DR.E.

A ONYANGO____Social Research Methods Notes

SOCIAL RESEARCH METHODS

o The course is concerned with the ways social researchers go about their
craft.
o It is concerned with the approaches that are employed in the research
process in all its phases—formulating research objectives, choosing
research methods, securing research participants, collecting, analyzing,
interpreting data, and disseminating findings to others.
o An understanding of social research methods is important for several
reasons, but two stand out.
 First, it help readers to avoid the many pitfalls that are all too
common when relatively inexperienced people try to do social
research, such as failing to match research questions to research
methods, asking ambiguous questions in questionnaires and
engaging in practices that are ethically dubious.
NOTE: An education in research methods is not just important for ensuring that
the correct procedures are followed but also for gaining an appreciation of the
choices that are available.
 Second, an understanding of social research methods is also
important from the point of view of being a consumer of published
research. When people take degrees in the social sciences, they will
read a lot of published research in the substantive areas they study.
A good grounding in the research process and a knowledge of the
potential pitfalls can provide a critical edge when reading the
research of others that can be invaluable.

Research refers to a search for knowledge. It can also be defined as scientific

and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. It is an art
of scientific investigation.

…… “a careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in

any branch of knowledge.”…….

....... “ a systematized effort to gain new knowledge.”……..

……….’’ a movement, a movement from the known to the unknown. It is actually

a voyage of discovery’’……….

…..Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a

technical sense which comprises: defining and redefining problems,
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formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and

evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at
last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the
formulating hypothesis………
Research is therefore, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge
making for its advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study,
observation, comparison and experiment.
The search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding
solution to a problem is research.
The systematic approach concerning generalization and the formulation of a
theory is also research. As such the term ‘research’ refers to the systematic
method.
Social research denotes:
a) academic research on topics relating to questions relevant to the social
scientific fields, such as sociology, social work, criminology, human
geography, social policy and politics. Thus, social research involves
research that draws on the social sciences for conceptual and theoretical
inspiration.
b) studies motivated by developments and changes in society. It draws upon
the social sciences for ideas about how to formulate research topics and
issues and how to interpret and draw implications from research findings.
It is deeply rooted in the ideas and intellectual traditions of the social
sciences.
 We do social research to learn something new about the social world; or to
carefully document our guesses, hunches, theories, or beliefs about it; or to
better understand how the social world works.
 In research we combine theories and ideas with facts in a careful, systematic
way and this requires creativity. To do a study, we must organize, plan
carefully, and select appropriate techniques to address a specific question.
 We want to treat the people in a study in ethical and moral ways. Once we
complete a study, it is time to communicate the results to others in a complete
and accurate way.
 In the process of social research we combine principles, outlooks, and ideas
(i.e., methodology) with a collection of specific practices, techniques, and
strategies (i.e., a method of inquiry) to produce knowledge.
 It is an exciting process of discovery, but it requires persistence, personal
integrity, tolerance for ambiguity, interaction with others, and pride in doing
quality work.

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The context of social research methods

Social research and its associated methods do not take place in a vacuum. The
following factors form part of the context within which social research and its
methods operate:
a. The theories that social scientists employ to help understand the social world
have an influence on what is researched and how the findings of research are
interpreted. The topics that are investigated are profoundly influenced by the
available theoretical positions. In this way, social research is informed and
influenced by theory. It also contributes to theory because the findings of a
study will feed into the stock of knowledge to which the theory relates.
b. The existing knowledge about the area in which the researcher is interested
forms an important part of the background within which social research takes
place. Researcher must be familiar with the literature on the topic or area of
interest. He must be acquainted with what is already known about the
research area of interest to build on it and avoid covering the same ground as
others.
c. The researcher’s views about the nature of the relationship between theory
and research also have implications for research. The researcher may engage
in theoretical reflections out of which a hypothesis is formulated and then
subsequently tested. An alternative position is to view theory as an outcome
of the research process—that is, as something that is arrived at after the
research has been carried out. This difference has implications for research,
because the first approach implies that a set of theoretical ideas drive the
collection and analysis of data whereas the second suggests a more open-
ended strategy in which theoretical ideas emerge out of the data.
d. The assumptions and views about how research should be conducted
influence the research process. It is often assumed that a ‘scientific approach
will and should be followed, in which a hypothesis is formulated and then
tested using precise measurement techniques. Such research definitely
exists, but the view that this is how research should be done is by no means
universally shared. Considerations of this kind are referred to as
epistemological ones. They raise questions about, and invite us to reflect
upon, the issue of how the social world should be studied and whether a
scientific approach is the right stance to adopt. Some researchers favour an
approach that eschews a scientific model, arguing that people and their social
institutions are very different from the subject matter of the scientist and that
an approach is needed that is more sensitive to the special qualities of people
and their social institutions.
e. The assumptions about the nature of social phenomena influence the
research process too. It is sometimes suggested that the social world should

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be viewed as something that is external to social actors and over which they
have no control. It is simply there, acting upon and influencing their
behaviour, beliefs, and values.
…….’’We might view the culture of an organization as a set of values and
behavioural expectations that exert a powerful influence over those who work
in the organization…..but we could also view it as an entity that is in a
constant process of reformulation and reassessment, as members of the
organization continually modify it through their practices and through small
innovations in how things are done’’…..
Considerations of this kind are referred to as ontological ones and often
invite questioning the nature of social phenomena.
Therefore, for epistemological issues, the stance that the researcher takes on
them has implications for the way in which social research is conducted.
f. The values of the research community have significant implications for
researchers. This can take a number of forms. Ethical issues have been a
point of discussion, and indeed often of considerable dissension. As a result,
there is an elaborate framework of bodies that scrutinize research proposals
for their ethical integrity, so that transgression of ethical principles becomes
ever less likely. Certain kinds of research require special provision with regard
to ethics, such as research involving children or vulnerable adults. Thus,
ethical values and the institutional arrangements that have arisen in
response to the clamour for ethical caution have implications for what and
who can be researched and for how research can be conducted to the point
where certain research methods and practices are no longer employed.
g. Social scientists feel that research should have a practical purpose and that
it should make a difference to the world. Such an emphasis means that, for
some practitioners, the social sciences should focus on topics and issues that
will have implications for practice. Also, there are research approaches that
are more or less exclusively designed to explore issues that will have
implications for people’s everyday lives, such as evaluation research and
action research.
h. Social research operates within a wider political context. This feature has
many aspects and some of these are mentioned. For example, much social
research is funded by government bodies, and these tend to reflect the
orientation of the government of the day. This will mean that certain research
issues are somewhat more likely to receive financial support than others.
Further, in some research funding bodies, prospective applicants
demonstrates how potential users of the research will be involved or engaged
if the research receives financial support. In other words, the stipulation that

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users must be involved could be taken to give a slight advantage to research

with a focus on practice.
i. The training and personal values of the researcher cannot be ignored. They
form a component of the context of social research methods in that they may
influence the research area, the research questions, and the methods
employed to investigate these. The experiences and interests frequently have
some influence on the issues we research. As academic social researchers,
the issues that interest us have to connect to the wider disciplines of the
social sciences. Also, social researchers, as a result of their training and
sometimes from personal preferences that build up, frequently develop
attachments to, or at least preferences for, certain research methods and
approaches.

ALTERNATIVES TO SOCIAL RESEARCH

Unless you are very unusual, little of what you know about the social life comes
from having done social research. Most likely, much of our knowledge comes
from an alternative to social research.
It may come from parents, personal experiences, from books and magazines you
have read. Aspects of social life are also learnt from the movies and television.
The following are few alternatives to social research.

Authority
Parents, teachers, and experts as well as books, television, and other media have
provided you with knowledge about social life. When you accept something as
true because someone in a position of authority says it is true, or because it
appears in an authoritative outlet, you are relying on authority as a basis for
knowledge.

Tradition
Many people rely on tradition for knowledge.
Tradition is a special case of authority—the authority of the past. Tradition
means you accept something as being true because “it’s the way things have
always been.”
Common Sense
Everyday reasoning or common sense provides knowledge about the social world.
This is relying on what everyone knows and what “just makes sense.” Common
sense can originate in tradition. It is useful and sometimes correct, but it also
contains errors, misinformation, contradiction, and prejudice.

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Media
Television shows, movies, and newspaper and magazine articles are important
sources of information. Although many newspaper journalists try to present a
realistic picture of the world, they must write stories quickly with limited
information and within editorial guidelines. Unfortunately, the mass media tend
to perpetuate a culture’s misconceptions and myths.
Personal Experience
If something happens to us, if we personally see it or experience it, we tend to
accept it as true. Personal experience, or “seeing is believing,” is a powerful
source of knowledge. Unfortunately, personal experience can mislead.
Something similar to an optical illusion or mirage can occur. Four errors in
personal experience reinforce each other and can occur in other areas, as well.
They are a basis for misleading people through propaganda, cons or fraud,
magic, stereotyping, and some advertising—overgeneralization, selective
observation, premature closure, and halo effect.

