UPCAT Science

Complete Review Notes

Sets 1 · 2 · 3 — All Topics Covered in Depth

Chemistry · Biology · Physics · Earth Science

• 1. Mixtures & Solutions

• 2. The Mole Concept & Avogadro's Number
• 3. Chemical Bonding
• 4. Atomic Structure & the Periodic Table
• 5. Thermochemistry & Energy in Reactions
• 6. Stoichiometry
• 7. Gas Laws
• 8. VSEPR Theory & Molecular Geometry
• 9. Nuclear Chemistry & Radioactivity
• 10. Cell Division — Mitosis
• 11. Genetics & Mendelian Inheritance
• 12. Cell Biology & Osmosis
• 13. Human Body Systems
• 14. Evolution & Biodiversity
• 15. Earth Science — Rocks, Weathering & Volcanoes
• 16. Physics — Forces, Motion & Newton's Laws
• 17. Physics — Energy, Work & Power
• 18. Physics — Waves, Light & Electricity
• 19. Astronomy & the Solar System
UPCAT Science — Complete Review Notes Page 2

LESSON 1

Mixtures & Solutions

■ Chemistry

Matter can be classified as a pure substance (element or compound) or as a mixture — a combination

of two or more substances that are physically combined, not chemically bonded. Because no chemical
bonding occurs, the components keep their own properties and can be separated by physical means
such as filtration, evaporation, or distillation.

Types of Mixtures
Type Particle Size Appearance Separable? Examples

Solution (homogeneous) < 1 nm Clear, uniform, transparentYes (e.g., distillation)

Saltwater, brass, coffee, air

Colloid 1 – 1,000 nm Cloudy / milky, scatters lightYes (e.g., centrifuge)

Milk, fog, gelatin, blood

Suspension (heterogeneous)
> 1,000 nm Cloudy, settles over time Yes (e.g., filter) Muddy water, orange juice with pulp

Solutions in Depth
A solution is a homogeneous mixture — it looks perfectly uniform throughout, no matter how closely
you examine it.
• Solute — the substance that gets dissolved (e.g., salt, sugar, or even a gas).
• Solvent — the substance that does the dissolving. Water is the most common solvent and is called
the universal solvent because it dissolves more substances than any other liquid.
• Aqueous solution — any solution in which water is the solvent.
Solutions are not always liquid! Examples across all three phases:

Phase of Solution Solute Solvent Example

Solid (alloy) Zinc Copper Brass

Solid (alloy) Carbon Iron Steel

Liquid Ethanol Water Wine / vodka

Liquid Salt (NaCl) Water Seawater

Gas O₂, CO₂,

N₂etc. Air

The Tyndall Effect — How to Identify a Colloid

Shine a beam of light through the mixture. Solutions let the beam pass through invisibly. Colloids
scatter the beam — you see a glowing path (like car headlights in fog). This scattering is the
Tyndall Effect.

Milk appears white because fat globules (colloid-sized particles, ~100–200 nm) scatter all wavelengths
of visible light equally. This is why milk is a colloid, not a solution, even though it looks uniform to the
naked eye.

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Concentration of Solutions
Molality (m)
m = moles of solute ÷ kg of solvent
Note: molality uses kilograms of solvent, not volume of solution. It does not change with temperature
because mass does not expand.

Example: 230 g of ethanol (C2H5OH, molar mass = 46 g/mol) dissolved in 500 g water. Moles of
ethanol = 230 ÷ 46 = 5 mol. m = 5 mol ÷ 0.5 kg = 10 m

Molarity (M)
M = moles of solute ÷ litres of solution

Example: 30 g NaCl (molar mass = 58.5 g/mol) in 200 mL solution. Moles NaCl = 30 ÷ 58.5 =
0.513 mol. M = 0.513 ÷ 0.200 L = 2.56 M ≈ 2.6 M

Separation Techniques
Technique Basis of Separation Mixture Type

Filtration Particle size (solid vs liquid) Suspension

Distillation Different boiling points Liquid solutions

Evaporation Solvent evaporates, solute remains Dissolved solids

Chromatography Different affinities for stationary phase Pigments, dyes

Centrifugation Density differences Colloids, blood

COMMON TRAP: Distillation recovers BOTH components (the distillate and the residue).
Evaporation loses the solvent. Only distillation lets you collect both without losing either.

MNEMONIC — Types of mixtures: "Soda Cans Sit" → Solution, Colloid, Suspension (increasing
particle size)

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LESSON 2

The Mole Concept & Avogadro's Number

■ Chemistry

Atoms and molecules are so incredibly tiny that counting them individually is impossible. Chemists solve
this problem using the mole — a counting unit, just like how we use 'dozen' for 12. One mole = 6.02 ×
1023 particles of anything.

Avogadro's Number

1 mole = 6.02 × 1023 particles (atoms, molecules, ions, formula units — whatever you are
counting). This number is called Avogadro's number, symbolised NA.

The mole is defined so that 1 mole of any element = its atomic mass in grams (this mass is called
the molar mass).
Examples:
• 1 mole of C = 12 g = 6.02 × 1023 carbon atoms
• 1 mole of H2O = 18 g = 6.02 × 1023 water molecules
• 1 mole of NaCl = 58.5 g = 6.02 × 1023 formula units

Molar Mass Calculations

To find the molar mass of a compound, add up the atomic masses of all the atoms in one formula unit
(use the periodic table).

Compound Composition Molar Mass

CO₂ C(12) + O×2(32) 44 g/mol

H₂O H×2(2) + O(16) 18 g/mol

NaCl Na(23) + Cl(35.5) 58.5 g/mol

C₂H₅OH
C×2(24)+H×6(6)+O(16)
(ethanol) 46 g/mol

Al Al(27) 27 g/mol

H₂ H×2(2) 2 g/mol

The Mole Formula Triangle

n = m ÷ M | m = n × M | M = m ÷ n Where: n = moles, m = mass in grams, M = molar mass in g/mol

MNEMONIC — "Moles Marry Mass over Molar mass" → n = m/M

Worked Examples

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Example 1: How many moles in 88 g of CO2? Molar mass of CO2 = 12 + 32 = 44 g/mol n = 88 ÷ 44

= 2 moles

Example 2: What is the mass of 3 moles of H2O? m = 3 × 18 = 54 grams

Example 3 (Molality): 230 g C2H5OH (M=46) in 500 g water. n = 230/46 = 5 mol → m = 5/0.5 kg =
10 mol/kg

Example 4 (Molarity): 30 g NaCl (M=58.5) in 200 mL solution. n = 30/58.5 = 0.513 mol → M =

0.513/0.200 = 2.56 M

Empirical Formulas from Percentage Composition

An empirical formula gives the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound.
Steps: (1) Assume 100 g → percentages become grams. (2) Convert each to moles (÷ atomic mass).
(3) Divide all by the smallest number of moles. (4) Round to whole numbers.

