Chapter 3

Computer Hardware
Input Device
Barcode
A barcode is a series of dark and light parallel lines of varying thickness. The numbers 0 to 9
are each represented by a unique series of lines.
How barcode reader works:
 The barcode is first of all read by a red laser or red LED (light emitting diode)
 Light is reflected back off the barcode; the dark areas reflect little or no light, which
allows the bars to be read.
 The reflected light is read by sensors.
 As the laser or LED light is scanned across the barcode, a pattern is generated, which is
converted into digital data this allows the computer to understand the barcode.
Advantages to the inventory management system of using barcodes:
 Much easier and faster to change prices on stock items
 Much better, more up-to-date sales information/sales trends
 No need to price every stock item on the shelves.
 Allows for automatic stock control.
 Possible to check customer buying habits more easily by linking barcodes to, for
example, customer loyalty cards.
Advantages to the customers of using barcodes:
 Faster checkout queues (staff don't need to remember/look up prices of items
 Errors in charging customers is reduced
 The customer is given an item is billed.
 Cost savings can be passed on to the customer
 Better track of 'sell by dates' so food should be fresher.
QR codes
QR code stands for Quick Response CPD. A QR code consists of a block of small squares
(light and dark) known as pixels. It can presently hold up to 4296 characters (or up to 7089
digits) and also allows internet addresses to be encoded within the QR code.
Uses of QR :
 Advertising products
 Giving automatic access to a website or contact telephone number
 Storing boarding passes electronically at airports and train stations.

Advantages of QR codes compared to traditional barcodes

 They can hold much more information.
 There will be fewer errors; the higher capacity of the QR code allows the use of built-
in error-checking systems - normal barcodes contain almost no data redundancy
therefore it isn't possible to guard against badly printed or damaged barcodes.
 QR codes are easier to read; they don't need expensive laser or LED scanners like
barcodes - they can be read by the cameras on smartphones or tablets.
 It is easy to transmit QR codes either as text messages or images.
 It is also possible to encrypt QR codes which gives them greater protection than
traditional barcodes.

Disadvantages of QR codes compared to traditional barcodes

 More than one QR format is available
 QR codes can be used to transmit malicious codes known as attagging. When the code
is scanned, it is possible the creator of the malicious code could gain access to everything
on the user's phone. The user could also be sent to a fake website or it is even possible
for a virus to be downloaded.
Keyboard
A keyboard is an input device with a set of keys used to enter letters, numbers, symbols, and
commands into a computer or electronic device.
How a keyboard works:
 There is a membrane or circuit bellow the keys.
 When any key is pressed it completes a circuit.
 The CPU and the computer can determine which key is pressed.
 The CPU refers to an index file which character the pressed represents.
 Each character has a corresponding ASCII value
Advantage of keyboard:
 Allows quick entry of data.
 Reduces errors when typing.
 Can be used for writing, gaming, programing etc.
Disadvantage of keyboard:
 New user may type slowly and make mistake.
 Hard to enter drawing and symbol.
 Long use may cause strain or injury.

Microphones
A microphone is a device that converts sound into electrical signals so that sound can be
recorded, transmitted, or amplified.
How a microphone works:
 When you speak or play music, the air vibrates. These vibrations travel as sound waves
toward the microphone.
 Inside the microphone, there is a very thin, flexible membrane called a diaphragm.
 The sound waves hit the diaphragm, making it vibrate in the same pattern as the sound.
 In Dynamic microphone, a coil of wire is attached to the diaphragm and placed inside a
magnetic field. When the diaphragm moves, the coil moves, producing an electric
current. In Condenser microphone a diaphragm placed close to a metal plate, forming
a capacitor. When the diaphragm vibrates, the distance between them changes,
creating variations in electrical charge.
 The resulting electrical signal is an analog of the original sound wave—its shape
matches the sound wave’s pattern.
 The signal can then be sent to an amplifier, a recording device, or converted into digital
data for computers and phones.
Optical Mouse
An optical mouse is an example of a pointing device. It uses a red LED to navigate cursor in a
computer.
How optical mouse works:
 A red LED is used in the base of the mouse and the red light is bounced off the surface
and the reflection is picked up by a CMOS.
 The CMOS generates electric pulses to represent the reflected red light and these pulses
are sent to a digital signal processor (DSP).
 The processor can now work out the coordinates of the mouse based on the changing
image patterns as it is moved about on the surface.
 The computer can then move the on-screen cursor to the coordinates sent by the mouse.
Benefits of an optical mouse over a mechanical mouse
 There are no moving parts, therefore it is more reliable.
 Dirt can't get trapped in any of the mechanical components.
 There is no need to have any special surface.