NOTE:
Social research builds on some aspects of the alternative ways of knowing but it
differs because social research relies on science. It embraces a scientific
worldview and follows scientific processes to create and evaluate knowledge.

Science is a social institution and a way to produce knowledge. It uses the

scientific method to produce knowledge.
All scientists use specialized techniques to gather data, and then use the data to
support or reject theories.
Data are the empirical evidence or information that one gathers carefully
according to rules or procedures. Social science data can be quantitative (i.e.,
expressed as numbers) or qualitative (i.e., expressed as words, visual images,
sounds, or objects).
Empirical evidence refers to observations that we experience through the
senses—touch, sight, hearing, smell, and taste.

The scientific method is not one single thing; it refers to the ideas, rules,
techniques, and approaches that the scientific community uses.

Use of Research
There are two primary uses of study findings.

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 One use is to advance understanding of the fundamental nature of social

life and knowledge over the long term. Researchers who emphasize this
use usually adopt a detached, pure science or academic orientation.
 A second use is to apply study results to solve specific, immediate
problems or issues. Researchers who concentrate on this use tend to be
activists, managers, or practitioners. They are pragmatic and
interventionist oriented. The two uses are not rigidly separate.
Objectives of Research.
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the
application of scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the
truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. Though each
research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research objectives
as falling into a number of following broad groupings:
 To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it
(studies with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formative
research studies);
 To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual,
situation or a group (studies with this object in view are known as
descriptive research studies);
 To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it
is associated with something else (studies with this object in view are
known as diagnostic research studies);
 To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such
studies are known as hypothesis-testing research studies).

An individual researcher might focus on one or the other use at different career
stages.

Basic Research. Basic social research advances fundamental knowledge

about the social world.
It focuses on developing, testing, and supporting theories that explain how the
social world operates, why social relations operate as they do, and how society
changes. Basic research is the source of most new scientific ideas and ways of
thinking about the world.

Applied Research. Applied social research addresses a specific concern or

offers solutions to a practical problem that an employer, club, agency, social
movement, or organization identified.

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In applied social research, building or testing theory or connecting results to a

larger theory is a secondary concern.

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To Explore. Perhaps you have explored a new topic or issue in order to learn
about it. If the issue was new or no one has written about it yet, you began at
the beginning. Exploratory research frequently addresses the “what?” question—
“What is this social activity really about?”—and it rarely yields definitive answers.

Descriptive research is appropriate when you have basic information about

social phenomenon and are ready to describe it in greater depth. You want to
present a systematic picture with specific details of a situation, activity, social
setting, or relationship.
Descriptive research focuses on “how?” and “who?” questions: “How did it
happen?” “Who is involved?” A great deal of social research is descriptive.
Descriptive researchers use most data-gathering techniques—surveys, field
research, content analysis, and historical-comparative research.

To Explain. When you encounter an issue that is well recognized and have a
description of it, you might wonder why things are the way they are.
Explanatory research identifies the sources of social behaviors, beliefs,
conditions, and events; it documents causes, tests theories, and provides

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reasons. It builds on exploratory and descriptive research and often asks the
“why?” question (e.g., “Why does this occur in this way?”).
Explanatory studies often test theories or examine whether a theory can explain
new situations or activities.

Time Dimension in Research

 Different research questions and studies incorporate time in several ways.

Some studies are like a “snapshot” of a single, fixed time point (i.e., cross-
sectional studies), whereas others provide a “moving picture” that lets you
follow events, people, or social relations across time (i.e., longitudinal
studies).
 Both quantitative and qualitative approaches use cross-sectional or
longitudinal studies. In this section, we look at five ways researchers
incorporate time into a study

Cross-Sectional Research. Most social research studies are cross-sectional;

they examine a single point in time. Advantages of cross sectional research are
that it is the simplest and least costly alternative. Its disadvantage is that it
cannot capture social processes or change.
Exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory studies use cross-cultural research.
The example studies you read about earlier for these three purposes of research
were all cross-sectional.
Example…… Observe a collection of people at one time. (Sept 2019)……..

Longitudinal Research. Researchers using longitudinal research examine

features of people or other units at more than one time. It is usually more
complex and costly than cross-sectional research, but it is also more powerful
and informative. There are three main types of longitudinal research: time series,
panel, and cohort.

Time-Series Study. A time-series study is longitudinal research in which a

researcher gathers the same type of information across two or more time
periods. This allows the researcher to observe stability or change in the features
of the units and to track conditions over time.
The specific individuals may change but the overall pattern is clear.
Example…… Observe different people at multiple times. (2010, 2013, 2016,
2019)
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Panel Study. The panel study is a powerful type of longitudinal research in

which the researcher observes exactly the same people, group, or organization
across multiple time points. Panel research is formidable to conduct and very
costly. Tracking people over time is often difficult because some people die or
cannot be located. Nevertheless, the results of a well-designed panel study are
very valuable. Even short-term panel studies can clearly show the impact of a
particular life event.
Example…… Observe the exact same people at two or more times (2000, 2002,
2004).

Cohort Study. A cohort study is similar to a panel study, but rather than
observing the exact same people, the study focuses on a category of people who
share a similar life experience in a specified time period. Researchers examine
the category as a whole for important features and focus on the cohort, or
category, not on specific individuals. Commonly used cohorts include all people
born in the same year (called birth cohorts), all people hired at the same time,
and all people who graduate in a given year. Unlike panel studies, researchers
do not have to find the exact same people for cohort studies; rather, they need
only to identify those who experienced a common life event.
Example…….. Observe people who shared an experience at two or more times
(Couples married in 2010, 2012, 2014,)

Case Studies. Most cross-sectional and longitudinal studies examine the

features of many people or units, or an entire population. Typically, we measure
several significant features of numerous units or cases, and then analyze the
features across the many cases or units. Such studies are called cross-case
analysis or population- oriented research. In contrast, case-study research
examines one or a handful of cases over a duration of time with detailed, varied,
and extensive data, usually qualitative data. Such studies are called with-case
analysis or case oriented research. Instead of looking at several features across
numerous cases, in case study we examine numerous diverse features of the
case or few cases in great depth. Rather than trying to gather all cases, or a
sample of cases from an entire population, we carefully select one or a few cases
that permit examining an issue in great depth. Unlike a longitudinal study in
which we gather data on many units or cases then look for general patterns
across them, in the case study we closely follow the unfolding or development of
many complex features of one or a few cases across time, and situate the case
or few cases within a specific historical and cultural context.
Example….Observe a small set intensely across time.( 2006-2011)

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Types of Research

The basic types of research are as follows:

(i) Descriptive vs. Analytical:

Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different

kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of
affairs as it exists at present. In social science and business research we quite
often use the term Ex post facto research for descriptive research studies.
The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over
the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening. Most
ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the
researcher seeks to measure such items as, for example, frequency of shopping,
preferences of people, or similar data. Ex post facto studies also include attempts
by researchers to discover causes even when they cannot control the variables.
The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of
all kinds, including comparative and correlational methods.
In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or
information already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of
the material.

(ii) Applied vs. Fundamental:

Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to basic or
pure) research.
Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a
society or an industrial/business organization, whereas fundamental research is
mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a theory.
“Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.”
Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics
are examples of fundamental research. Similarly, research studies, concerning
human behaviour carried on with a view to make generalizations about human
behaviour, are also examples of fundamental research, but research aimed at
certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or business problem
is an example of applied research. Research to identify social, economic or
political trends that may affect a particular institution or the copy research
(research to find out whether certain communications will be read and
understood) or the marketing research or evaluation research are examples of

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applied research. Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a

solution for some pressing practical problem, whereas basic research is directed
towards finding information that has a broad base of applications and thus, adds
to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.

(iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative:

Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is

applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative
phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For
instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human
behaviour (i.e., why people think or do certain things), we quite often talk of
‘Motivation Research’, an important type of qualitative research.
This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires,
using in depth interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of such research are
word association tests, sentence completion tests, story completion tests and
similar other projective techniques.
Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel
or what they think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative
research.
Qualitative research is especially important in the behavioural sciences where
the aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behaviour. Through such
research we can analyse the various factors which motivate people to behave in
a particular manner or which make people like or dislike a particular thing.

(iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical:

Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory.

It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to
reinterpret existing ones.
On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or observation alone,
often without due regard for system and theory.
It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being
verified by observation or experiment.
We can also call it as experimental type of research. In such a research it is
necessary to get at facts firsthand, at their source, and actively to go about doing
certain things to stimulate the production of desired information.
In such a research, the researcher must first provide himself with a working
hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then works to get enough facts

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(data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets up experimental designs

which he thinks will manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as to
bring forth the desired information.
Such research is thus characterized by the experimenter’s control over the
variables under study and his deliberate manipulation of one of them to study
its effects. Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain
variables affect other variables in some way. Evidence gathered through
experiments or empirical studies is today considered to be the most powerful
support possible for a given hypothesis.