Example: Compound is 32.79% Na, 13.02% Al, 54.19% F. Na: 32.79/23 = 1.426 mol Al: 13.02/27
= 0.482 mol F: 54.19/19 = 2.852 mol Divide by 0.482: Na=2.96≈3, Al=1, F=5.92≈6 Empirical
formula: Na3AlF6

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LESSON 3

Chemical Bonding
■ Chemistry

Atoms bond together to achieve a stable electron configuration — usually a full outer shell of 8 electrons
(the octet rule). Bonding releases energy, making the system more stable. The type of bond formed
depends on the elements involved and how they interact with electrons.

1. Covalent Bonds — Strongest

Atoms share electrons. Both nuclei pull on the shared electron pair, holding the atoms together.
Covalent bonds form mainly between nonmetals.
• Nonpolar covalent: Electrons shared equally between identical atoms. Example: H–H (H2), O=O
(O2), N≡N (N2)
• Polar covalent: Electrons shared unequally between different atoms (one atom is more
electronegative). Example: H–O in H2O, H–Cl in HCl. The more electronegative atom carries a
partial negative charge (δ–).
Bond energy: ~150–1,000 kJ/mol. The strongest of all bond types.

2. Ionic Bonds — Strong

One atom completely transfers electrons to another. This creates oppositely charged ions that attract
each other electrostatically.
• The atom that loses electrons → cation (positive ion)
• The atom that gains electrons → anion (negative ion)
Ionic bonds typically form between metals (low electronegativity) and nonmetals (high electronegativity).
Example: Na donates its outer electron to Cl → Na+ + Cl– → NaCl (table salt).

3. Hydrogen Bonds — Moderate (Intermolecular Force)

Hydrogen bonds are NOT true chemical bonds — they are intermolecular forces (attractions
between molecules, not within them).

A hydrogen bond forms when a H atom bonded to a highly electronegative atom (N, O, or F) is
attracted to another N, O, or F atom on a neighbouring molecule.
Why water has a surprisingly high boiling point (100°C for such a small molecule): each water molecule
can form up to 4 hydrogen bonds with neighbours, requiring extra energy to break apart.
Biological importance: hydrogen bonds hold together the two strands of DNA, and stabilise protein
shapes.

4. Van der Waals Forces (London Dispersion) — Weakest

Temporary, weak attractions caused by momentary uneven distributions of electrons creating temporary
dipoles that induce dipoles in neighbouring atoms/molecules.
Present in all atoms and molecules. Stronger in larger atoms/molecules (more electrons = larger, more
easily polarised electron cloud).

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Example: Explains why I2 is solid at room temperature while Cl2 is a gas — iodine has far more
electrons and thus stronger van der Waals forces.

Bond Strength Summary

Bond / Force Type Relative Strength Typical Energy Example

Covalent Intramolecular ★★★★ Strongest 150–1000 kJ/mol H₂O, CO₂

Ionic Intramolecular ★★★ Strong ~400–4000 kJ/mol NaCl, MgO

Hydrogen bond Intermolecular ★★ Moderate 10–40 kJ/mol Water–water

Van der Waals Intermolecular ★ Weakest 0.05–40 kJ/mol Cl₂, I₂

Electronegativity & Bond Character

Electronegativity is an atom's ability to attract shared electrons. Electronegativity increases across a
period (left → right) and decreases down a group on the periodic table. Fluorine is the most
electronegative element.
Trend: The greater the difference in electronegativity between two atoms, the more ionic the bond
character:
• ∆EN < 0.4 → Nonpolar covalent
• 0.4 < ∆EN < 1.7 → Polar covalent
• ∆EN > 1.7 → Ionic

UPCAT TIP — When asked "which bond is strongest," the answer is almost always covalent. When
asked about intermolecular forces, van der Waals is weakest and hydrogen bonds are strongest
among IMFs.

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LESSON 4

Atomic Structure & the Periodic Table

■ Chemistry

All matter is made of atoms. Understanding the structure of an atom — and how that structure
determines an element's properties — is fundamental to all of chemistry.

Parts of an Atom
Particle Symbol Charge Mass (amu) Location

Proton p<super>+</super>
+1 ≈1 Nucleus

Neutron n<super>0</super>
0 (neutral) ≈1 Nucleus

Electron e<super>–</super>
–1 ≈ 0.00055 (negligible) Electron cloud (orbitals)

The nucleus is incredibly dense and tiny — if an atom were the size of a football stadium, the nucleus
would be a marble at the centre. Almost all of an atom's mass is in the nucleus; almost all of its volume
is empty space occupied by electrons.

Key Numbers

Atomic Number (Z) = number of protons. This is what defines the element — every carbon atom
has exactly 6 protons. Mass Number (A) = protons + neutrons. Electrons are NOT counted (their
mass is negligible). Number of neutrons (N) = A – Z Neutral atom: number of protons = number
of electrons

Isotopes
Atoms of the same element always have the same number of protons, but can have different numbers
of neutrons. These variants are called isotopes.

Isotope Protons Neutrons Mass Number Stable?

Carbon-12 (<super>12</super>C)
6 6 12 Yes (most common)

Carbon-13 (<super>13</super>C)
6 7 13 Yes

Carbon-14 (<super>14</super>C)
6 8 14 No — radioactive, used in dating

Potassium-40 (<super>40</super>K)
19 21 40 No — used to date rocks

Ions
When an atom gains or loses electrons it becomes an ion. This does NOT change the atomic number
(number of protons never changes without a nuclear reaction).
• Cation (+): lost one or more electrons → fewer electrons than protons. Example: Na+ (11p, 10e)
• Anion (–): gained one or more electrons → more electrons than protons. Example: Cl– (17p, 18e)

Electron Configuration & Orbitals

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Electrons occupy regions of space called orbitals, arranged in shells (energy levels) and subshells (s,
p, d, f).
• s subshell: holds max 2 electrons (1 orbital)
• p subshell: holds max 6 electrons (3 orbitals)
• d subshell: holds max 10 electrons (5 orbitals)

Example: Sulfur (S) has 16 electrons. Configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4 The 3p sublevel has 4
electrons. A half-filled p orbital means 3 electrons in the p subshell. Elements with half-filled p:
Nitrogen (N, group 15) and Antimony (Sb, group 15).

Periodic Table Trends

Property Across a Period (→) Down a Group (↓)

Atomic radius Decreases (more protons pull electronsIncreases

in) (more electron shells)

Electronegativity Increases (F is highest) Decreases

Ionisation energy Increases Decreases

Metallic character Decreases Increases

Most unstable of first 101 elements: Francium (Fr) — it is radioactive and has an extremely short
half-life (≈ 22 min). Most electronegative: Fluorine (F).