Digital Camera
What happens when a photograph is taken:
 The image is captured when light passes through the lens onto a light-sensitive cell; this
cell is made up of millions of tiny sensors which are acting as photodiodes.
 Each of the sensors are often referred to as pixels since they are tiny components that
make up the image.
 The image is converted into tiny electric charges which are then passed through an
analogue to digital converter (ADC) to form a digital image array.
 The ADC converts the electric charges from each pixel into levels of brightness.
 The number of pixels determines the size of the file used to store the photograph.
 The quality of the image depends on the recording device, the number of pixels used,
the levels of light and how the image is stored.
Advantages of Digital Cameras over Analog Cameras
 Instant Preview & Deletion –photo can be seen immediately on the screen and delete if
unsatisfactory.
 Storage – Thousands of photos can be stored on a single memory card.
 Editing – Photos can be easily edited using software.
 Cost-Effective – No recurring cost of buying and developing film.
 Portability – Memory cards are lighter and smaller than carrying multiple rolls of film.
 Sharing – Images can be directly transferred to computer, phone, or internet.
 Long-Term Storage – Digital files don’t degrade like film negatives, which can fade over
time.
2D scanner:
How a 2D scanner works:
 The cover is first raised. Then the document is placed on a glass panel and then the cover
is closed.
 A bright light then illuminates the document. Modern scanners use a type of xenon lamp
or LED that produces a very bright white light.
 A scan head moves across the document until the whole page has been scanned. An
image of the document is produced, which is then sent to a lens using a series of mirrors.
The lens focuses the document image.
 The focused image now falls onto a charge couple device (CCD), which converts light
into an electric current. Essentially the CCD is made up of thousands of light-sensitive
elements (or pixels). Each element creates an electric charge when light falls on it. This
means that the scanned image is now turned into an electronic form. Software produces
a digital image from the electronic form.
OMR (Optical Mark Recognition)
OMR is an input technology used to detect marks made by pen or pencil on specially designed
paper forms. The marks are read by an OMR scanner or machine and converted into digital
data.
Uses:
 Evaluating multiple-choice exam papers (mcqs)
 Surveys and questionnaires
 Admission forms and applications
 Voting or lottery systems
Advantages:
 Very fast data processing
 High accuracy in reading marks
 Can evaluate thousands of answer sheets in a short time
Disadvantages:
 Only works with specific OMR sheets
 Errors occur if answers are marked incorrectly (half-filled, multiple marks, etc.)
 OMR machines are costly
OCR (Optical Character Recognition)
OCR is a technology that converts printed or handwritten text into digital text using a scanner
and software. It recognizes characters (letters, numbers, symbols) from an image or document
and stores them as editable text in a computer.
Uses:
 Converting printed books and documents into editable digital files
 Digitizing handwritten notes
 Reading text from scanned invoices, receipts, and forms
 Assisting visually impaired people through text-to-speech applications
Advantages:
 Saves time (no need to retype documents)
 Reduces storage space by digitizing paper documents
 Makes searching and editing text easy
 Helps in automation of data entry
Disadvantages:
 Accuracy decreases if the print is unclear or handwriting is poor
 Complex layouts (tables, mixed fonts) may not be recognized properly
 OCR software can be expensive
3D Scanner
A 3D scanner is a device that captures the shape and appearance of real-world objects and
converts them into a digital 3D model that can be viewed, modified, or printed.
How a 3D scanner works:
 The scanner projects light (laser, structured light, or infrared) or uses cameras to
observe the object from multiple angles.
 The device measures the distance between the scanner and points on the surface of the
object. This produces a point cloud (millions of tiny points representing the surface).
 The point cloud data is processed to create a mesh (a network of triangles that form the
surface).
 The mesh can then be textured to produce a complete 3D digital replica of the object.
Uses of 3D Scanners
 Medicine: Making custom prosthetics, dental models.