(v) Other Types of Research:

All other types of research are variations of one or more of the above stated
approaches, based on either the purpose of research, or the time required to
accomplish research, on the environment in which research is done, or on the
basis of some other similar factor.
From the point of view of time, we can think of research either as one-time
research or longitudinal research. In the former case the research is confined to
a single time-period, whereas in the latter case the research is carried on over
several time-periods.
Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation
research, depending upon the environment in which it is to be carried out.
Research can as well be understood as clinical or diagnostic research. Such
research follow case-study methods or in-depth approaches to reach the basic
causal relations. Such studies usually go deep into the causes of things or events
that interest us, using very small samples and very deep probing data gathering
devices.
The research may be exploratory or it may be formalized. The objective of
exploratory research is the development of hypotheses rather than their testing,
whereas formalized research studies are those with substantial structure and
with specific hypotheses to be tested.
Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like documents,
remains, etc. to study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of
persons and groups at any remote point of time. Research can also be classified
as conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented. While doing conclusion oriented
research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry as he
proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes. Decision-oriented
research is always for the need of a decision maker and the researcher in this
case is not free to embark upon research according to his own inclination.
Operations research is an example of decision oriented research since it is a

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scientific method of providing executive departments with a quantitative basis

for decisions regarding operations under their control.

RESEARCH APPROACHES

The above description of the types of research brings to light the fact that there
are two basic approaches to research, viz., quantitative approach and the
qualitative approach.
Quantitative approach involves the generation of data in quantitative form
which can be subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid
fashion.
This approach can be further sub-classified into inferential, experimental and
simulation approaches to research.

The purpose of inferential approach to research is to form a data base from which
to infer characteristics or relationships of population. This usually means survey
research where a sample of population is studied (questioned or observed) to
determine its characteristics, and it is then inferred that the population has the
same characteristics.

Experimental approach is characterized by much greater control over the

research environment and in this case some variables are manipulated to
observe their effect on other variables.

Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial environment within

which relevant information and data can be generated. This permits an
observation of the dynamic behaviour of a system (or its sub-system) under
controlled conditions.
The term ‘simulation’ in the context of business and social sciences applications
refers to “the operation of a numerical model that represents the structure of a
dynamic process. Given the values of initial conditions, parameters and
exogenous variables, a simulation is run to represent the behaviour of the
process over time.”
Simulation approach can also be useful in building models for understanding
future conditions.

Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment of

attitudes, opinions and behaviour.
Research in such a situation is a function of researcher’s insights and
impressions.

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Such an approach to research generates results either in non-quantitative form

or in the form which are not subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis.
Generally, the techniques of focus group interviews, projective techniques and
depth interviews are used.

Quantitative and qualitative research methods differ primarily in:

 Their analytical objectives

 The types of questions they pose
 The types of data collection instruments they use
 The forms of data they produce
 The degree of flexibility built into study design

Mixed Methods Strategies

 Mixed methods strategies are less well known than either the quantitative
or qualitative approaches.
 The concept of mixing different methods originated in 1959 when
Campbell and Fisk used multi-methods to study validity of psychological
traits. They encouraged others to employ their multi method matrix to
examine multiple approaches to data collection.
 This prompted others to mix methods, and soon approaches associated
with field methods, such as observations and interviews (qualitative data),
were combined with traditional surveys (quantitative data).
 Recognizing that all methods have limitations, researchers felt that biases
inherent in any single method could neutralize or cancel the biases of other
methods. Triangulating data sources-a means for seeking convergence
across qualitative and quantitative methods-was born.
 By the early 1990s, the idea of mixing moved from seeking convergence to
actually integrating or connecting the quantitative and qualitative data.
For example, the results from one method can help identify participants
to study or questions to ask for the other method.
 Alternatively, the qualitative and quantitative data can be merged into one
large database or the results used side by side to reinforce each other (e.g.,
qualitative quotes support statistical results; Creswell & Plano Clark,
2007). Or the methods can serve a larger, transformative purpose to
advocate for marginalized groups, such as women, ethnic/racial
minorities, members of gay and lesbian communities, people with
disabilities, and those who are poor (Mertens, 2003).

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 These reasons for mixing methods have led writers from around the world
to develop procedures for mixed methods strategies of inquiry, and these
take the numerous terms found in the literature, such as multimethod,
convergence, integrated, and combined and shape procedures for research.

In particular, three general strategies and several variations within them are
illustrated:

 Sequential mixed methods procedures are those in which the researcher

seeks to elaborate on or expand on the findings of one method with another
method. This may involve beginning with a qualitative interview for
exploratory purposes and following up with a quantitative, survey method
with a large sample so that the researcher can generalize results to a
population. Alternatively, the study may begin with a quantitative method
in which a theory or concept is tested, followed by a qualitative method
involving detailed exploration with a few cases or individuals.

 Concurrent mixed methods procedures are those in which the

researcher converges or merges quantitative and qualitative data in order
to provide a comprehensive analysis of the research problem. In this
design, the investigator collects both forms of data at the same time and
then integrates the information in the interpretation of the overall results.
Also, in this design, the researcher may embed one smaller form of data
"~thin another larger data collection in order to analyze different types of
questions (the qualitative addresses the process while the quantitative. the
outcomes).

 Transformative mixed methods procedures are those in which the

researcher uses a theoretical lens as an overarching perspective within a
design that contains both quantitative and qualitative data. This lens
provides a framework for topics of interest, methods for collecting data,
and outcomes or changes anticipated by the study. Within this lens could
be a data collection method that involves a sequential or a concurrent
approach.

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 DR.E.A ONYANGO____Social Research Methods Notes

The table below highlights some of the Comparison of quantitative and

qualitative research approaches:

Theme for Quantitative Qualitative

comparison
General  Seek to confirm  Seek to explore phenomena
Framework hypotheses about  Instruments use more flexible,
phenomena iterative style of eliciting and
 Instruments use more categorizing responses to questions
rigid style of eliciting  Use semi-structured methods such as
and categorizing in-depth interviews, focus groups, and
responses to questions participant observation
 Use highly structured
methods such as
questionnaires,
surveys, and
structured observation

Analytical  To quantify variation  To describe variation

Objectives  To predict causal  To describe and explain relationships
relationships  To describe individual experiences
 To describe  To describe group norms
characteristics of a
population

Question  Close-ended  Open-ended

Format
Data  Numerical (obtained  Textual (obtained from audiotapes,
Format by assigning videotapes, and field notes)
numerical values to
responses)
Flexibility  Study design is stable  Some aspects of the study are flexible
in the study from beginning to end (for example, the addition, exclusion,
design  Participant responses or wording of particular interview
do not influence or questions)
determine how and  Participant responses affect how and
which questions which questions researchers ask next
researchers ask next

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DR.E.A ONYANGO____Social Research Methods Notes

 Study design is  Study design is iterative, that is, data

subject to statistical collection and research questions are
assumptions and adjusted according to what is learned
 Conditions

RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

Definition: A hypothesis is a formal tentative statement of the expected

relationship between two or more variables under study.
Good & Hatt define hypothesis as a shrewd guess or inference that is formulated
& provisionally adopted to explain observed facts or conditions & to guide in
further investigation.
Importance of hypothesis in research
a) A hypothesis helps to translate the research problem & objectives into a clear
explanation or prediction of the expected results or outcomes of the research
study. A clearly stated hypothesis includes the variables to be manipulated or
measured, identifies the population to be examined, & indicates the proposed
outcome for the study.
Hypothesis is a tentative prediction or explanation of the relationship between
two variables.’ It implies that there is a systematic relationship between an
independent & a dependent variable. For example, dietary compliance will be
greater in diabetic patients receiving diet instruction in small groups than in
diabetic patients receiving individualized diet instructions.
b) Hypotheses enable the researcher to objectively investigate new areas of
discovery. Thus, it provides a powerful tool for the advancement of knowledge.
c) Hypotheses provide objectivity to the research activity.
d) It also provides directions to conduct research such as defining the sources &
relevance of data.
e) Hypotheses provide clear & specific goals to the researchers. These clear &
specific goals provide the investigator with a basis for selecting sample &research
procedures to meet these goals.
f) Hypotheses provides link between theories &actual practical research. It
provides a bridge between theory & reality. A hypothesis suggests which type of
research is likely to be most appropriate. As it is a tentative statement of
anticipated results, it guides the researcher towards the direction in which the
research should proceed.
g) It stimulates the thinking process of researcher as the researcher forms the
hypothesis by anticipating the outcome.

