DSP EXAM HANDBOOK

Comprehensive Guide to the Z-Transform

National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST)

May 12, 2026

Contents

1 Introduction to the Z-Transform 3

1.1 Why Do We Need the Z-Transform? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.2 Physical Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Definitions and Region of Convergence (ROC) 5

2.1 Bilateral Z-Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2.2 Unilateral Z-Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2.3 Region of Convergence (ROC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2.3.1 Why ROC is Important . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2.4 ROC Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

3 Properties of the Z-Transform 7

3.1 Linearity Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

3.1.1 Importance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

3.2 Time Shifting Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

3.3 Convolution Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

3.4 Differentiation Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

4 Standard Z-Transform Derivations 9

4.1 Unit Step Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

4.2 Exponential Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

4.2.1 Derivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

4.3 Sinusoidal Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

5 Poles and Zeros 12

5.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

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DSP Exam Handbook Z-Transform

5.2 Importance of Poles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

5.3 Stability Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

6 Solved Numerical Examples 13

6.1 Basic Z-Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

6.2 Inverse Z-Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

6.3 ROC Analysis Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

6.4 Final Value Theorem Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

7 Comparison Tables 17

7.1 Unilateral vs Bilateral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

7.2 Fourier Transform vs Z-Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

8 Important Theorems 18

8.1 Initial Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

8.2 Final Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

9 Common Exam Mistakes 19

10 Quick Revision Formula Sheet 20

11 Practice Questions 21

11.1 Conceptual Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

11.2 Numerical Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

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1. Introduction to the Z-Transform

1.1 Why Do We Need the Z-Transform?

The Z-transform is one of the most important mathematical tools in Digital Signal Processing
(DSP). It converts discrete-time signals into the complex frequency domain, allowing easier
analysis of systems and signals.

Main Uses of the Z-Transform:

• Analysis of discrete-time systems

• Solving difference equations

• Stability analysis

• Pole-zero analysis

• Filter design

• Frequency response analysis

The Z-transform in DSP plays a role similar to:

• Laplace Transform in continuous-time systems

• Fourier Transform in frequency analysis

1.2 Physical Interpretation

The complex variable is:

z = rejω

where:

• r determines exponential growth or decay

• ω determines oscillation frequency

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DSP Exam Handbook Z-Transform

The poles and zeros shape the system behavior.

• Poles produce amplification/resonance

• Zeros produce attenuation/nulls

4
2. Definitions and Region of Con-
vergence (ROC)

2.1 Bilateral Z-Transform

The bilateral Z-transform is defined as:

∞
X
X(z) = x[n]z −n
n=−∞

It is used for:

• general sequences

• causal and anti-causal signals

2.2 Unilateral Z-Transform

The unilateral transform is:

∞
X
X(z) = x[n]z −n
n=0

It is mostly used for:

• causal systems

• systems with initial conditions

2.3 Region of Convergence (ROC)

The ROC is the set of values of z for which the infinite series converges.

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DSP Exam Handbook Z-Transform

2.3.1 Why ROC is Important

ROC determines:

• stability

• causality

• existence of Fourier transform

• uniqueness of inverse transform

Important Note: Critical Observation

Two signals may have the same algebraic Z-transform but different ROC values.
Hence, ROC is mandatory.

2.4 ROC Rules

Signal Type ROC

Causal (Right-sided) Outside outermost pole
Anti-causal (Left-sided) Inside innermost pole
Stable System Includes unit circle
Finite Duration Entire z-plane except possibly z = 0, ∞

Table 2.1: Important ROC Rules

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3. Properties of the Z-Transform

3.1 Linearity Property

If:

Z
x1 [n] −
→ X1 (z)

and

Z
x2 [n] −
→ X2 (z)

then:

Z
a1 x1 [n] + a2 x2 [n] −
→ a1 X1 (z) + a2 X2 (z)

3.1.1 Importance

This property allows complex signals to be broken into simpler parts.

3.2 Time Shifting Property

Z
→ z −n0 X(z)
x[n − n0 ] −

Interpretation:

• Delay in time domain

• Multiplication by powers of z −1

Exam Tip: Memory Trick

Delay means multiply by z −1 . Advance means multiply by z.

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DSP Exam Handbook Z-Transform

3.3 Convolution Property

If:

y[n] = x1 [n] ∗ x2 [n]

then:

Y (z) = X1 (z)X2 (z)

This simplifies system analysis enormously.