 Engineering: Reverse engineering, quality inspection.

 Entertainment: 3D modeling for games and movies.

 Archaeology: Digitally preserving artifacts.

 3D printing: Scanned objects can be reprinted.

Touch screen
 Very common form of input device.
 Allow simple touch selection from a menu to launch an application (app).
 Allow user to carry out the functions similar as a pointing device, such as a mouse.
Three common types of touch screen technologies:
 Capacitive touch screen
 Infrared touch screen
 Resistive touch screen
How capacitive touch screen works:
 Are composed of a protective layer of glass, a transparent electrode (conductive) layer
and a glass substrate.
 Since human skin is a conductor of electricity, when bare fingers touch the screen, the
electrostatic field of the conductive layer is changed.
 The CPU is able to calculate where this change took place and hence determine the
coordinates of the point of touching.
 Then the CPU launch the application associated with the coordinate.

Advantages compared to the other two technologies

 Better image clarity than resistive screens, especially in strong sunlight
 Very durable screens that have high scratch resistance
 Projective capacitive screens allow multi-touch.
Disadvantages compared to the other two technologies
 Surface capacitive screens only work with bare fingers or a special stylus.
 They are sensitive to electromagnetic radiation.
Resistive Touch Screen
 Are made up of two layers of electrically resistive material with a voltage applied across
them.
 The upper layer is made of flexible polyethylene with a resistive coating on one side.
 The bottom layer is made of glass also with a resistive coating on one side.
 These two layers are separated by air or an inert gas.
 When the top polyethylene surface is touched, the two layers make contact. Since both
layers are coated in a resistive material a circuit is now completed which results in a
flow of electricity.
 The point of contact is detected where there was a change in voltage.

Advantages compared to the other two technologies

 Good resistance to dust and water
 Can be used with bare fingers, stylus and gloved hand.
Disadvantages compared to the other two technologies
 Low touch sensitivity (sometimes have to press down harder)
 Doesn’t support multi-touch facility
 Poor visibility in strong sunlight
 Vulnerable to scratches on the screen (made of polymer)
Infrared touch screens
 Infrared touch screens use a glass screen with an array of sensors and infrared
transmitters.
 The sensors detect the infrared radiation.
 If any of the infrared beams are broken, the infrared radiation reaching the sensors
is reduced.
 The sensor readings are sent to a microcontroller that calculates where the screen
was touched.