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DR.E.A ONYANGO____Social Research Methods Notes

h) It also determines the most appropriate research designs & techniques of data
analysis. Hypotheses provide understanding to the researchers about what
expect from the results of the research study.
i) It serves as framework for drawing conclusions of a research study. Without
hypotheses, research would be like aimless wandering.
Qualities of a good research hypothesis
a) Conceptual clarity: Hypothesis should consist of clearly defined &
understandable concepts. It should be stated in very terms, the meaning &
implication of which cannot be doubted. To facilitate the conceptual clarity,
hypothesis can be stated in declarative statement, in present tense.
b) Empirical referents: Research must have an ultimate empirical referent. No
usable hypothesis can embody moral judgments. A good hypothesis must have
empirical basis from the area of enquiry.
c) Objectivity: Hypothesis must be objective, which facilitates objectivity in data
collection & keeps the research activity freeform researcher value - judgment.
d) Specificity: It should be specific, not general, & should explain the expected
relations between variables. For example, regular yoga reduces stress.
e) Relevant: The hypothesis should be relevant to the problem being studied as
well as the objectives of the study. Hypothesis must have relevance with theory
under test in a research process.
f) Testability: Hypothesis should be testable &should not be a moral judgment.
It must be directly/indirectly observable & measurable. The researcher can set
up a situation that permits one to assess if it is true or false. It must be verifiable.
For example, a statement such as ‘bad partners produce bad children’. This sort
of hypothesis cannot be tested.
g) Consistency: A hypothesis should be consistent with an existing body of
theories, research findings, & other hypotheses. It should correspond with
existing knowledge.
h) Simplicity: A hypothesis should be formulated in simple & understandable
terms. It should require fewer conditions & assumptions.
i) Availability of techniques: The researchers must make sure that methods
are available for testing their proposed hypotheses
j) Purposiveness: The researcher must formulate only purposeful hypotheses,
which has relevance with research problem & objectives. Verifiability: A good
hypothesis can be actually verified in practical terms.
k) Profundity of effect: A good hypothesis should have profound effect upon a
variety of research variables. Economical: The expenditure of money & the time
can be controlled if the hypotheses underlying the research undertaken are good.

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DR.E.A ONYANGO____Social Research Methods Notes

Sources of hypotheses
a) Theoretical or conceptual frameworks: The most important sources of
hypotheses are theoretical or conceptual frameworks developed for the study.
Through a deductive approach these hypotheses are drawn from theoretical or
conceptual frameworks for testing them. For example, Roy’s adaptation Model is
used in research study, where a hypothesis can be drawn from a concept of the
theoretical mode that ‘patient’s adaptation to a chronic illness depends on
availability of social support for them.
b) Previous research: Findings of the previous studies may be used for framing
the hypotheses for another study. For example, in a small sample descriptive
study, a researcher found that a number of patients admitted with coronary
artery disease had increased body mass index. In another research study, a
researcher may use this finding to formulate a hypothesis as ‘Obese patients
have increased risk for development of coronary artery disease’.
c) Real-life experiences: Real-life experiences also contribute in the formulation
of hypotheses for research studies. For example, Newton had a life-changing
experience of the falling of an apple &formulated a hypothesis that earth attracts
all the mass towards its center, through several researchers were conducted
before generating a law of central gravity.
d) Academic literature Academic literature is based on formal theories,
empirical evidences, experiences, observation, &conceptualizations of
academicians. These literatures may serve as good sources for formulating
hypotheses for research studies.
Types of hypotheses
a) Simple & complex hypothesis - Simple hypothesis: It is a statement which
reflects the relationship between two variables. For example, ‘the lower the level
of hemoglobin, the higher is the risk of infection among postpartum women’. -
Complex hypothesis: It is a statement which reflects the relationship between
more than two variables. For example, ‘satisfaction is higher among patients who
are older & dwelling in rural area than those who are younger & dwelling in
urban area’.
b) Associative & causal hypothesis- Associative hypothesis: It reflects a
relationship between variables that occurs or exists in natural settings without
manipulation. This hypothesis is used in correlation research studies, Examples
of associative hypothesis prediction Communication skills of healthcare
providers & cost of care related to the satisfaction of patients Predicts
relationship among variables but not the type of relationship.
Causal hypothesis: It predicts the cause-and-effect relationship between two or
more dependent & independent variables in experimental or interventional
setting, where independent variable is manipulated by research to examine the

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DR.E.A ONYANGO____Social Research Methods Notes

effect on the dependent variable. The causal hypothesis reflects the

measurement of dependent variable to examine the effect of dependent variable,
which is manipulated by the researcher(s).
For examples, prevalence of pin site infection is lower in patients who receive pin
site care with hydrogen proxidide as compared to patients who receive the pinsite
care with Betadine solution.
c) Directional & non-directional hypothesis - Directional hypothesis: It
specifies not only the existence, but also the expected direction of the
relationship between variables. Directional hypothesis states the nature of the
relationship between two or more variables such as positive, negative, or no
relationship. To express the direction of relationship between variables, the
directional terms are used to state the hypothesis such as positive, negative,
less, more, increased, decreased, greater, higher, lower, etc. For examples, ‘there
is a positive relationship between years of nursing experience & job satisfaction
among nurses.
Non-directional Hypothesis: It reflects the relationship between two or more
variables, but is does not specify the anticipated direction & nature of
relationship such as positive or negative. It indicates the existence of relationship
between the variables. For example, ‘there is relationship between years of
nursing experience & job satisfaction among nurses.
d) Null & research hypothesis: Null hypothesis (H0): It is also known as
statistical hypothesis & is used for statistical testing & interpretation of
statistical outcomes. It states the existence of no relationship between the
independent & dependent variables. For example, ‘there is no relationship
between smoking &the incidence of coronary artery disease’.
Research hypothesis (H1): It states the existence of relationship between two or
more variables. For examples, ‘there is relationship between smoking &incidence
of lung diseases.

RESEARCH DESIGN

A research design provides a framework for the collection and analysis of data.
A choice of research design reflects decisions about the priority being given to a
range of dimensions of the research process. These include the importance
attached to:
 expressing causal connections between variables;
 generalizing to larger groups of individuals than those actually forming
part of the investigation;

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DR.E.A ONYANGO____Social Research Methods Notes

 understanding behavior and the meaning of that behavior in its specific

social context; and
 having a temporal (that is, over time) appreciation of social phenomena
and their interconnections.

Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning
an inquiry or a research study constitute a research design.
A research design is then the arrangement of conditions for collection and
analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research
purpose with economy in procedure.

It is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted and

constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data.

As such the design includes an outline of what the researcher will do from writing
the hypotheses (research questions) and their operational implications to the
final analysis of data.
More explicitly, the design decisions happen to be in respect of:
 What is the study about?
 Why is the study being conducted?
 Where will the study be carried out?
 What type of data is required?
 Where can the required data be found?
 What periods of time will the study include?
 What will be the sample design?
 What techniques of data collection will be used?
 How will the data be analyzed?
 In what style will the report be prepared?

Keeping in view the above stated design decisions, one may split the overall
research design into the following parts:
a) the sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to be
observed for the given study;
b) the observational design which relates to the conditions under which the
observations
c) are to be made;
d) the statistical design which concerns with the question of how many items
are to be observed and how the information and data gathered are to be
analyzed; and

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DR.E.A ONYANGO____Social Research Methods Notes

e) the operational design which deals with the techniques by which the
procedures specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs
can be carried out.
Thus, the research design profoundly state the following important features:
 It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to
the research problem.
 It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and
analyzing the data.
 It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done
under these two constraints.
To sum it all, a research design must contain conceptualization of:
o A clear statement of the research problem;
o the population to be studied;
o Procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information;
o Methods to be used in processing and analyzing data.

FEATURES OF A GOOD DESIGN

A good design is often characterized by adjectives like flexible, appropriate,
efficient, economical and so on. Generally, the design which minimizes bias and
maximizes the reliability of the data collected and analyzed is considered a good
design. The design which gives the smallest experimental error is supposed to
be the best design in many investigations.

Similarly, a design which yields maximal information and provides an

opportunity for considering many different aspects of a problem is considered
most appropriate and efficient design in respect of many research problems.
Thus, the question of good design is related to the purpose or objective of the
research problem and also with the nature of the problem to be studied.
A design may be quite suitable in one case, but may be found wanting in one
respect or the other in the context of some other research problem. One single
design cannot serve the purpose of all types of research problems.

A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually involves

the consideration of the following factors:
(a) the means of obtaining information;
(b) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any;
(c) the objective of the problem to be studied;
(d) the nature of the problem to be studied; and
(e) the availability of time and money for the research work.

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 DR.E.A ONYANGO____Social Research Methods Notes

Types of Research Designs

Action Research Design

Definition and Purpose

The essentials of action research design follow a characteristic cycle whereby initially an
exploratory stance is adopted, where an understanding of a problem is developed and
plans are made for some form of interventionary strategy. Then the intervention is carried
out (the "action" in Action Research) during which time, pertinent observations are
collected in various forms. The new interventional strategies are carried out, and this cyclic
process repeats, continuing until a sufficient understanding of (or a valid implementation
solution for) the problem is achieved. The protocol is iterative or cyclical in nature and is
intended to foster deeper understanding of a given situation, starting with conceptualizing
and particularizing the problem and moving through several interventions and
evaluations.

What do these studies tell you? What these studies don't tell you?

1. This is a collaborative and adaptive 1. It is harder to do than conducting

research design that lends itself to conventional research because the
use in work or community researcher takes on responsibilities of
situations. advocating for change as well as for
researching the topic.

