Control System Components

Instrumentation Engineering — AISSMS IOIT, Pune

Detailed Study Notes

Units III · IV · V · VI

Unit Topic Hours

III Motor Control Circuits 6

IV Hydraulic Components 6

V Pneumatic Components 6

VI Auxiliary Components & Safety Measures 6

 UNIT III: MOTOR CONTROL CIRCUITS (6 hrs)

3.1 Electrical Wiring Diagram

An Electrical Wiring Diagram is a graphical representation showing the interconnection of electrical
components. It uses standard symbols to depict how circuits are wired and how they operate.

Key Concepts:
• Standard symbols are used for motors, contactors, relays, push-buttons, limit switches, etc.
• Sequencing: controlling the order in which motors start/stop.
• Interlocking: preventing two conflicting operations from occurring simultaneously.

Motor Control Operations:

Operation Description Common Method

Starting Energising the motor from rest Direct-on-Line (DOL), Star-Delta

Stopping Removing supply or braking Push-button + contactor

Reversing Changing direction of rotation Reversing contactor pair

Emergency Stop Immediate halt in unsafe condition NC mushroom-head button

Breaking Rapid deceleration of rotor Dynamic / Plugging / Regenerative

Jogging Momentary motor run for positioning Jog push-button

Variable Speed Smooth speed variation VFD (Variable Frequency Drive)

3.1.1 Direct-On-Line (DOL) Starter

The simplest starting method — full supply voltage applied directly. Suitable for small motors (< 5 kW). Causes
high inrush current (~6–8× rated).
• Main contactor closes on START press.
• Thermal overload relay provides overload protection.
• NO auxiliary contact provides self-holding (seal-in) circuit.

3.1.2 Star-Delta Starter

Reduces starting current by connecting stator windings in Star (Y) during start, then switching to Delta (∆) at run
speed. Reduces starting torque to 1/3 and current to ~33% of DOL.

Stage Connection Voltage per Winding Current

Start Star (Y) VL/√3 ~33% of Delta

Run Delta (∆) VL 100% rated

3.1.3 VFD Controller

A Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) controls motor speed by varying the frequency and voltage of the supply. It
provides smooth, stepless speed control from 0 to above rated speed.
 • Converts AC → DC (Rectifier) → AC at variable frequency (Inverter).
• Maintains constant V/f ratio to keep flux constant.
• Benefits: energy saving, soft start, reduced mechanical stress.

3.2 Mechanical Components

3.2.1 Springs
Type Shape Application

Compression Coil — compressed Valve springs, shock absorbers

Extension Coil — stretched Return mechanisms, door springs

Flat / Leaf Flat strips Vehicle suspension, clip mechanisms

Torsion Twisted coil Clothes pegs, mouse traps

Motor/Spiral Flat coil Clock mechanisms, rewind reels

3.2.2 Gears
Gears transmit torque and change speed/direction between shafts. Common types: Spur, Helical, Bevel, Worm,
Rack-and-Pinion.
• Gear Ratio = Ndriver / Ndriven = Tdriven / Tdriver
• Worm gears provide high reduction ratio in single stage (up to 300:1).

3.3 Protection of Motors

Protection Type Cause Device Used

Short Circuit Direct phase-to-phase or phase-to-earth HRC fuse / MCB / MCCB

fault

Overload Sustained current > rated (mechanical Thermal Overload Relay (TOR)
overload)

Low/Under Voltage Supply voltage drops causing excess Under-voltage relay / contactor
current dropout

Phase Reversal Incorrect phase sequence (reverses Phase reversal relay

motor)

Over Temperature Winding insulation damage due to heat PTC thermistor / thermostats in
winding
■ Thermal overload relay (TOR) is the most common overload protection device. It trips when bimetallic strips bend
due to heat from excess current.
 UNIT IV: HYDRAULIC COMPONENTS (6 hrs)

4.1 Hydraulics — Introduction

Hydraulics is the science of transmitting force and motion using pressurised liquid (usually mineral oil or
water-based fluid). It is based on Pascal's Law: pressure applied to a confined fluid is transmitted equally in all
directions.