Advantages compared to the other two technologies

 Allows multi-touch facilities.
 Has good screen durability.
 The operability isn’t affected by a scratched or cracked screen.
Disadvantages compared to the other two technologies
 The screen can be sensitive to water or moisture.
 It is possible for accidental activation to take place if the infrared beams are
disturbed in some way.
 Sometimes sensitive to light interference.
 Output Devices
LED Screens
 Made of tiny light-emitting diodes (LEDs).
 Each LED is red, green, or blue; brightness is controlled by electric current.
 Produces a wide range of colours.
 Mainly used for large outdoor displays (very bright and colourful).
LCD Screens
 Made of tiny liquid crystals arranged into pixels.
 Pixels change with electric fields but don’t produce light themselves.
 Require backlighting to display an image.
Advantages of LED over LCD
 Better Brightness & Colour: LEDs produce sharper, more vivid colours and higher
brightness.
 Thinner & Lighter: LED screens are slimmer and more lightweight than LCD with
CCFL backlight.
 Instant Start: LEDs reach maximum brightness immediately.
 Longer Lifespan: LEDs last longer, making the screen more reliable and durable.
 Energy Efficient: LEDs consume less power than LCDs with CCFL backlight hence
saves energy, produces less heat.
 Better Contrast: LEDs give deeper blacks and improved contrast ratio compared to
standard LCDs.
 Environment Friendly: LEDs don’t use mercury (CCFL does), so they are safer for the
environment.
Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLEDs)
 Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLEDs) are a newer form of LED technology that
use organic materials made from carbon compounds to create very flexible
semiconductors.
 In an OLED, thin organic films are placed between two charged electrodes—one
metallic cathode and one glass anode.
 When an electric field is applied, these layers emit light directly, which removes the
need for any backlighting as in LCD screens.
 his makes OLED displays extremely thin, lightweight, and flexible.
Advantages of OLED over LED and LCD
 Thinner, lighter, more flexible: OLED uses plastic organic layers instead of rigid
crystal structures.
 Plastic-based layers: OLED layers can be made from plastic rather than glass (used in
LEDs/LCDs).
 Brighter display: OLEDs produce brighter light than LEDs.
 No backlighting required: Unlike LCDs, OLEDs generate their own light.
 Lower power consumption: Since no backlight is needed, OLEDs use much less
power than LCDs. Very useful in battery-powered devices like smartphones.
 Large, thin sheets possible: Can be manufactured into big, thin, and flexible sheets.
Suitable for advertising boards, airports, and subways.
 Wide viewing angle: Around 170°, making them ideal for TVs and advertising
displays.
Projectors
Projectors are used to display computer output onto a large screen or interactive whiteboard.
They are commonly used in presentations, teaching, and multimedia applications. Two
main types are: 1. Digital Light Processing Projector 2. Liquid crystal display.
Digital Light Processing (DLP) Projector
 DMD Chip:
 The core component is a DMD (Digital Micromirror Device) chip.
 This chip is covered in millions of microscopic mirrors. Each mirror represents one
pixel on the projected image.
 Mirror Movement:
 When a mirror tilts toward the projection lens (ON), it reflects light onto the screen,
creating a bright spot.
 When a mirror tilts away from the lens (OFF), it reflects light away from the screen,
creating a dark spot.
 Creating Greyscale: The mirrors switch on and off thousands of times per second.
 A mirror that is on more often than off produces a light grey pixel.
 A mirror that is off more often produces a dark grey pixel.
 This creates up to 1024 shades of grey.
 Adding Colour:
 A bright white light source (e.g., a xenon bulb) passes through a spinning colour
wheel (filter) containing red, green, and blue segments.
 The ON/OFF timing of each mirror is synchronized with the colour wheel.
 By combining the intensity of light (from the mirror) with the primary colours, the
projector can mix over 16 million colours.
Pros and Cons of DLP
Pros Cons
Higher contrast ratios. Image tends to suffer from ‘shadows’
when showing a moving image.
Higher reliability longevity. DLP do not have grey components in the
image.
Quieter running than LCD projector. The colour definition is frequently not as
Uses a single chip, which mean no issues lining good as lc protectors because the colour
up the images. saturation is not as good.
Smaller and lighter than LCD projector
They are better suited to dust or smoke
atmospheres than LCD projectors.
Liquid crystal display (LCD)
Liquid crystal display (LCD) projector These are older technology than DLP. Essentially a
high-intensity beam of light passes through an LCD display and then onto a screen. How this
works in principle is described below :
 A powerful beam of white light is generated from a bulb or LED inside the projector
body.
 This beam of light is then sent to a group of chromatic-coated mirrors (known as
dichromic mirrors); these reflect the light back at different wavelengths.
 When the white light hits these mirrors, the reflected light has wavelengths
corresponding to red, green and blue light components.
 These three different coloured light components pass through three LCD screens (each
screen is composed of thousands of tiny pixels which can either block light or let it
through; this produces a monochromatic image) ...
 Consequently, three different versions of the same image are now produced – one is the
whole image in different shades of red, one is the whole image in different shades of
green and one is the whole image in different shades of blue
 These images are then re-combined using a special prism to produce a full colour image
 Finally, the image passes through the projector lens onto a screen.
Pros and Cons of LCD
Pros Cons

Give a sharper image than LP projectors Although improving, the contrast ratios are not as
good as DLPs.
Have better colour saturation than LP projectors LCD projectors have a limited life.