2. Design focuses on pragmatic and

solution-driven research outcomes 2. Action research is much harder to
rather than testing theories. write up because it is less likely that
you can use a standard format to
report your findings effectively [i.e.,
3. When practitioners use action research,
data is often in the form of stories or
it has the potential to increase the
observation].
amount they learn consciously from their
experience; the action research cycle can
be regarded as a learning cycle. 3. Personal over-involvement of the
researcher may bias research results.
4. The cyclic nature of action research to
4. Action research studies often have
achieve its twin outcomes of action (e.g.
direct and obvious relevance to

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 DR.E.A ONYANGO____Social Research Methods Notes

improving practice and advocating change) and research (e.g.

for change. understanding) is time-consuming and
complex to conduct.
5. Advocating for change requires buy-
5. There are no hidden controls or pre-
in from participants.
emption of direction by the researcher.

Case Study Design

Definition and Purpose

A case study is an in-depth study of a particular research problem rather than a sweeping
statistical survey or comprehensive comparative inquiry. It is often used to narrow down
a very broad field of research into one or a few easily researchable examples. The case
study research design is also useful for testing whether a specific theory and model
actually applies to phenomena in the real world. It is a useful design when not much is
known about an issue or phenomenon.

What do these studies tell you? What these studies don't tell you?

1. Approach excels at bringing us to an 1. A single or small number of cases

understanding of a complex issue offers little basis for establishing
through detailed contextual analysis of reliability or to generalize the findings
a limited number of events or conditions to a wider population of people, places,
and their relationships. or things.

2. A researcher using a case study design 2. Intense exposure to the study of a case
can apply a variety of methodologies and may bias a researcher's interpretation
rely on a variety of sources to investigate of the findings.
a research problem. 3. Design does not facilitate assessment
of cause and effect relationships.
4. Vital information may be missing,
3. Design can extend experience or add
making the case hard to interpret.
strength to what is already known
5. The case may not be representative or
through previous research.
typical of the larger problem being
4. Social scientists, in particular, make
investigated.
wide use of this research design to

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 DR.E.A ONYANGO____Social Research Methods Notes

examine contemporary real-life 6. If the criteria for selecting a case is

situations and provide the basis for because it represents a very unusual
the application of concepts and or unique phenomenon or problem for
theories and the extension of study, then your interpretation of the
methodologies. findings can only apply to that
5. The design can provide detailed particular case.
descriptions of specific and rare cases.

Causal Design

Definition and Purpose

Causality studies may be thought of as understanding a phenomenon in terms of

conditional statements in the form, “If X, then Y.” This type of research is used to measure
what impact a specific change will have on existing norms and assumptions. Most social
scientists seek causal explanations that reflect tests of hypotheses. Causal effect
(nomothetic perspective) occurs when variation in one phenomenon, an independent
variable, leads to or results, on average, in variation in another phenomenon, the
dependent variable.

Conditions necessary for determining causality:

• Empirical association -- a valid conclusion is based on finding an association

between the independent variable and the dependent variable.

• Appropriate time order -- to conclude that causation was involved, one must see that
cases were exposed to variation in the independent variable before variation in the
dependent variable.
• Non-spuriousness -- a relationship between two variables that is not due to variation
in a third variable.

What do these studies tell you? What these studies don't tell you?

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 DR.E.A ONYANGO____Social Research Methods Notes

1. Causality research designs assist 1. Not all relationships are casual! The
researchers in understanding why the possibility always exists that, by sheer
world works the way it does through coincidence, two unrelated events appear
the process of proving a causal link to be related [e.g., Punxatawney Phil
between variables and by the process could accurately predict the duration of
of eliminating other possibilities. Winter for five consecutive years but, the
fact remains, he's just a big, furry
rodent].
2. Replication is possible.
2. Conclusions about causal
relationships are difficult to determine
3. There is greater confidence the study due to a variety of extraneous and
has internal validity due to the confounding variables that exist in a
systematic subject selection and equity social environment. This means
of groups being compared. causality can only be inferred, never
proven.
3. If two variables are correlated, the
cause must come before the effect.
However, even though two variables
might be causally related, it can
sometimes be difficult to determine
which variable comes first and,
therefore, to establish which variable is
the actual cause and which is the
actual effect.

Cohort Design

Definition and Purpose

Often used in the medical sciences, but also found in the applied social sciences, a
cohort study generally refers to a study conducted over a period of time involving
members of a population which the subject or representative member comes from, and
who are united by some commonality or similarity. Using a quantitative framework, a
cohort study makes note of statistical occurrence within a specialized subgroup, united
by same or similar characteristics that are relevant to the research problem being

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 DR.E.A ONYANGO____Social Research Methods Notes

investigated, rather than studying statistical occurrence within the general population.
Using a qualitative framework, cohort studies generally gather data using methods of
observation. Cohorts can be either "open" or "closed."

• Open Cohort Studies [dynamic populations, such as the population of Los Angeles]
involve a population that is defined just by the state of being a part of the study in
question (and being monitored for the outcome). Date of entry and exit from the study
is individually defined, therefore, the size of the study population is not constant. In
open cohort studies, researchers can only calculate rate based data, such as,
incidence rates and variants thereof.

• Closed Cohort Studies [static populations, such as patients entered into a clinical trial]
involve participants who enter into the study at one defining point in time and where it
is presumed that no new participants can enter the cohort. Given this, the number of
study participants remains constant (or can only decrease).

What do these studies tell you? What these studies don't tell you?

1. The use of cohorts is often mandatory 1. In cases where a comparative analysis

because a randomized control study of two cohorts is made [e.g., studying
may be unethical. For example, you the effects of one group exposed to
cannot deliberately expose people to asbestos and one that has not], a
asbestos, you can only study its researcher cannot control for all other
effects on those who have already been factors that might differ between the
exposed. Research that measures risk two groups. These factors are known as
factors often relies upon cohort confounding variables.
designs. 2. Cohort studies can end up taking a long
time to complete if the researcher must
wait for the conditions of interest to
2. Because cohort studies measure
develop within the group. This also
potential causes before the outcome
increases the chance that key variables
has occurred, they can demonstrate
change during the course of the study,
that these “causes” preceded the
potentially impacting the validity of the
outcome, thereby avoiding the debate
findings.
as to which is the cause and which is
the effect.
3. Due to the lack of randomization in the
cohort design, its external validity is

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 DR.E.A ONYANGO____Social Research Methods Notes

3. Cohort analysis is highly flexible and lower than that of study designs where
can provide insight into effects over the researcher randomly assigns
time and related to a variety of participants.
different types of changes [e.g., social,
cultural, political, economic, etc.].
4. Either original data or secondary
data can be used in this design.

Cross-Sectional Design

Definition and Purpose

Cross-sectional research designs have three distinctive features: no time dimension; a

reliance on existing differences rather than change following intervention; and, groups are
selected based on existing differences rather than random allocation. The cross-sectional
design can only measure differences between or from among a variety of people, subjects,
or phenomena rather than a process of change. As such, researchers using this design can
only employ a relatively passive approach to making causal inferences based on findings.

What do these studies tell you? What these studies don't tell you?

1. Cross-sectional studies provide a

clear 'snapshot' of the outcome and
1. Finding people, subjects, or phenomena
the characteristics associated with it,
to study that are very similar except in
at a specific point in time.
one specific variable can be difficult.
2. Unlike an experimental design,
where there is an active intervention
by the researcher to produce and 2. Results are static and time bound and,
measure change or to create therefore, give no indication of a
differences, cross-sectional designs sequence of events or reveal historical
focus on studying and drawing or temporal contexts.
inferences from existing differences
between people, subjects, or
3. Studies cannot be utilized to establish
phenomena.
cause and effect relationships.
4. This design only provides a snapshot of
3. Entails collecting data at and analysis so there is always the
concerning one point in time. While possibility that a study could have
longitudinal studies involve taking differing results if another time-frame
multiple measures over an extended had been chosen.
period of time, cross-sectional 5. There is no follow up to the findings.

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research is focused on finding

relationships between variables at
one moment in time.
4. Groups identified for study are
purposely selected based upon
existing differences in the sample
rather than seeking random
sampling.
5. Cross-section studies are capable of
using data from a large number of
subjects and, unlike observational
studies, is not geographically bound.
6. Can estimate prevalence of an
outcome of interest because the
sample is usually taken from the
whole population.
7. Because cross-sectional designs
generally use survey techniques to
gather data, they are relatively
inexpensive and take up little time to
conduct.
Descriptive Design

Definition and Purpose

Descriptive research designs help provide answers to the questions of who, what, when,
where, and how associated with a particular research problem; a descriptive study cannot
conclusively ascertain answers to why. Descriptive research is used to obtain information
concerning the current status of the phenomena and to describe "what exists" with
respect to variables or conditions in a situation.

What do these studies tell you? What these studies don't tell you?