Advantages High power-to-weight ratio · Precise force control · Self-lubricating ·

Compact

Disadvantages Oil leakage hazard · Fire risk · Fluid maintenance needed · Noisy pumps

Applications Hydraulic press, excavators, aircraft landing gear, injection moulding,

CNC machines

4.2 Hydraulic Fluid Properties

• Viscosity: Resistance to flow — too high causes power loss; too low causes leakage.
• Lubricity: Ability to lubricate moving parts.
• Thermal stability: Should not degrade at operating temperature.
• Bulk modulus: Resistance to compression — higher is better for responsive control.
• Fire resistance: Important in hazardous environments.

4.3 Hydraulic Components

4.3.1 Hydraulic Pumps
Pumps convert mechanical energy to hydraulic (pressure) energy. Types:

Pump Type Working Principle Feature

Gear Pump Meshing gears trap oil between teeth Simple, robust, fixed displacement

Vane Pump Sliding vanes in slotted rotor Moderate pressure, low noise

Piston Pump Reciprocating pistons in cylinder block High pressure, variable

displacement

Screw Pump Helical screws mesh to push fluid Very smooth, low pulsation

4.3.2 Hydraulic Actuators

• Hydraulic Cylinder (Linear Actuator): Converts hydraulic pressure to linear force. Types: Single-acting,
Double-acting, Telescopic.
• Hydraulic Motor (Rotary Actuator): Converts hydraulic energy to rotational torque. Types: Gear motor,
Vane motor, Piston motor.

Force and Pressure Relationships:

F = P × A (Force = Pressure × Area)
Torque = P × D / (2π) [for hydraulic motor]
4.3.3 Hydraulic Valves
Valve Type Function Example

Directional Control Valve Routes fluid to actuator ports 4/2-way, 4/3-way solenoid valve
(DCV)

Pressure Relief Valve Limits maximum system pressure Set to 10–20% above working
pressure

Flow Control Valve Regulates flow rate = speed Needle valve, throttle valve

Check Valve Allows flow in one direction only Free-wheeling / pilot-operated

Pressure Reducing Valve Maintains lower pressure in branch Secondary circuit protection

4.4 Hydraulic Circuits

Hydraulic circuits are designed using ISO standard symbols. Key circuit types:

Circuit Type Description

Meter-In Flow control valve placed on inlet to actuator — controls speed on power stroke

Meter-Out Flow control on outlet — better for resisting loads

Reciprocating Cylinder extends & retracts automatically using sequence/limit valves

Speed Control Controls actuator velocity by regulating flow

Sequencing Two or more cylinders operate in defined order using sequence valves

Direction Control DCV reverses actuator direction on command

4.5 Hydraulic Accessories

Component Function

Filter / Strainer Removes contaminants from oil to protect pump and valves

Reservoir (Tank) Stores oil, allows air/heat to escape, settles contaminants

Heat Exchanger Maintains oil temperature within operating range

Piping & Fittings Connects components — rigid pipes or flexible hoses

Pressure Gauge Monitors system pressure

Accumulator Stores pressurised fluid for surge damping or emergency use

■ ISO 1219 standard symbols are used for all hydraulic circuit diagrams. Familiarise yourself with DCV symbol
notation (ports / positions).
 UNIT V: PNEUMATIC COMPONENTS (6 hrs)

5.1 Pneumatics vs Hydraulics vs Electrical

Parameter Pneumatic Hydraulic Electrical

Working Medium Compressed Air Hydraulic Oil Electric current

Pressure Range 0.5–10 bar Up to 700 bar —

Speed High Medium High

Force Low–Medium Very High Medium

Cleanliness Clean (air) Oil leakage risk Clean

Maintenance Low High Medium

Cost Low High Medium

Applications Automation, pick & place Heavy machinery Precision drives

5.2 Pneumatic Power Supply & Components

5.2.1 Pneumatic Power Supply
The compressed air supply chain: Compressor → After-cooler → Moisture Separator → Air Receiver →
FRL Unit → Actuators

5.2.2 FRL Unit (Filter–Regulator–Lubricator)

Element Function

Filter (F) Removes water, dust, and oil droplets from compressed air

Regulator (R) Reduces and maintains constant downstream pressure

Lubricator (L) Adds fine oil mist to air to lubricate downstream components

5.2.3 Pneumatic Relay

A pneumatic relay amplifies or switches pneumatic signals. It controls high-pressure/flow output using a
low-pressure pilot signal — analogous to an electrical relay.