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LESSON 5

Thermochemistry — Energy in Chemical

Reactions
■ Chemistry

Every chemical reaction involves a change in energy. Thermochemistry is the study of the heat energy
absorbed or released during chemical and physical changes.

Exothermic vs Endothermic Reactions

Property Exothermic Endothermic

Energy flow Released to surroundings Absorbed from surroundings

Products vs reactants energyProducts at LOWER energy Products at HIGHER energy

Enthalpy change ∆H Negative (∆H < 0) Positive (∆H > 0)

Temperature effect Surroundings heat up Surroundings cool down

Common examples Combustion, respiration, rusting, explosions

Photosynthesis, melting ice, cooking, dissolving ammonium

Reading Energy Diagrams (Reaction Coordinate Diagrams)

An energy diagram plots potential energy (y-axis) against reaction progress (x-axis). The key
features:
• Reactants level — starting energy (left side of diagram)
• Products level — ending energy (right side)
• Peak (transition state / activated complex) — the highest energy point; represents the most
unstable arrangement of atoms during the reaction
• Activation energy (Ea) — the energy needed to reach the peak from the reactants level; must be
supplied to start the reaction

If the PRODUCTS line is LOWER than the REACTANTS line → Exothermic (energy is released).
If HIGHER → Endothermic (energy absorbed). The difference in height between reactants and
products is ∆H.

Activation Energy & Catalysts

Activation energy (Ea) is the minimum energy required to break the bonds in the reactants and start
forming products. Even exothermic reactions need activation energy to begin.
A catalyst is a substance that speeds up a reaction by providing an alternative reaction pathway with a
lower activation energy. The catalyst is NOT consumed — it is the same before and after the reaction.
When a lit match touches a candle wick: the match provides the activation energy needed to start the
combustion reaction. Once started, the exothermic reaction sustains itself and the match is no longer
needed. The match is NOT a catalyst — it does not lower Ea; it supplies the energy needed to
overcome Ea.

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Enzymes in biology are biological catalysts — they lower the activation energy of metabolic
reactions, making them fast enough to sustain life.

Phase Changes & Heat

During a phase change (melting, boiling, freezing, condensing), temperature does NOT change even
though heat is being added or removed. All energy goes into breaking or forming intermolecular forces,
not into increasing kinetic energy.
When ice melts at 0°C, particles gain energy (break hydrogen bonds) but temperature stays at 0°C until
all ice is melted. On a cooling/heating curve, phase changes appear as flat horizontal lines.

Reading a cooling curve: The substance starts as a gas at 206°C. The first flat region (≈150°C) is
condensation (gas → liquid). The second flat region (≈90°C) is solidification (liquid → solid). The
melting/solidification point is the same temperature: 90°C.

Thermal conductivity is a material's ability to conduct heat. Coal has low thermal conductivity — it
transfers heat to the skin slowly, which is why firewalking is possible on coal embers (brief contact time
+ low conductivity).
Specific heat capacity of water is unusually high (4.18 J/g·°C). This means water releases and gains
heat slowly, which makes it an excellent temperature buffer for climate and for living organisms.

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LESSON 6

Stoichiometry & Balancing Equations

■ Chemistry

Stoichiometry is the quantitative relationship between reactants and products in a chemical reaction. A
balanced equation is the roadmap that tells you exactly how many moles of each substance are
involved.

The Law of Conservation of Mass

Matter cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction. The total mass of reactants = total
mass of products. This is why equations must be balanced — the number of each type of atom
must be the same on both sides.

Balancing Equations — Step by Step

Balance by adjusting coefficients (the big numbers in front of formulas) — never change subscripts
within a formula.

Example: Balance: MnO2 + HCl → Cl2 + MnCl2 + H2O Balanced: MnO2 + 4HCl → Cl2 + MnCl2 +
2H2O Coefficients: 1 + 4 + 1 + 1 + 2 = 9 (least sum)

Example 2: Balance: AlCl3 + NaOH → Al(OH)3 + NaCl Balanced: AlCl3 + 3NaOH → Al(OH)3 +
3NaCl Coefficients: 1, 3, 1, 3

Using the Mole Ratio

The coefficients in a balanced equation directly give the mole ratio of all substances.

2Al + 6HCl → 2AlCl3 + 3H2 Mole ratios: Al:HCl:AlCl3:H2 = 2:6:2:3 So 2 mol Al produces 3 mol H2; 1
mol Al produces 1.5 mol H2

4-Step Stoichiometry Method

Step 1: Write and balance the equation.
Step 2: Convert given mass → moles (n = mass ÷ molar mass)
Step 3: Use mole ratio from equation to find moles of target substance
Step 4: Convert moles → mass if required (mass = n × molar mass)

Worked Example: What mass of H2 forms when 3.0 mol Al reacts with excess HCl? (2Al + 6HCl
→ 2AlCl3 + 3H2) Step 2: Already given in moles (3.0 mol Al) Step 3: Ratio Al:H2 = 2:3 → 3.0 mol Al
× (3/2) = 4.5 mol H2 Step 4: Mass = 4.5 × 2 g/mol = 9.0 g H2

Limiting Reagent

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The limiting reagent is the reactant that is completely used up first, limiting how much product can
form. The other reactant is in excess.
Method: calculate moles of product from each reactant individually. The one that gives fewer moles of
product is the limiting reagent.

Example: 24 g H2 + 48 g O2 → H2O (2H2 + O2 → 2H2O) mol H2 = 24/2 = 12 mol → produces 12

mol H2O mol O2 = 48/32 = 1.5 mol → produces 2×1.5 = 3 mol H2O O2 gives fewer moles of
product → O2 is the limiting reagent

Always convert to MOLES before applying the mole ratio. Using grams directly will give wrong
answers.

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LESSON 7

Gas Laws
■ Chemistry / Physics

Gas behaviour can be predicted by the relationships between pressure (P), volume (V), temperature
(T), and number of moles (n). The gas laws describe how changing one variable affects the others.

The Individual Gas Laws

Law Variables Relationship Formula Example

Boyle's Law P & V (T constant) Inversely proportionalP₁V₁

Squeezing= aP₂V<sub>2</s
balloon

Charles's Law V & T (P constant) Directly proportional V₁/T₁

Hot air balloon
= V₂/T<sub>2</
rises

Gay-Lussac's Law P & T (V constant) Directly proportional P₁/T₁

Pressure cooker
= P₂/T<sub>2</

Avogadro's Law V & n (T,P constant)Directly proportional V₁/n₁

Inflating a =balloon
V₂/n<sub>2</s

Ideal Gas Law P, V, n, T Combined PV = nRT General calculations

ALWAYS use temperature in Kelvin (K) in gas law calculations! K = °C + 273

Key unit: 1 atm = 760 mmHg = 760 Torr = 101.325 kPa

Boyle's Law — Worked Example

Problem: A gas has volume 204 mL at 840 mmHg pressure. Find its volume at 765 mmHg (T
constant). P1V1 = P2V2 840 × 204 = 765 × V2 V2 = (840 × 204) / 765 = 224 mL

Charles's Law — Key Concept

If volume is halved at constant pressure, temperature is also halved (in Kelvin). This follows directly
from V ∝ T at constant P.