1. The subject is being observed in a 1. The results from a descriptive research

completely natural and unchanged cannot be used to discover a definitive
natural environment. True answer or to disprove a hypothesis.
experiments, whilst giving analyzable
data, often adversely influence the
2. Because descriptive designs often
normal behavior of the subject [a.k.a.,
utilize observational methods [as
the Heisenberg effect whereby

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 DR.E.A ONYANGO____Social Research Methods Notes

measurements of certain systems opposed to quantitative methods],

cannot be made without affecting the the results cannot be replicated.
systems]. 3. The descriptive function of research is
2. Descriptive research is often used as a heavily dependent on instrumentation
pre-cursor to more quantitative for measurement and observation.
research designs with the general
overview giving some valuable pointers
as to what variables are worth testing
quantitatively.

3. If the limitations are understood, they

can be a useful tool in developing a
more focused study.

4. Descriptive studies can yield rich data

that lead to important
recommendations in practice.
5. Approach collects a large amount of
data for detailed analysis.
Experimental Design

Definition and Purpose

A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to maintain control over all
factors that may affect the result of an experiment. In doing this, the researcher attempts
to determine or predict what may occur. Experimental research is often used where there
is time priority in a causal relationship (cause precedes effect), there is consistency in a
causal relationship (a cause will always lead to the same effect), and the magnitude of
the correlation is great. The classic experimental design specifies an experimental group
and a control group. The independent variable is administered to the experimental group
and not to the control group, and both groups are measured on the same dependent
variable. Subsequent experimental designs have used more groups and more
measurements over longer periods. True experiments must have control, randomization,
and manipulation.

What do these studies tell you? What these studies don't tell you?

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1. Experimental research allows the 1. The design is artificial, and results

researcher to control the situation. In may not generalize well to the real
so doing, it allows researchers to world.
answer the question, “What causes
something to occur?”
2. The artificial settings of experiments
may alter the behaviors or responses
2. Permits the researcher to identify cause of participants.
and effect relationships between 3. Experimental designs can be costly if
variables and to distinguish placebo special equipment or facilities are
effects from treatment effects. needed.
4. Some research problems cannot be
studied using an experiment because of
3. Experimental research designs support
ethical or technical reasons.
the ability to limit alternative
explanations and to infer direct causal
relationships in the study. 5. Difficult to apply ethnographic and
other qualitative methods to
experimentally designed studies.
4. Approach provides the highest level of
evidence for single studies.

Exploratory Design

Definition and Purpose

An exploratory design is conducted about a research problem when there are few or no
earlier studies to refer to or rely upon to predict an outcome. The focus is on gaining
insights and familiarity for later investigation or undertaken when research problems are
in a preliminary stage of investigation. Exploratory designs are often used to establish an
understanding of how best to proceed in studying an issue or what methodology would
effectively apply to gathering information about the issue.

The goals of exploratory research are intended to produce the following possible insights:

• Familiarity with basic details, settings, and concerns.

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 DR.E.A ONYANGO____Social Research Methods Notes

• Well-grounded picture of the situation being developed.

• Generation of new ideas and assumptions.

• Development of tentative theories or hypotheses.

• Determination about whether a study is feasible in the future.

• Issues get refined for more systematic investigation and formulation of new research
questions.
• Direction for future research and techniques get developed.
What do these studies tell you? What these studies don't tell you?

1. Design is a useful approach for 1. Exploratory research generally utilizes

gaining background information on a small sample sizes and, thus, findings
particular topic. are typically not generalizable to the
2. Exploratory research is flexible and population at large.
can address research questions of all 2. The exploratory nature of the
types (what, why, how). research inhibits an ability to make
3. Provides an opportunity to define definitive conclusions about the
new terms and clarify existing findings. They provide insight but not
concepts. definitive conclusions.
4. Exploratory research is often used to 3. The research process underpinning
generate formal hypotheses and exploratory studies is flexible but
develop more precise research often unstructured, leading to only
problems. tentative results that have limited
5. In the policy arena or applied to value to decision-makers.
practice, exploratory studies help 4. Design lacks rigorous standards
establish research priorities and applied to methods of data gathering
where resources should be allocated. and analysis because one of the areas
for exploration could be to determine
what method or methodologies could
best fit the research problem.
Historical Design

Definition and Purpose

The purpose of a historical research design is to collect, verify, and synthesize evidence
from the past to establish facts that defend or refute a hypothesis. It uses secondary

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sources and a variety of primary documentary evidence, such as, diaries, official records,
reports, archives, and non-textual information [maps, pictures, audio and visual
recordings]. The limitation is that the sources must be both authentic and valid.

What do these studies tell you? What these studies don't tell you?

1. The historical research design is 1. The ability to fulfill the aims of your
unobtrusive; the act of research does research are directly related to the
not affect the results of the study. amount and quality of documentation
available to understand the research
problem.
2. The historical approach is well suited
for trend analysis.
3. Historical records can add important 2. Since historical research relies on data
contextual background required to from the past, there is no way to
more fully understand and interpret a manipulate it to control for
research problem. contemporary contexts.

4. There is often no possibility of 3. Interpreting historical sources can be

researcher-subject interaction that very time consuming.
could affect the findings. 4. The sources of historical materials must
5. Historical sources can be used over be archived consistently to ensure
and over to study different research access. This may especially challenging
problems or to replicate a previous for digital or online-only sources.
study. 5. Original authors bring their own
perspectives and biases to the
interpretation of past events and these
biases are more difficult to ascertain in
historical resources.
6. Due to the lack of control over external
variables, historical research is very
weak with regard to the demands of
internal validity.
7. It is rare that the entirety of historical
documentation needed to fully address a
research problem is available for
interpretation, therefore, gaps need to be
acknowledged.

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 DR.E.A ONYANGO____Social Research Methods Notes

Longitudinal Design

Definition and Purpose

A longitudinal study follows the same sample over time and makes repeated observations.
For example, with longitudinal surveys, the same group of people is interviewed at regular
intervals, enabling researchers to track changes over time and to relate them to variables
that might explain why the changes occur. Longitudinal research designs describe
patterns of change and help establish the direction and magnitude of causal relationships.
Measurements are taken on each variable over two or more distinct time periods. This
allows the researcher to measure change in variables over time. It is a type of observational
study sometimes referred to as a panel study.

What do these studies tell you? What these studies don't tell you?

1. Longitudinal data facilitate the 1. The data collection method may

analysis of the duration of a change over time.
particular phenomenon.

2. Maintaining the integrity of the original

2. Enables survey researchers to get sample can be difficult over an
close to the kinds of causal extended period of time.
explanations usually attainable only 3. It can be difficult to show more than one
with experiments. variable at a time.
4. This design often needs qualitative
research data to explain fluctuations in
3. The design permits the measurement of
the results.
differences or change in a variable from
5. A longitudinal research design
one period to another [i.e., the
assumes present trends will continue
description of patterns of change over
unchanged.
time].
7. It can take a long period of time to
4. Longitudinal studies facilitate the
gather results. There is a need to have a
prediction of future outcomes based
large sample size and accurate
upon earlier factors.
sampling to reach representativeness.

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 DR.E.A ONYANGO____Social Research Methods Notes

Meta-Analysis Design

Definition and Purpose

Meta-analysis is an analytical methodology designed to systematically evaluate and

summarize the results from a number of individual studies, thereby, increasing the
overall sample size and the ability of the researcher to study effects of interest. The
purpose is to not simply summarize existing knowledge, but to develop a new
understanding of a research problem using synoptic reasoning. The main objectives of
meta-analysis include analyzing differences in the results among studies and increasing
the precision by which effects are estimated. A well-designed meta-analysis depends upon
strict adherence to the criteria used for selecting studies and the availability of
information in each study to properly analyze their findings. Lack of information can
severely limit the type of analyses and conclusions that can be reached. In addition, the
more dissimilarity there is in the results among individual studies [heterogeneity], the
more difficult it is to justify interpretations that govern a valid synopsis of results.

A meta-analysis needs to fulfill the following requirements to ensure the validity of your
findings:

• Clearly defined description of objectives, including precise definitions of the variables

and outcomes that are being evaluated;
• A well-reasoned and well-documented justification for identification and selection of
the studies;
• Assessment and explicit acknowledgment of any researcher bias in the identification
and selection of those studies;
• Description and evaluation of the degree of heterogeneity among the sample size of
studies reviewed; and,
Justification of the techniques used to evaluate the studies.

What do these studies tell you? What these studies don't tell you?

1. Can be an effective strategy for 1. Small violations in defining the criteria

determining gaps in the literature. used for content analysis can lead to

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 DR.E.A ONYANGO____Social Research Methods Notes

difficult to interpret and/or meaningless

findings.
2. Provides a means of reviewing
research published about a
particular topic over an extended 2. A large sample size can yield reliable,
period of time and from a variety of but not necessarily valid, results.
sources. 3. A lack of uniformity regarding, for
3. Is useful in clarifying what policy or example, the type of literature reviewed,
programmatic actions can be justified how methods are applied, and how
on the basis of analyzing research findings are measured within the
results from multiple studies. sample of studies you are analyzing,
4. Provides a method for overcoming can make the process of synthesis
small sample sizes in individual difficult to perform.
studies that previously may have had
little relationship to each other.
4. Depending on the sample size, the
5. Can be used to generate new
process of reviewing and synthesizing
hypotheses or highlight research
multiple studies can be very time
problems for future studies.
consuming.