5.2.4 Pneumatic Cylinders

Type Operation Application

Single-Acting (SAC) Air pressure extends; spring returns Clamping, stamping

Double-Acting (DAC) Air pressure for both extend and retract Most industrial automation

Telescopic Multiple nested stages for long stroke Tipper trucks, cranes
Rodless Piston coupled to external carriage Linear transport
magnetically

5.2.5 Pneumatic Valves

Valve Ports × Positions Function

2/2-way 2 ports, 2 positions Simple ON/OFF control

3/2-way 3 ports, 2 positions Control single-acting cylinder

4/2-way 4 ports, 2 positions Control double-acting cylinder (no exhaust centre)

4/3-way 4 ports, 3 positions DAC with mid-position (exhaust, blocked, pressure)

5/2-way 5 ports, 2 positions Most common for DAC — separate exhaust ports

5/3-way 5 ports, 3 positions DAC with 3 centre options

Direction Controlled Valves & Flow Control:

• Directional control valves (DCVs) route air to actuator ports.
• Flow control valve (needle valve) regulates flow rate to control cylinder speed.
• Check valve allows flow in one direction only.
• Quick exhaust valve placed near cylinder port for fast retraction.

5.2.6 Pneumatic Actuator Types

• Linear Actuator: Pneumatic cylinder (SAC / DAC).
• Rotary Actuator: Pneumatic motor, rack-and-pinion, vane type.
• Gripper: Finger actuators for pick-and-place.

5.3 Pneumatic Circuits

Standard ISO 1219 symbols are used. Key circuit types:

Circuit Type Description / Key Components

Reciprocating Circuit Cylinder extends and retracts continuously. Uses 4/2 DCV + limit switches
(a0, a1).

Sequencing Circuit Two cylinders A & B operate in sequence A+, B+, B−, A− using sequence
valves or limit switches.

Speed Regulation Meter-in or Meter-out flow control valves on cylinder ports.

Direction Control Circuit Reverses cylinder direction using pilot-operated 4/2 or 5/2 DCV.

5.3.1 Step-Displacement Diagram

A step-displacement diagram (also called a time-displacement or sequence diagram) graphically shows each
cylinder's position (extended / retracted) versus step number. It is used to design and verify complex
multi-cylinder pneumatic circuits.
• X-axis: Steps (1, 2, 3 …)
• Y-axis: Cylinder position (0 = retracted, 1 = extended)
 • Each cylinder has one horizontal trace.
■ Always draw the step-displacement diagram before designing the control circuit for multi-cylinder systems.
 UNIT VI: AUXILIARY COMPONENTS & SAFETY MEASURES (6 hrs)

6.1 Auxiliary Components

6.1.1 Synchros (Transmitter and Receiver)
A Synchro is an electromagnetic transducer that converts angular shaft position to electrical signal and vice
versa. It consists of a rotor and three stator windings 120° apart.

Component Function

Synchro Transmitter (CX) Converts mechanical angle to three-phase AC voltages

Synchro Receiver (CR) Converts received AC voltages back to shaft angular position

Control Transformer (CT) Produces error voltage proportional to angle difference

Differential Synchro Adds or subtracts angles — used in differential systems

• Used in radar antenna positioning, aircraft instruments, gun turret systems.

• Error signal from CT drives a servo amplifier and motor to correct misalignment.

6.1.2 Alarm Annunciator

An alarm annunciator is a panel-mounted system that indicates abnormal process conditions via visual
(window flashing) and audible (horn/buzzer) alarms.

Sequence State Visual Audible

Normal Window — steady OFF Silent

Alarm (First-up) Window — FLASHING Horn ON

Acknowledged Window — STEADY ON Horn OFF

Reset (fault cleared) Window — OFF Silent

• ISA-S18.1 standard defines alarm sequences.