TIP: Boyle's Law = Pressure-Volume. Charles's Law = Volume-Temperature. Gay-Lussac's =

Pressure-Temperature. Think "BPV, CVT, GPT".

Atmospheric Pressure & the Barometer

Atmospheric pressure is measured by a mercury barometer — a glass tube sealed at one end, filled
with mercury, and inverted in a dish of mercury. The height of the mercury column is proportional to
atmospheric pressure.
The height of mercury in a barometer depends on: atmospheric pressure, density of mercury, and
altitude — but NOT on the diameter of the tube.

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LESSON 8

VSEPR Theory & Molecular Geometry

■ Chemistry

VSEPR stands for Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion. The core idea: all electron groups (both
bonding pairs and lone pairs) around a central atom repel each other and arrange themselves as far
apart as possible to minimise repulsion. This arrangement determines the 3D shape of the molecule.

Key Rule

Step 1: Count ALL electron groups around the central atom (bonding pairs + lone pairs) → gives
ELECTRON geometry. Step 2: Consider only the positions of ATOMS (ignore lone pairs) → gives
MOLECULAR geometry.

Common Molecular Shapes

Electron Groups Lone Pairs Molecular Shape Bond Angle Example

2 0 Linear 180° CO₂, BeCl₂

3 0 Trigonal planar 120° BF₃, SO₃

3 1 Bent ~117° SO₂

4 0 Tetrahedral 109.5° CH₄

4 1 Trigonal pyramidal ~107° NH₃

4 2 Bent ~104.5° H₂O

5 0 Trigonal bipyramidal 90°/120° PCl₅

5 2 T-shaped ~87°/~180° ClF₃

6 0 Octahedral 90° SF₆

ClF3 in Detail — T-Shaped

Chlorine in ClF3 has 7 valence electrons. Bonding 3 F atoms uses 3 electrons (3 bonding pairs), leaving
2 lone pairs on Cl.
• Total electron groups on Cl = 3 bonding pairs + 2 lone pairs = 5
• Electron geometry = trigonal bipyramidal (5 electron groups)
• The 2 lone pairs occupy the equatorial positions (more space)
• Molecular geometry (atoms only) = T-shaped

If you remove ALL lone pairs from ClF3: Only 3 bonding pairs remain → 3 electron groups → shape
becomes trigonal planar (120°, flat)

Lone pairs take MORE space than bonding pairs — they compress bond angles. This is why NH3
is 107° (not 109.5°) and H2O is 104.5° (not 109.5°).

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LESSON 9

Nuclear Chemistry & Radioactivity

■ Chemistry / Physics

Nuclear chemistry deals with changes in the nucleus of an atom. Unlike chemical reactions (which
involve electrons), nuclear reactions change the composition of the nucleus itself — converting one
element into another.

Radioactive Decay
Unstable nuclei spontaneously release energy and particles to become more stable. This is called
radioactive decay. It is a random process unaffected by temperature, pressure, or chemical state.

Radiation Type Symbol Composition Charge Penetrating Power

Stopped By

Alpha (α) <super>4</super>₂He

2 protons + 2 neutrons+2 Lowest Paper, skin

Beta (β) <super>0</super>_-1e

High-speed electron -1 Medium Aluminum sheet

Gamma (γ) γ High-energy photon (no0 mass) Highest Lead / thick concrete

Half-Life

Half-life (t½) = the time it takes for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample to decay. After each
half-life, the remaining amount is halved again. The sample never reaches zero — it keeps halving.
Formula: Remaining fraction = (1/2)n where n = number of half-lives elapsed

Half-Life Decay Table

Half-lives elapsed (n) Fraction remaining Percentage remaining

0 1/1 100%

1 1/2 50%

2 1/4 25%

3 1/8 12.5%

4 1/16 6.25%

5 1/32 3.125%

Worked Examples

Example 1: What % remains after 2 half-lives? (1/2)2 = 1/4 = 25%

Example 2: A Potassium-40 sample shows 3 undecayed atoms and 9 decayed atoms out of 12
total. How many half-lives? Original = 12. After 1 half-life: 6 remain. After 2: 3 remain. Currently 3
undecayed → 2 half-lives

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Example 3: Half-life of isotope = 2 days. What fraction remains after 8 days? n = 8/2 = 4 half-lives
→ (1/2)4 = 1/16

Real-World Applications
• Carbon-14 dating (radiocarbon dating): t½ ≈ 5,730 years. Used to determine the age of organic
materials (fossils, ancient wood, cloth). Accurate up to ~50,000 years.
• Potassium-40 dating: t½ ≈ 1.25 billion years. Used to date ancient rocks and geological formations.
• Medical imaging: Technetium-99m (t½ = 6 hrs) — short half-life minimises radiation exposure to
patients.
• Nuclear power: Uranium-235 fission releases enormous energy. Nuclear reactors exploit this as a
power source.

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LESSON 10

Cell Division — Mitosis

■ Biology

Mitosis is a type of cell division that produces two genetically identical daughter cells, each with the
same number of chromosomes as the parent cell (diploid → diploid, 2n → 2n). Mitosis is used for
growth, tissue repair, and asexual reproduction.

Mitosis vs Meiosis: • Mitosis: 1 division → 2 identical diploid daughter cells. Used for body growth
and repair. • Meiosis: 2 divisions → 4 genetically diverse haploid cells (n). Used for sexual
reproduction (gametes — sperm and eggs).

The Cell Cycle

Before mitosis begins, the cell goes through Interphase: G1 (growth), S phase (DNA replication —
makes an exact copy of all chromosomes), G2 (preparation for division). DNA replication in S phase is
critical — each daughter cell must receive a complete set of chromosomes.

Stages of Mitosis — PMAT

Each replicated chromosome consists of two identical sister chromatids joined at the
centromere.

Stage Key Events

• Chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes

Prophase • Spindle fibers (centrioles) begin forming
• Nuclear envelope starts to break down

• Nuclear envelope completely disappears

Prometaphase • Spindle fibers attach to chromosomes at the KINETOCHORE (protein on centromere)
• Chromosomes begin moving toward the cell centre

• Chromosomes align along the METAPHASE PLATE (equator of the cell)

Metaphase
• Each chromosome attached to spindle fibers from BOTH poles
(Metaphase plate)
• Best stage to count chromosomes under a microscope

• Sister chromatids are pulled APART to opposite poles

Anaphase • Cell elongates
• Each pole now has a complete set of chromosomes

• Two new nuclear envelopes form

Telophase
• Chromosomes decondense back to chromatin
+ Cytokinesis
• Cytokinesis: cytoplasm divides → two daughter cells

MNEMONIC — "People Meet And Talk" → Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase Meta =
Middle = chromosomes at the Middle (metaphase plate)

COMMON CONFUSION: Prometaphase is when spindle fibers ATTACH to chromosomes.