More efficient in their use of energy than DLP Since LCD panels are organic in nature, they tend
technology – consequently the generate less heat to degrade with time.
How a printer works:
 The data from the document is sent to a printer driver.
 The printer driver ensures that the data is in a format that the chosen printer can understand.
 A check is made by the printer driver to ensure that the chosen printer is available to print (e.g. Is
it busy, is it off-line, is it out of ink, and so on).
 The data is then sent to the printer and it is stored in a temporary memory known as a printer buffer.
 A sheet of paper is then fed into the main body of the printer; a sensor detects whether paper is
available in the paper feed tray - if it is out of paper (or the paper is jammed) then an error message
is sent back to the computer.
 As the sheet of paper is fed through the printer, the print head moves from side to side across the
paper printing the text or image; the four ink colours are sprayed in their exact amounts to produce
the desired final colour.
 At the end of each full pass of the print head, the paper is advanced very slightly to allow the
next line to be printed; this continues until the whole page has been printed.
 If there is more data in the printer buffer, then the whole process from stage 5 is repeated until
the buffer is finally empty.
 Once the printer buffer is empty, the printer sends an interrupt to the cpu in the computer; this
is a request for more data to be sent to the printer; the whole process continues until the whole
of the document has been printed.
Thermal Bubble (BubbleJet)
1. The Cartridge: The ink is stored in a small reservoir within a print cartridge. The print
head, which contains many tiny nozzles, is often part of the cartridge itself.
2. Heating: Each nozzle has a microscopic heating element (a tiny resistor) behind it.
3. Vaporisation: When a droplet of ink is needed, a pulse of electric current passes through
the heating element. This heats it extremely quickly causing the ink nearby to vaporise
instantly, forming a steam bubble.
4. Expulsion: The rapid expansion of this bubble forces a single droplet of ink out through
the nozzle and onto the paper.
5. Contraction: The current is turned off, the heating element cools, the bubble collapses
(implodes), and the vacuum created pulls fresh ink from the reservoir into the nozzle, ready
for the next cycle.
Advantages:
o Inexpensive to manufacture, leading to cheaper printers.
o Can produce very high-resolution print heads with many nozzles.
Disadvantages:
o The intense heat degrades the ink over time, potentially changing its colour properties.
o The repeated heating and cooling stress the print head, which can eventually fail (this is
why the print head is often part of the replaceable cartridge).
Piezoelectric
1. The Cartridge: This system often uses separate ink tanks and a permanent print
head built into the printer. The tanks only supply ink.
2. The Crystal: Each nozzle has a piezoelectric crystal behind it. This is a special crystal
that changes shape or size when an electric current is applied to it.
3. Deformation: When a droplet of ink is needed, a precise electric charge is applied to the
crystal.
4. Expulsion: The crystal flexes or bends inward. This sudden movement acts like a tiny
piston, squeezing the ink chamber and forcing a droplet of ink out of the nozzle.
5. Refilling: The charge is removed, the crystal springs back to its original shape, which
expands the chamber and draws in fresh ink from the reservoir.
Advantages:
o More precise control over droplet size and placement, leading to potentially higher print
quality.
o No heat is involved, so a wider variety of inks can be used.
o The print head is more durable and designed to last the life of the printer.
Disadvantages:
o Printers are generally more expensive due to the complex and permanent print head.
o If the print head gets clogged, it is difficult and costly to repair compared to replacing a
cartridge with a built-in head.

Load speaker
Sensors