• First-Out annunciator identifies which alarm triggered first in a cascade.

6.1.3 Square Root Extractor

Used in flow measurement with differential pressure (DP) transmitters. Since flow is proportional to the square
root of differential pressure:
Q ∝ √(∆P)
The square root extractor linearises the DP signal to give a direct flow reading. It can be a hardware module or
implemented in a DCS/PLC function block.
■ Without square root extraction, the DP transmitter output is non-linear — the extractor is essential for accurate
flow indication and control.

6.2 Safety Measures

6.2.1 Hazardous Area Classification (NEC Standards)
The National Electrical Code (NEC) classifies hazardous locations by the type, nature, and probability of
presence of flammable/explosive material.

Classification Description

Class I Flammable gases or vapours (e.g. refineries, gas plants)

Class II Combustible dust (e.g. grain silos, coal handling plants)

Class III Ignitable fibres/flyings (e.g. textile mills, sawmills)

Division 1 Hazardous material present under normal operating conditions

Division 2 Hazardous material present only under abnormal conditions

Zone 0 Continuous presence of explosive atmosphere (IEC equivalent)

Zone 1 Likely presence in normal operation (IEC)

Zone 2 Unlikely presence; only in abnormal conditions (IEC)

6.2.2 Protection Techniques for Hazardous Areas

Technique Symbol Principle

Explosion Proof Housing Ex d Encloses ignition source; explosion is contained within robust
enclosure

Encapsulation Ex m Encases components in epoxy resin to prevent contact with

atmosphere

Sealing Ex e Increased safety — prevents sparks by tight sealing of

connections

Immersion Ex o Submerges equipment in protective oil to exclude explosive

atmosphere

Purging / Pressurisation Ex p Keeps enclosure pressurised with clean air/inert gas to exclude
hazardous atmosphere

6.2.3 Intrinsic Safety (Ex i)

Intrinsic safety is the most widely used technique for instrumentation in hazardous areas. It limits the electrical
energy (voltage and current) in the field circuit to levels too low to ignite the hazardous atmosphere, even under
fault conditions.

Aspect Detail

Definition A protection method where energy in the circuit is restricted below ignition
level

Standard IEC 60079-11 / IS 5780

Zener Barrier Uses Zener diodes and resistors to clamp voltage and current in field circuit
Galvanic Isolator Provides intrinsic safety plus galvanic isolation — eliminates earth loop
problems

ia classification Safe even with two faults — used in Zone 0/1

ib classification Safe with one fault — used in Zone 1/2

Zener Barrier Working:

• Located in safe area between the control system and hazardous area field instrument.
• Zener diodes clamp voltage; resistors limit current.
• Fuse protects Zener from overload.
• Earthing is critical — barrier earth must be low resistance (< 1 Ω).

Series vs Shunt Protective Elements:

Element Position in Circuit Function

Shunt (Zener) Element In parallel with field circuit Clamps voltage by conducting excess
energy to earth

Series (Resistor) In series with field circuit Limits current flowing to hazardous
area

6.3 Quick Revision Summary

Unit Key Takeaways

III – Motor Control DOL & Star-Delta starters · VFD for variable speed · Spring types · Protection: Short
circuit (fuse), Overload (TOR), Under-voltage relay, Phase reversal relay, Temperature
(PTC)

IV – Hydraulic Pascal's Law · Pump types (Gear, Vane, Piston) · DCV notation (ports/positions) ·
Meter-in vs Meter-out · Hydraulic oil types · Filter, Reservoir, Heat exchanger

V – Pneumatic FRL unit · SAC vs DAC cylinders · 5/2-way DCV for DAC · Sequencing via
step-displacement diagram · Reciprocating & sequencing circuits

VI – Safety NEC Class I/II/III, Division 1/2 · Explosion proof (Ex d) · Intrinsic Safety (Ex i) · Zener
barrier · Synchro transmitter/receiver · Alarm annunciator sequences · √DP extractor

■ For exam: Always draw circuit diagrams with ISO symbols, label all components, and state the working principle in
2–3 lines. Definitions + formula + diagram = full marks.