally self-sufficient. The pyrolysis co-products (char S-07 and syngas S-08) together
supply 8.51 times the total heat demand of the dryer and the pyrolysis reactor furnace. No purchased fuel
is required for the thermal sections of the plant under design conditions.
(ii) The condenser duty is 1,155.9 MJ/h (321.1 kW), requiring a cooling water flow of approximately
18,424 kg/h at a supply temperature of 25°C and return temperature of 40°C. An adequate cooling water
system must be sized to meet this duty continuously.
(iii) The net exportable energy surplus after all process duties and estimated boiler combustion losses
(15%) is 31,767.7 MJ/h (8,824.4 kW). This surplus could be used to raise export steam for adjacent
processes or to drive a back-pressure steam turbine for on-site power generation, significantly improving
the overall energy economics of the plant.
(iv) The mechanical energy demands of the process are small relative to the thermal duties. The
dominant electrical consumer is the hammer mill (24.9 kW), followed by the agitator (0.84 kW) and the
vacuum pump (negligible).
(v) The energy balance confirms that the thermochemical co-products of pyrolysis — char at 49 MJ/kg
and syngas at 12 MJ/kg — are the principal value streams beyond the tCNSL liquid product, and that their
energy content alone justifies the on-site boiler configuration.
Additional References (Chapter Six)
Bridgwater, A. V. (2012). Review of fast pyrolysis of biomass and product upgrading. Biomass and
Bioenergy, 38, 68–94. [Link]
Green, D. W., & Southard, M. Z. (2019). Perry's chemical engineers' handbook (9th ed.). McGraw-Hill
Education.
Garkal, D. J., & Bhande, R. S. (2014). Review on extraction and isolation of cashew nut shell liquid.
International Journal of Innovations in Engineering Research and Technology, 1(1), 1–8.