Metaphase is when chromosomes are fully ALIGNED at the equator. These are different events!

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LESSON 11

Genetics & Mendelian Inheritance

■ Biology

Genetics is the study of how traits are passed from parents to offspring through genes. Genes are
segments of DNA that code for specific traits. Each organism has two copies of most genes (one from
each parent) — these copies are called alleles.

Key Terminology
Term Definition Example

Genotype The genetic makeup (allele combination) AA, Aa, aa

Phenotype The physical expression of the genotype Tall, short, white flower

Dominant allele Expressed when present (capital letter) A

Recessive allele Only expressed when homozygous recessive

a

Homozygous dominant Two dominant alleles AA

Homozygous recessive Two recessive alleles aa

Heterozygous One of each allele Aa

Punnett Squares & Probability

A Punnett square is a grid used to predict the possible genotype combinations of offspring from a
cross.

Monohybrid Cross — Dominant/Recessive: White flower (WW) × Red flower (ww) F1 offspring:
all Ww (all white flowers — dominant) F1 × F1: Ww × Ww Offspring: WW (25%), Ww (50%), ww
(25%) Phenotype ratio: 3 white : 1 red All F1 plants show white flowers when W (white) is
dominant.

Homozygous dominant × Homozygous dominant: AA × AA → all AA offspring. Probability of

recessive (aa) = 0%

Dihybrid Cross — Two traits (e.g., wing length L, body colour G): Heterozygous for both: LlGg
× LlGg For each trait independently: • P(L, long wings) = 3/4 ✔ • P(l, short wings) = 1/4 (not 1/2) •
P(G, grey body) = 3/4 (not 1/4) Option A is the only correct statement.

Modes of Inheritance
Mode Description Example

Complete dominance One allele completely masks the other White peas × red peas → all white F1

Incomplete dominance Red × White snapdragon → Pink offspring

Heterozygous shows intermediate phenotype

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Codominance Both alleles expressed fully in heterozygote

AB blood type (shows both A and B antigens)

Sex-linked (X-linked) Gene carried on sex chromosome (X) Colour blindness, haemophilia

Incomplete dominance example (snapdragons): RR = red, rr = white, Rr = PINK. Neither allele

is dominant — heterozygote is intermediate.

DNA Structure & Base Pairing

DNA is a double helix made of nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains a sugar, phosphate, and one of
four nitrogenous bases: Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C).

Base pairing rules (Chargaff's rules): • A pairs with T (equal amounts: %A = %T) • G pairs with C
(equal amounts: %G = %C) • %A + %T + %G + %C = 100% If %A = 12%, then %T = 12%.
Remaining = 76% split equally → %G = %C = 38%.

UPCAT TRAP: DNA uses Thymine (T). RNA uses Uracil (U) instead of T. A question about DNA
does NOT involve uracil.

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LESSON 12

Cell Biology, Membrane Transport &

Osmosis
■ Biology

Cells are the fundamental units of life. All cells share basic features but differ between prokaryotes and
eukaryotes.

Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cells

Feature Prokaryotic Eukaryotic

Nucleus No membrane-bound nucleus True nucleus with nuclear envelope

DNA Circular DNA in cytoplasm Linear DNA in nucleus

Membrane-bound organellesNone (no mitochondria, ER, Golgi) Present (mitochondria, ER, Golgi, etc.)

Size Smaller (1–10 µm) Larger (10–100 µm)

Cell wall Present (peptidoglycan in bacteria) Present in plants/fungi; absent in animals

Ribosomes Yes (70S) Yes (80S)

Examples Bacteria, Archaea Plants, animals, fungi, protists

COMMON TRAP: "Prokaryotic cells have no genetic material" is FALSE. They DO have DNA — it's
just not enclosed in a membrane-bound nucleus.

The Cell Membrane & Phospholipid Bilayer

The cell membrane is a phospholipid bilayer — two layers of phospholipids with their hydrophilic
(water-loving) heads facing outward and their hydrophobic (water-fearing) tails facing inward. This
creates a selective barrier.
Which molecules can cross the membrane by simple diffusion?
• Small, nonpolar molecules: O2, CO2 — cross easily
• Small polar molecules: water (H2O) — crosses slowly via aquaporins
• Ions (Na+, K+, Cl–) — cannot cross directly — they need protein channels or active transport

Sodium ions (Na+) are charged and hydrophilic — they are LEAST likely to diffuse across the
hydrophobic interior of the phospholipid bilayer.

Diffusion & Osmosis

Process What moves Direction Energy required?

Simple diffusion Small nonpolar moleculesHigh → Low concentration No (passive)

Facilitated diffusion Ions, polar molecules (viaHigh → Low concentration

channels/carriers) No (passive)

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Osmosis WATER only (via semipermeable

High water → Low water (= highNo
membrane) solute → low solute)
(passive)

Active transport Low → High concentration

Any molecule (against gradient) Yes (ATP)

Osmosis in Detail — Tonicity

Solution Solute concentration Effect on animal cell Effect on plant cell

Isotonic Equal to cell No change in size Normal (flaccid)

Hypotonic (low solute)Less than cell Cell swells → may burst (lysis) Cell becomes turgid (rigid, full)

Hypertonic (high solute)

More than cell Cell shrinks (crenation) Cell becomes flaccid (plasmolysis)

Example: A saltwater organism placed in freshwater (hypotonic solution): Freshwater has a much
lower solute concentration than the cell. Water flows INTO the cell by osmosis. The cell absorbs
too much water, swells, and bursts → organism cannot survive.

Example: Plant cells in a hypertonic solution (Professor Geller's experiment): Hypertonic solution
has more solutes than the cell. Water flows OUT of the cell. Cells become FLACCID (decrease in
size). The solution becomes more dilute as water enters it — dye particles spread out → solution
has a lighter color.

Organelle Functions
Organelle Function

Nucleus Contains DNA; controls cell activities

Mitochondria Cellular respiration; produces ATP (energy)

Golgi complex (apparatus) Processes, packages, and ships proteins and lipids to their destinations

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Rough ER: protein synthesis (has ribosomes); Smooth ER: lipid synthesis

Ribosomes Site of protein synthesis (translation of mRNA)

Lysosomes Digestion of cellular waste using enzymes

Vacuoles Storage; plant cells have large central vacuoles for turgor pressure

Chloroplasts Photosynthesis (plants only)

Cell wall Structural support (plants, fungi, bacteria)

Golgi complex function: If the Golgi is removed, proteins will be synthesised by ribosomes but
will NOT be processed, sorted, or directed to their correct destinations. Mice without Golgi genes
would not develop properly and would die young due to complete protein trafficking failure.