Observational Design

Definition and Purpose

This type of research design draws a conclusion by comparing subjects against a control
group, in cases where the researcher has no control over the experiment. There are two
general types of observational designs. In direct observations, people know that you are
watching them. Unobtrusive measures involve any method for studying behavior where
individuals do not know they are being observed. An observational study allows a useful
insight into a phenomenon and avoids the ethical and practical difficulties of setting up a
large and cumbersome research project.

What do these studies tell you? What these studies don't tell you?

1. Observational studies are usually

flexible and do not necessarily need to

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DR.E.A ONYANGO____Social Research Methods Notes

be structured around a hypothesis 1. Reliability of data is low because

about what you expect to observe seeing behaviors occur over and over
[data is emergent rather than pre- again may be a time consuming task
existing]. and are difficult to replicate.

2. The researcher is able to collect 2. In observational research, findings

in-depth information about a may only reflect a unique sample
particular behavior. population and, thus, cannot be
3. Can reveal interrelationships among generalized to other groups.
multifaceted dimensions of group
interactions.
3. There can be problems with bias as the
researcher may only "see what they
4. You can generalize your results want to see."
to real life situations. 4. There is no possibility to determine
5. Observational research is useful for "cause and effect" relationships since
discovering what variables may be nothing is manipulated.
important before applying other
methods like experiments.
5. Sources or subjects may not all be
equally credible.
6. Observation research designs 6. Any group that is knowingly studied is
account for the complexity of group altered to some degree by the presence
behaviors. of the researcher, therefore, potentially
skewing any data collected.

SAMPLING

A survey may be conducted by either of two methods

1) Census Method or Parametric method and

2) Sampling method or Non-parametric method.

Census method:

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DR.E.A ONYANGO____Social Research Methods Notes

It deals with the investigation of the entire population. Here the data are collected
for each and every unit of the universe. This method provides more accurate and
exact information as no unit is left out.

Sampling method:

Here a small group is selected as representative of the whole universe. It works

with the objective to obtain accurate and reliable information about the universe
with minimum of cost, time and energy and to set out the limits of accuracy of
such estimates. It makes exhaustive and intensive study possible with much less
time, money and material. Its more popular in research work.

Population:

Population or universe means, the entire mass of observations, which is the

parent group from which a sample is to be formed. The term population or
universe conveys a different meaning than a traditional one. In census survey,
the count of individuals (men, women and children) is known as population.

But in Research Methodology population means characteristics of a specific

group. For example secondary school teachers of, who have some specific
features like teaching experience, teaching attitudes etc.

Sampling means selecting a given number of subjects from a defined population

as representative of that population.

Target population refers to all the members of a real or hypothetical set of people,
events or objects to which we wish to generalize the results of our research.

The first step in sampling is to define the target population.

Research work is guided by inductive thinking. The researcher proceeds from

specificity to generality. The sample observation is the specific situation, which
is applied to the population, it is the general situation.

The measures of a sample are known as statistics and measures of a population

are termed as parameter. Mean, S.D., coefficient of Correlation of sample
observation known as Statistics and Mean, S.D., coefficient of correlation of
population are known as parameters. Generally parameters are estimated on the
basis of sample statistics.

Sampling is indispensable technique in behavioral research and not so common

in physical sciences. It is fundamental to all statistical methodology of behavioral
and social research. It makes research findings economical and accurate.

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DR.E.A ONYANGO____Social Research Methods Notes

Sampling means selection of individuals from the population in such a way that
every individual has equal chance to be taken into the sample.

Term sample should be reserved for a set of units or portion of an aggregate of

material which has been selected in the belief that it will be representative of the
whole aggregate. Sample is set of units of an aggregate.

A sampling frame is a list of the actual cases from which sample will be drawn.
The sampling frame must be representative of the population.

Assumptions of Sampling:

1. Homogeneity amidst complexity:

Social phenomenon is very complex in nature and every unit appears to be

different from another. But at the same time they also possess similarities in
many respects. It is, therefore, assumed that there is the possibility of such
representative types in the whole population that makes sampling possible.

2. Possibility of Representative Selection:

Sampling has its origin in the mathematical theory of probability and law of
statistical regularity. The law of statistical regularity lays down that a group of
objects chosen at random from a large group tend to possess the characteristics
of that large group (universe)

3. Absolute accuracy not essential but relative or significant accuracy i.e.

needed in case of large scale observations. Because it is practically
impossible to achieve because of errors in measurement, collection of data,
its analysis, interpretation.

A statistical sample therefore is a miniature picture or cross –section of the

entire group or aggregate from which the sample is taken.”

A sample is a small proportion of a population selected for observation and

analysis .It is a collection consisting of a part or sub-set of the objects or
individuals of population which is selected for the express purpose of
representing the population.

By observing the characteristics of the sample, one can make certain inferences
about characteristics of the population from which it is drawn.

Sampling is therefore process of selecting a sample from the population. For this
purpose, the population is divided into a number of parts called sampling units.

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DR.E.A ONYANGO____Social Research Methods Notes

Sampling designs means the joint procedure of selection and estimation.

Sampling is a part of the strategy of research.

Sampling should be such that the error of estimation is minimum.

In other words, a sample as the name implies, is a smaller representation of a

larger whole.

In every branch of science we lack the resources, to study more than a fragment
of the phenomenon that might advance our knowledge.” i.e. fragment is sample
and phenomenon is population. The sample observations are applied to the
phenomenon i.e. generalization.

In the social sciences, it is not possible to collect data from every respondent
relevant to our study but only from some fractional part of the respondents. The
process of selecting the fractional part is called sampling.

Need of Sampling:

a. Economy of time.
b. Economy of money.
c. True detailed knowledge.
d. Utility in experimental study.
e. It has reliability because it is based on probability theory.

Advantages of Sampling:

a. It has a greater adaptability.

b. It is an economical technique.
c. It has high speed for generalization.
d. According to W.G. Cocharan, “It has greater precision and accuracy
in the observation”.
e. This technique has great accuracy.
f. It has a greater speed in conducting a research work.
g. It has a greater scope in the field of research.
h. It reduces the cost of observation or data collection.

Disadvantages or Limitation of Sampling:

a. Scope of biasness.(Less accuracy)

b. Problem of representative sample-Difficulty in selecting a truly
representative sample.
c. Need of eligible researchers.
d. Instability of sample subjects or changeability of units i.e. in
heterogeneous population.

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DR.E.A ONYANGO____Social Research Methods Notes

e. There are certain situations where sampling is possible.

Essentials of an Ideal Sample:

o Homogeneity: The units included in sample must be as likeness with other

units.
o Adequacy: A sample having 10% of the whole data is adequate.
o Independence: Every unit should be free to be included in the sample.
o Representativeness; An ideal sample must be such that it represents the
whole data adequately.

The number of units included in a sample should be sufficient to enable

derivation of conclusions applicable to the whole data.

Characteristics of a Good Sample:

o A good sample is the true representative of the population

corresponding to its properties.
o The population is known as aggregate of certain properties and
sample is called sub-aggregate of the universe.
o A good sample is free from bias; the sample does not permit
prejudices, the learning and pre-conception, imaginations of the
investigator to influence its choice.
o A good sample is an objective one; it refers objectivity in selecting
procedure or absence of subjective elements from the situation.
o A good sample maintains accuracy .It yields an accurate estimates
or statistics and does not involve errors.
o A good sample is comprehensive in nature. This feature of a closely
linked with true-representativeness. Comprehensiveness is a quality
of a sample which is controlled by specific purpose of the
investigation. A sample may be comprehensive in traits but may not
be a good representative of the population.
o A good sample has the practicability for research.

The differences between probability sampling and non-probability sampling

Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling

1 It is a method of sampling which In the absence of any idea of
gives the probability that a probability the method of sampling is
sample is representative of known as non-probability sampling
population
2 Probability sampling is It is generally used in action
generally used in fundamental researches in which one studies a

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DR.E.A ONYANGO____Social Research Methods Notes

research in which the purpose class without any generalization

is to generalize the results purpose
3 It refers from the sample as well There is no idea of population.
as the population
4 Every individual of the There is no probability of selecting
population has equal any individual.
probability to be taken into the
sample
5 It may be representative of the It has free distribution.
population
6 Its observations (data) are used The observations are not used for
for the inferential purpose. generalization purpose.

7 Inferential or parametric Non-inferential or non-parametric

statistics are used statistics are used.

8 There is a risk of drawing There is no risk for drawing

conclusion. conclusions.

9 It is based on Law of probability It is not based on law of probability

sampling i.e. Law of Statistical sampling.
Regularity and Law of Inertia of
the Large Sample

Types of Sampling: Probability Sampling Methods

In general, sampling techniques can be divided into two types:

o Probability or random sampling

o Non- probability or non- random sampling

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DR.E.A ONYANGO____Social Research Methods Notes

Probability Sampling is a sampling technique in which sample from a larger

population are chosen using a method based on the theory of probability. This
sampling method considers every member of the population and forms samples
on the basis of a fixed process. For example, in a population of 1000 members,
each of these members will have 1/1000 chances of being selected to be a part
of a sample. It gets rid of bias in the population and gives a fair chance to all
members to be included in the sample.