3.4 Differentiation Property

Z dX(z)
nx[n] −
→ −z
dz

Used for:

• weighted sequences

• ramp signals

• advanced derivations

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4. Standard Z-Transform Derivations

4.1 Unit Step Sequence

Given:

x[n] = u[n]

Applying definition:

∞
X
X(z) = z −n
n=0

This is a geometric series:

1 + r + r2 + · · ·

where:

r = z −1

Using:

∞
X 1
rn =
1−r
n=0

we obtain:

1
X(z) =
1 − z −1

Multiply numerator and denominator by z:

z
X(z) =
z−1

ROC : |z| > 1

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DSP Exam Handbook Z-Transform

4.2 Exponential Sequence

Given:

x[n] = an u[n]

4.2.1 Derivation

∞
X
X(z) = an z −n
n=0

∞
X
= (az −1 )n
n=0

Applying geometric series:

1
X(z) =
1 − az −1

Multiply by z:

z
X(z) =
z−a

ROC:

|z| > |a|

4.3 Sinusoidal Sequence

Given:

x[n] = sin(ω0 n)u[n]

Using Euler representation:

ejω0 n − e−jω0 n
sin(ω0 n) =
2j

After simplification:

z sin ω0
X(z) =
z2 − 2z cos ω0 + 1

ROC:

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DSP Exam Handbook Z-Transform

|z| > 1

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5. Poles and Zeros

5.1 Definitions

For:

N (z)
X(z) =
D(z)

• Zeros are values making N (z) = 0

• Poles are values making D(z) = 0

5.2 Importance of Poles

Poles determine:

• stability

• oscillation

• resonance

• transient response

5.3 Stability Condition

A system is stable if:

|z| = 1

lies inside ROC.

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6. Solved Numerical Examples

6.1 Basic Z-Transform

Solved Example: Basic Exponential Sequence

Find the Z-transform of:

x[n] = (0.5)n u[n]

Step 1 — Identify Formula
This is:

an u[n]
where:

a = 0.5
Step 2 — Apply Standard Formula
z
X(z) =
z−a
Substitute:
z
X(z) =
z − 0.5
Step 3 — ROC

|z| > 0.5

Final Answer

z
X(z) = , ROC : |z| > 0.5
z − 0.5

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DSP Exam Handbook Z-Transform

6.2 Inverse Z-Transform

Solved Example: Partial Fraction Method

Find inverse Z-transform:

z
X(z) =
(z − 1)(z − 2)
Step 1 — Partial Fraction Expansion

z A B
= +
(z − 1)(z − 2) z−1 z−2
Step 2 — Solve for Constants
Multiply both sides:

z = A(z − 2) + B(z − 1)
Set:

z=1

1 = −A

A = −1
Set:

z=2

2=B
Step 3 — Rewrite
−1 2
X(z) = +
z−1 z−2
Step 4 — Inverse Transform

x[n] = −u[n − 1] + 2(2n−1 )u[n − 1]

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DSP Exam Handbook Z-Transform

6.3 ROC Analysis Example

Solved Example: Determine ROC and Stability

Given:
z
X(z) =
z−2
Determine:

• ROC

• Stability

• Causality

Case 1 — Causal Signal

ROC:

|z| > 2
Unit circle not included.
Hence:

• causal

• unstable

Case 2 — Anti-causal Signal

ROC:

|z| < 2
Unit circle included.
Hence:

• anti-causal

• stable

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DSP Exam Handbook Z-Transform

6.4 Final Value Theorem Example

Solved Example: Final Value Calculation

Given:
z
X(z) =
z − 0.5
Find:

x[∞]
Using Final Value Theorem:

x[∞] = lim (1 − z −1 )X(z)

z→1

Substitute:
z−1
= lim
z→1 z − 0.5

x[∞] = 0

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7. Comparison Tables

7.1 Unilateral vs Bilateral

Feature Unilateral Bilateral

Range of n 0→∞ −∞ → ∞
Used For Causal systems General systems
Initial Conditions Included Not directly

Table 7.1: Comparison of Z-Transforms

7.2 Fourier Transform vs Z-Transform

Feature Fourier Transform Z-Transform

Variable ejω z
Handles Growth/Decay No Yes
ROC Not included Included
Stability Analysis Limited Strong

Table 7.2: Fourier vs Z-Transform

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8. Important Theorems

8.1 Initial Value Theorem

For causal sequences:

x[0] = lim X(z)

z→∞

8.2 Final Value Theorem

x[∞] = lim (1 − z −1 )X(z)

z→1

Important Note: Condition for FVT

All poles must lie inside the unit circle except possibly one pole at z = 1.

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9. Common Exam Mistakes

• Forgetting ROC

• Wrong sign in time shifting

• Incorrect geometric series condition

• Applying FVT to unstable systems

• Ignoring causality

• Incorrect pole-zero cancellation

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10. Quick Revision Formula Sheet

Z z
u[n] −
→
z−1

Z z
an u[n] −
→
z−a

Z
→ z −n0 X(z)
x[n − n0 ] −

Z dX(z)
nx[n] −
→ −z
dz

Z
x1 [n] ∗ x2 [n] −
→ X1 (z)X2 (z)

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11. Practice Questions

11.1 Conceptual Questions

1. Why is ROC important?

2. Can two signals have the same Z-transform?

3. Why must ROC not contain poles?

4. Explain stability using ROC.

11.2 Numerical Questions

1. Find Z-transform of:

x[n] = (0.8)n u[n]

2. Determine ROC for:

x[n] = −2n u[−n − 1]

3. Find inverse Z-transform:

z
X(z) =
(z − 1)2

4. Determine poles and zeros:

z(z + 1)
X(z) =
(z − 2)(z − 3)

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