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LESSON 13

Human Body Systems

■ Biology

Blood & the Circulatory System

The circulatory system consists of: the heart (pump), blood (circulating medium), and blood vessels
(passageways).

Blood Vessel Direction of Flow Wall Thickness Has Valves?

Artery Away from heart Very thick (high pressure) No

Vein Toward heart Thinner (lower pressure) Yes (prevent backflow)

Capillary Between arteries and veinsOne cell thick No

Why do arteries have thicker walls than veins? Arteries carry blood directly from the heart at
HIGH pressure. Thin walls would rupture. Thick, elastic walls withstand and smooth out the surges
of blood pressure from each heartbeat.

Blood Types & Agglutination

The ABO blood type system is based on antigens on the surface of red blood cells and antibodies in the
blood plasma.

Blood Type Antigens on RBC Antibodies in Plasma Can donate to Can receive from

A A antigens Anti-B antibodies A, AB A, O

B B antigens Anti-A antibodies B, AB B, O

AB A and B antigens None AB only A, B, AB, O (universal receiver)

O None Anti-A and Anti-B A, B, AB, O (universalOdonor)

only

Why can't type B blood be donated to a type A recipient? The type A recipient has anti-B
antibodies in their plasma. When type B blood (with B antigens) is introduced, the anti-B
antibodies attack the B antigens on the donated red blood cells, causing them to clump together
(agglutination). This can cause life-threatening blood clots.

Agglutination = the clumping of blood cells due to an antigen-antibody reaction. (Not the same as
platelet clumping which stops bleeding — that is thrombosis/coagulation.)

Digestive System
Amylase is an enzyme found in saliva that begins the chemical digestion of carbohydrates (sugars and
starches) in the mouth. It breaks glycosidic bonds in starch, converting it to smaller sugar molecules.
Cotyledon in seeds: provides nutrients (stored food) to the germinating seedling before it develops
leaves and can photosynthesize. Seeds can be monocots (1 cotyledon) or dicots (2 cotyledons).

Skeletal System

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The femur (thigh bone) is the longest bone in the human body and is strongly correlated with overall
height. Forensic anthropologists use the length of the femur to estimate the height of a deceased
person.

Vitamins & Deficiency Diseases

Vitamin Deficiency Disease

Vitamin A Night blindness

Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) Beriberi (nerve and heart damage)

Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) Scurvy (bleeding gums, poor wound healing)

Vitamin D Rickets (soft, deformed bones in children)

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LESSON 14

Evolution, Biodiversity & Classification

■ Biology

Analogous vs Homologous Structures

Type Definition Implication Example

Homologous Same underlying structure, different

Evidence
function
of common
— inherited
ancestry
Human
from a(divergent
common
arm, whale
ancestor
evolution)
flipper, bat wing, horse leg —

Analogous Similar function but DIFFERENTEvidence

underlying
of structure
convergent— evolution
NOT
Bird wing
from(similar
vs
common
insect
environments)
wing
ancestor
— look similar, built dif

Bird wing and BAT wing are ANALOGOUS (both used for flying but evolved independently — a bat
wing is modified arm; a bird wing is also a modified arm — wait: BOTH are modified forelimbs =
HOMOLOGOUS! The wing of a bird and bat wing share the same bone structure →
HOMOLOGOUS, not analogous. The wing of a BIRD and the wing of an INSECT = ANALOGOUS
(fly, but totally different structures).

Evolutionary Change — Rates & Conditions

Evolution proceeds fastest in a population with:
• Small population size — genetic drift has larger effects; new mutations spread faster through the
whole population
• High mutation rate — more genetic variation to select from
• Changing environment — strong natural selection pressure for new adaptations

Fastest evolutionary change: Small population + high mutation rate + changing environment

Classification — Protozoa
Protozoa are unicellular eukaryotic organisms (protists). They are classified into groups based primarily
on their mode of movement (locomotion):

Class Movement Example

Sarcodina Pseudopods (false feet) Amoeba

Flagellata Flagella (whip-like) Giardia, Trypanosoma

Ciliophora Cilia (hair-like) Paramecium

Sporozoa No locomotion (parasitic) Plasmodium (malaria)

Echinoderms
Echinoderms (starfish, sea urchins, sea cucumbers) are characterised by:
• No respiratory, excretory, or circulatory systems
• Water vascular system used for movement and capturing food
• Bilateral larva (the larvae are bilaterally symmetrical)

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• Deuterostome development (the blastopore becomes the anus, not the mouth)
• Radial symmetry as adults

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LESSON 15

Earth Science — Rocks, Weathering & Plate

Tectonics
■ Earth Science

The Rock Cycle

Rock Type How it forms Key Features Examples

Igneous Magma/lava cools and crystallises

Contains crystals; no fossilsGranite (intrusive), Basalt (extrusive)

Sedimentary Sediments compacted and cemented

May contain fossils; layeredLimestone,
(strata) Sandstone, Shale

Metamorphic Heat and/or pressure transform existing

Foliated rock
texture, harder Marble (from limestone), Slate (from shale)

Transitions in the rock cycle:

• Igneous → Sediment: weathering, erosion, deposition (Path A)
• Sediment → Sedimentary: compaction and cementation
• Any rock → Metamorphic: heat and pressure (Path C)
• Any rock → Igneous: melting then crystallisation

Igneous Rocks — Intrusive vs Extrusive

Type Where it cools Cooling rate Crystal size Example

Intrusive (plutonic) Underground (insulated) Slow LARGE crystals Granite

Extrusive (volcanic) At the surface (exposed to air)

Fast SMALL crystals (or glassy)
Basalt, Obsidian

Why does granite have large crystals? Granite forms deep underground where temperatures are
high and cooling is very slow. Slow cooling gives atoms time to arrange into large, organised
crystal structures.

Weathering
Weathering is the breakdown of rocks at or near the surface without significant movement of the
material.

Type Process Example

Mechanical / Physical Breaks rock into smaller pieces WITHOUT Frost

changing
wedging,
chemical
pressure
composition
release, exfoliation domes

Chemical Changes the mineral composition of rock Oxidation (rusting), acid rain, dissolution of limestone

Why don't rocks weather on the Moon? Weathering requires an atmosphere (for chemical
weathering) and/or water (for both types). The Moon has neither — it has no atmosphere (no wind, no
rain, no oxygen) and no liquid water. Therefore, moon rocks remain unchanged for billions of years.

Exfoliation domes (e.g., Half Dome) form from pressure release: when overlying rock is removed
by erosion, the underlying rock expands and curved sheets peel off like an onion.