There are 4 types of probability sampling technique:

 Simple Random Sampling: One of the best probability sampling

techniques that helps in saving time and resources, is the Simple Random
Sampling method. It is a trustworthy method of obtaining information
where every single member of a population is chosen randomly, merely by
chance and each individual has the exact same probability of being chosen
to be a part of a sample.

For example, in an organization of 500 employees, if the HR team decides on

conducting team building activities, it is highly likely that they would prefer
picking chits out of a bowl. In this case, each of the 500 employees has an equal
opportunity of being selected.

 Cluster Sampling: Cluster sampling is a method where the researchers

divide the entire population into sections or clusters that represent a
population. Clusters are identified and included in a sample on the basis
of defining demographic parameters such as age, location, sex etc. which
makes it extremely easy for a survey creator to derive effective inference
from the feedback.

For example, if the government of the United States wishes to evaluate the
number of immigrants living in the Mainland US, they can divide it into clusters
on the basis of states such as California, Texas, Florida, Massachusetts,
Colorado, Hawaii etc. This way of conducting a survey will be more effective as
the results will be organized into states and provides insightful immigration data.

 Systematic Sampling: Using systematic sampling method, members of a

sample are chosen at regular intervals of a population. It requires selection
of a starting point for the sample and sample size that can be repeated at
regular intervals. This type of sampling method has a predefined interval
and hence this sampling technique is the least time-consuming.

For example, a researcher intends to collect a systematic sample of 500 people

in a population of 5000. Each element of the population will be numbered from

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DR.E.A ONYANGO____Social Research Methods Notes

1-5000 and every 10th individual will be chosen to be a part of the sample (Total
population/ Sample Size = 5000/500 = 10).

 Stratified Random Sampling: Stratified Random sampling is a method

where the population can be divided into smaller groups, that don’t overlap
but represent the entire population together. While sampling, these groups
can be organized and then draw a sample from each group separately.

For example, a researcher looking to analyze the characteristics of people

belonging to different annual income divisions, will create strata (groups)
according to annual family income such as – Less than $20,000, $21,000 –
$30,000, $31,000 to $40,000, $41,000 to $50,000 etc. and people belonging to
different income groups can be observed to draw conclusions of which income
strata have which characteristics. Marketers can analyze which income groups
to target and which ones to eliminate in order to create a roadmap that would
definitely bear fruitful results.

 Multi-stage sampling: Multi-stage sampling is a process of moving from

a broad to a narrow sample, using a step by step process (Ackoff, 1953).

If, for example, a Malaysian publisher of an automobile magazine were to

conduct a survey, it could simply take a random sample of automobile owners
within the entire Malaysian population. Obviously, this is both expensive and
time consuming. A cheaper alternative would be to use multi-stage sampling. In
essence, this would involve dividing Malaysia into a number of geographical
regions. Subsequently, some of these regions are chosen at random, and then
subdivisions are made, perhaps based on local authority areas. Next, some of
these are again chosen at random and then divided into smaller areas, such as
towns or cities. The main purpose of multi-stage sampling is to select samples
which are concentrated in a few geographical regions. Once again, this saves
time and money.

Use of the Probability Sampling Method

There are multiple uses of the probability sampling method. They are:

 Reduce Sample Bias: Using the probability sampling method, the bias in
the sample derived from a population is negligible to non-existent. The
selection of the sample largely depicts the understanding and the inference
of the researcher. Probability sampling leads to higher quality data
collection as the population is appropriately represented by the sample.

 Diverse Population: When the population is large and diverse, it is

important to have adequate representation so that the data is not skewed

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towards one demographic. For example, if Square would like to

understand the people that could their point-of-sale devices, a survey
conducted from a sample of people across US from different industries and
socio-economic backgrounds, helps.

 Create an Accurate Sample: Probability sampling helps the researchers

plan and create an accurate sample. This helps to obtain well-defined data.

Types of Sampling: Non-probability Sampling Methods

The non-probability method is a sampling method that involves a collection of

feedback on the basis of a researcher or statistician’s sample selection
capabilities and not on a fixed selection process. In most situations, output of a
survey conducted with a non-probable sample leads to skewed results, which
may not totally represent the desired target population. But, there are situations
such as the preliminary stages of research or where there are cost constraints
for conducting research, where non-probability sampling will be much more
effective than the other type.

There are 4 types of non-probability sampling which will explain the purpose of
this sampling method in a better manner:

 Convenience sampling: This method is dependent on the ease of access

to subjects such as surveying customers at a mall or passers-by on a busy
street. It is usually termed as convenience sampling, as it’s carried out on
the basis of how easy is it for a researcher to get in touch with the subjects.
Researchers have nearly no authority over selecting elements of the sample
and it’s purely done on the basis of proximity and not
representativeness. This non-probability sampling method is used when
there are time and cost limitations in collecting feedback. In situations
where there are resource limitations such as the initial stages of research,
convenience sampling is used.

For example, startups and NGOs usually conduct convenience sampling at a

mall to distribute leaflets of upcoming events or promotion of a cause – they do
that by standing at the entrance of the mall and giving out pamphlets randomly.

 Judgmental or Purposive Sampling: In judgemental or purposive

sampling, the sample is formed by the discretion of the judge purely
considering the purpose of study along with the understanding of target
audience. Also known as deliberate sampling, the participants are selected
solely on the basis of research requirements and elements who do not
suffice the purpose are kept out of the sample. For instance, when

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researchers want to understand the thought process of people who are

interested in studying for their master’s degree. The selection criteria will
be: “Are you interested in studying for Masters in …?” and those who
respond with a “No” will be excluded from the sample.

 Convenience sampling: Convenience sampling is selecting participants

because they are often readily and easily available. Typically, convenience
sampling tends to be a favored sampling technique among students as it
is inexpensive and an easy option compared to other sampling techniques
(Ackoff, 1953). Convenience sampling often helps to overcome many of the
limitations associated with research. For example, using friends or family
as part of sample is easier than targeting unknown individuals.

 Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling is a sampling method that is used

in studies which need to be carried out to understand subjects which are
difficult to trace. For example, it will be extremely challenging to survey
shelterless people or illegal immigrants. In such cases, using the snowball
theory, researchers can track a few of that particular category to interview
and results will be derived on that basis. This sampling method is
implemented in situations where the topic is highly sensitive and not
openly discussed such as conducting surveys to gather information about
HIV Aids. Not many victims will readily respond to the questions but
researchers can contact people they might know or volunteers associated
with the cause to get in touch with the victims and collect information.

 Quota sampling: In Quota sampling, selection of members in this

sampling technique happens on basis of a pre-set standard. In this case,
as a sample is formed on basis of specific attributes, the created sample
will have the same attributes that are found in the total population. It is
an extremely quick method of collecting samples.

Use of the Non-Probability Sampling Method

There are multiple uses of the non-probability sampling method. They are:

 Create a hypothesis: The non-probability sampling method is used to

create a hypothesis when limited to no prior information is available. This
method helps with immediate return of data and helps to build a base for
any further research.

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DR.E.A ONYANGO____Social Research Methods Notes

 Exploratory research: This sampling technique is widely used when

researchers aim at conducting qualitative research, pilot studies
or exploratory research.

 Budget and time constraints: The non-probability method when there

are budget and time constraints and some preliminary data has to be
collected. Since the survey design is not rigid, it is easier to pick
respondents at random and have them take the survey or questionnaire.

Difference between Probability Sampling and Non-Probability Sampling

Methods

We have looked at the different types of sampling methods above and their
subtypes. To encapsulate the whole discussion though, the major differences
between probability sampling methods and non-probability sampling methods
are as below:

Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling

Methods Methods

Definition Probability Sampling is a Non-probability sampling is a

sampling technique in sampling technique in which
which sample from a larger the researcher selects samples
population are chosen based on the subjective
using a method based on judgment of the researcher
the theory of probability. rather than random selection.

Alternatively Random sampling method. Non-random sampling method

Known as

Population The population is selected The population is selected

selection randomly. arbitrarily.

Market The research is conclusive The research is exploratory in

Research in nature. nature.

Sample Since there is method to Since the sampling method is

deciding the sample, the arbitrary, the population
population demographics is demographics representation is
conclusively represented. almost always skewed.

Time Taken Take a longer time to This type of sampling method is

conduct since the research quick since neither the sample
design defines the selection
parameters before the

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DR.E.A ONYANGO____Social Research Methods Notes

market research study or selection criteria of the

begins. sample is undefined.

Results This type of sampling is This type of sampling is entirely

entirely unbiased and biased and hence the results
hence the results are are biased too rendering the
unbiased too and research speculative.
conclusive.

Hypothesis In probability sampling, In non-probability sampling, the

there is an underlying hypothesis is derived after
hypothesis before the study conducting the research study.
begins and the objective of
this method is to prove the
hypothesis.

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