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Volcanoes
Volcano Type Shape Eruption Style Example

Stratovolcano (composite)
Steep, conical, symmetricalExplosive (silica-rich, viscousMtlava)
Mayon, Mt Pinatubo, Mt Fuji

Shield Broad, gently sloping Gentle, effusive (low-silica, fluid

Mauna
lava)
Loa, Hawaii

Cinder cone Small, steep, loose cindersModerately explosive Paricutin (Mexico)

Caldera Large basin/depression from

Super-explosive
collapse Yellowstone, Taal Lake (Philippines)

Law of Superposition & Rock Age

Law of Superposition: In undisturbed sedimentary rock layers, the OLDEST layer is at the
BOTTOM and the YOUNGEST is at the TOP. If layers are overturned by tectonic forces, the
original sequence can be determined by collecting samples from nearby undisturbed areas to
compare.

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LESSON 16

Forces, Motion & Newton's Laws

■ Physics

Newton's Three Laws of Motion

Law Statement Key Concept

1st Law
"An object at rest stays at rest, and an object inInertia
motion—stays
tendency
in motion
to resist
at constant
change in
velocity,
[Link]
Depends
acted
onup
M
(Inertia)

2nd Law
"The acceleration of an object is directly proportional
F = [Link]
the net
force
force
= more
applied
acceleration.
and inversely
More
proportional
mass = lessto ac
its
(F = ma)

3rd Law
"For every action, there is an equal and opposite
Forces
reaction."
come in pairs. They act on DIFFERENT objects.
(Action-Reaction)

Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist changes in its state of motion. It depends entirely on
mass — not weight, temperature, or speed. Net force on an airplane in level flight at constant
velocity = ZERO. By Newton's 1st Law, constant velocity means balanced forces.

Torque
τ = F⊥ × l (torque = perpendicular force × lever arm length)

Example: 100 N force applied to a 2-metre wrench at right angles: τ = 100 N × 2 m = 200 N·m

Gravity & Projectile Motion

Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE): Energy stored due to position in a gravitational field.
GPE = mgh (mass × g × height)

The object with the most GPE has the most MASS at the greatest HEIGHT. A truck at the top of a
hill has more GPE than a person on the same hill (greater mass). The truck SPEEDING DOWN
has less GPE (lower height) — it has converted GPE to kinetic energy.

Projectile Motion — Independence of Horizontal and Vertical: Horizontal and vertical motions are
completely independent. A fired bullet and a bullet dropped from the same height at the same moment
will hit the ground at the same time — gravity accelerates both identically in the vertical direction.
At the maximum height of a projectile, the vertical velocity = 0. The horizontal velocity is unchanged
(no air resistance). Therefore, total velocity at maximum height = horizontal component only.

Uniformly Accelerated Motion

Uniformly accelerated motion means constant acceleration. Examples:
• A feather falling in a vacuum — constant g acceleration ✔ (uniformly accelerated)
• A coin falling in air (negligible resistance) — constant g ✔ (uniformly accelerated)
• A ball rolling at uniform (constant) speed — acceleration = ZERO → this is NOT uniformly
accelerated motion; it is uniform motion

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A ball rolling at constant speed has zero acceleration — it is NOT uniformly accelerated motion. It
is uniform (constant velocity) motion.

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LESSON 17

Energy, Work, Density & Buoyancy

■ Physics

Types of Energy
Energy Type Definition Formula

Gravitational PE Stored energy due to height GPE = mgh

Kinetic Energy (KE) Energy of motion KE = ½mv<super>2</super>

Elastic PE Stored in stretched/compressed object

EPE = ½kx<super>2</super>

Thermal energy Random kinetic energy of particles —

Conservation of Energy: Energy cannot be created or destroyed — only transformed. Total

mechanical energy (KE + PE) is conserved in the absence of friction.

Density & Specific Gravity

Density (ρ) = mass ÷ volume (units: g/mL or g/cm3)
Specific gravity = density of substance ÷ density of water (1 g/mL)
An object floats if its density (or specific gravity) is less than the liquid it is placed in. It sinks if its
density is greater.

Example: Specific gravity of liquid X = 1.2. Which will NOT float in liquid X? • Water (SG=1.0): 1.0
< 1.2 → floats • 1000-cm3 object, 750g: density = 750/1000 = 0.75 g/mL < 1.2 → floats • Solid
SG=0.9 < 1.2 → floats • Liquid SG=1.3 > 1.2 → SINKS — does NOT float

Density calculation: Container: 90g empty, 110g filled with water → water mass=20g,
volume=20mL. Filled with liquid X: 140g total → liquid X mass = 50g. Density of X = 50g ÷ 20mL =
2.5 g/mL

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LESSON 18

Waves, Light, Electromagnetism &

Electricity
■ Physics

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

All electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light (3 × 108 m/s) in a vacuum. They differ in
wavelength and frequency:

Type Wavelength Frequency Energy

Radio waves Longest (> 10 cm) Lowest Lowest

Microwaves 1 mm – 10 cm ↕ ↕

Infrared 700 nm – 1 mm ↕ ↕

Visible light 400 – 700 nm ↕ ↕

Ultraviolet (UV) 10 – 400 nm ↕ ↕

X-rays 0.01 – 10 nm ↕ ↕

Gamma rays Shortest (< 0.01 nm) Highest Highest

Gamma rays have the SHORTEST wavelength and HIGHEST frequency and energy in the EM
spectrum.

Mirrors & Reflection

A plane (flat) mirror produces a virtual image that appears to be as far behind the mirror as the object is
in front.

Example: Student stands 4 ft in front of wall mirror. She holds a hand mirror 1 ft behind her head.
The back of her head is: 4 ft in front of wall + 1 ft (head-to-hand mirror) = 5 ft from wall mirror. The
image appears 5 feet behind the wall mirror.

Electricity — Circuits
Circuit Property Series Circuit Parallel Circuit

Current (I) Same throughout Divides among branches

Voltage (V) Divides among components Same across each branch

Resistance (R_total)
R₁+R₂+R₃...
1/R = 1/R₁+1/R₂+...
(adds up) (less than sm

One component fails Circuit breaks (all off) Others continue

Batteries in a series circuit carry the same current. They all discharge at the same rate → all run out at
the same time.

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Coulomb's Law & Gravity — Comparison

Property Newton's Gravity Coulomb's Law (Electrostatics)

What it calculates Gravitational force between massesElectrostatic force between charges

Common feature Inverse square law (1/r<super>2</super>)

Inverse square law (1/r<super>2</super>)

Depends on Mass of objects Charge on particles

Always attractive? Yes (always attractive) No (like charges repel)

Both Coulomb's Law and Newton's Law of Gravitation follow the inverse square law — force
decreases with the square of the distance between the objects.

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LESSON 19

Astronomy & the Solar System

■ Earth Science / Physics

Our Solar System

• Our solar system has 1 star: the Sun (not multiple stars; other stars are in other solar
systems/galaxies).
• Excluding the Sun, the brightest star in the night sky is Sirius (Alpha Canis Majoris), about 8.6
light-years away. (Note: Venus is brighter but is a planet, not a star.)
• All 8 planets revolve around the Sun in the same direction (counterclockwise when viewed from the
north).
• All planet orbits are ellipses (Kepler's 1st Law), and are nearly in the same plane (the ecliptic).
• NOT TRUE: All planets rotate in the same direction — Venus rotates in the opposite direction
(retrograde), and Uranus rotates on its side.

Gravity & Weight in Space

The force of gravity follows an inverse square law: as distance doubles, gravity decreases by a factor of
4.

Example: An astronaut orbiting at a height equal to Earth's radius (so total distance from Earth's
centre = 2 × Earth's radius): Gravity ∝ 1/r2 → 1/(2)2 = 1/4 The astronaut's weight = one-fourth
her weight on Earth's surface.

Eclipses
Solar eclipses happen when the Moon passes between the Earth and Sun. They actually occur more
frequently than lunar eclipses, but are only visible from a tiny area of Earth (less than 20% of the
surface).
Lunar eclipses happen when the Earth passes between the Moon and Sun. They are visible from more
than half of Earth simultaneously. This is why people see lunar eclipses more often in their lifetime —
more people can see each one.

Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion

• 1st Law: Planets orbit the Sun in ellipses with the Sun at one focus.
• 2nd Law: A planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times (moves faster when closer to Sun).
• 3rd Law: The square of the orbital period is proportional to the cube of the average orbital radius (T2
∝ r3).

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QUICK REFERENCE — ANSWER KEY

Set 1
Q Answer Topic

1 D — Milk Mixtures & Solutions

2 A — 2 moles Mole Concept

3 D — Covalent Chemical Bonding

4 D — 21 Atomic Structure

5 A — Releases energy Thermochemistry

6 C — Metaphase Mitosis

7 D — 9.0 g Stoichiometry

8 C — T-shaped to trigonal planar VSEPR

9 B — 25% Half-life

10 A — Particles in a mole Avogadro

11 D — 10 m Molality

12 A — 1,3,1,3 Balancing Equations

13 C — Particles gain energy Phase Changes

14 C — 2.5 g/mL Density

15 A — All run out at same time Circuits

16 C—9 Balancing Equations

17 D — 1/16 Half-life

18 D — Separated by physical means Mixtures

19 A — Low thermal conductivity Thermochemistry

20 C — Releases and gains heat slowly

Water Properties

21 B — Supplies activation energy Thermochemistry

22 D — 760 Torr Gas Laws

23 A — N and Sb Periodic Table

24 A — Francium Periodic Table

25 D — Fluorine Electronegativity

26 A — Carbon-12 Isotopes

27 D — 2.6 M Molarity

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28 B — Oxygen Limiting Reagent

29 B — Liquid soap : homogeneous Mixtures

30 A — Na■AlF■ Empirical Formula

31 A — Diameter of tube Barometer

32 A — Distillation Separation

33 C — Calcium and magnesium ions Solutions

34 C — At R, enzyme denatures Enzymes

Set 2 (Selected Key Answers)

Q Answer Topic

1 A — Anti-B antibodies attack B antigens

Blood Types

2 A — No atmosphere on moon Weathering

3 D — Chromatid Cell Division

4 B — Caused by earthquake/seabedTsunamis
displacement
vs Storm Surge

5 A — 3/4 chance long wings Genetics/Dihybrid

6 D — Lowered global temp by 0.5°CEarth Science / Climate

7 B — Sodium ions Cell Membrane

8 D — A spirochete Microbiology

9 A — Excessive precipitation and drought

Cloud Seeding

10 C — Heat from Earth's interior Geothermal Energy

11 D — Cytosine = 38% DNA/Base Pairing

12 A — Absorbs too much water Osmosis

13 A — Movement Protozoa Classification

14 B — I and III only Rock Cycle

15 D — Antibody-antigen reaction Blood/Agglutination

16 D — Prokaryotes have no genetic material

Cell Types
(FALSE)

17 A — Echinoderm Biodiversity

18 D — QQRrSsTt Genetics/Phenotype

19 B — 2 half-lives (but image shows 3Half-life

undecayed: 2 HL)

20 C — Bird wing and bat wing Analogous/Homologous

21 B — Amylase Digestive Enzymes

22 C — Proteins not processed/shipped

Golgi Complex

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24 B — Rickets Vitamins

25 A — Small pop, high mutation, changing

Evolution
environment

26 A — All white-flowered (F1) Genetics/Dominance

27 D — Pistil and stamen only Plant Biology

28 C — Agricultural runoff Eutrophication

29 B — Root cause of eutrophication Scientific Reasoning

30 D — Provide nutrients Plant Biology

31 C — 0% Genetics

32 A — Stratovolcano Volcanoes

33 B — Greater blood pressure Circulatory System

34 B — Methane and CO■ Climate Change

35 B — Modified Mercalli scale Earthquakes

36 D — Crystal size Igneous Rocks

37 D — Slow cooling = larger crystals Igneous Rocks

38 C — Incomplete dominance Genetics

39 C — Parents are heterozygous Genetics/Mendelian

40 A — Pressure release Weathering

47 B — Femur Skeletal System

48 A — Flaccid; lighter color Osmosis

Set 3 (Selected Key Answers)

Q Answer Topic

1 A — 200 N·m Torque

2 A — Truck at top of hill Gravitational PE

3 C — 90°C Phase Changes / Cooling Curve

4 B — 2 Ω (solve parallel+series) Resistance/Circuits

5 D — Gamma rays EM Spectrum

6 A — Pressure and Temperature Gas Laws (Gay-Lussac)

7 D — Mass Inertia / Newton 1st

8 B — Same time Projectile Motion

9 D — SG 1.3 liquid does not float Density/Buoyancy

15 B — (2) only — ball at constant speed is

Uniformly
NOT UAM Accelerated Motion

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16 B — Equal to horizontal component Projectile at Max Height

17 A — 1 star (the Sun) Astronomy

18 B — Temperature is doubled (Charles'sGas

Law)
Laws

19 A — Lunar visible to more of Earth Eclipses

21 D — Net force = 0 Newton 1st Law

22 A — Inverse square law Gravity / Coulomb's Law

24 A — Sirius Astronomy

25 B — 224 mL Boyle's Law

26 B — 5 feet Mirrors / Optics

27 B — Earth has magnetic north pole Magnetism

29 B — All planets rotate same direction (FALSE)

Astronomy

30 B — Get farther apart (acceleration) Free Fall

31 B — One-fourth weight Gravity / Inverse Square

32 A — –80°C Adiabatic Cooling

Good luck on your UPCAT! You've got this. ■

Prepared from FilipiKnow UPCAT Science Practice Questions — Sets 1, 2 & 3

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