Chapter 2: Voltage and Current Laws

Objective:

• To be able to analyze and apply solutions to series, parallel and series-parallel of

resistive circuits; mesh and nodal analysis; network theorems
IDEAL SOURCES:
A. Ideal Voltage Source
- is a two terminal device whose voltage is constant regardless of the current through
it [1].

Ideal Voltage Source Practical Voltage Source

Ideal Voltage Source has zero internal resistance is zero [2] and do not exist in practice
[3]. Terminal voltage is equal to the voltage source, Vab = Vs
Practical Voltage Source has internal resistance and represented by r or rs [1]. The
internal resistance is basically small value compare with the load resistance, RL.

Terminal voltage [2], Vab = Vs – Irs = IR

B. Ideal Current Source

- is a two terminal device whose current is a constant regardless of the voltage across
it [1].

Ideal Current Source Practical Current Source

 Ideal current source is a mathematical model and has infinite output impedance
(internal resistance) [3],[4]. While, practical current source has very large output impedance
compare with the load resistance connected to it (rs >> RL) [1].

COMBINATION of SOURCES:
A. Series Voltage Source
Two or more elements are in series if they are connected one after another. The
equivalent voltage of two or more voltage sources in series is the sum of the individual
voltages taking into account their polarities [1], [5].
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 +. . +𝑉𝑁

B. Parallel Current Sources

Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to the two same
junction. The equivalent current of two or more current sources in parallel is the sum of
the individual currents [2], [5].
𝐼𝑎𝑏 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 +. . +𝐼𝑁
Note:
Ideal voltage sources should not be paralleled, unless they have the same source
voltage and same polarity. Similarly ideal current sources should not be connected in series
unless they have the same source current and in the same direction [3], [6], [7]. Two generators
cannot be connected in parallel unless their voltages are exactly identical otherwise, this results
in a short circuit and generators get damaged [6].

Series Resistors
Two or more elements are in series if they are joined end-on-end [8] and as a result
carry the same current [1], [9]. A series circuit has only one current path [10].

Characteristic of series circuit [8], [11]:

A. The current through all resistors is same which are equal to the total circuit current. Same
current flows through all parts of the circuit.
It = i = i1 = i2 = … = in
B. The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in series is the sum of the
individual resistances.
Resistances are additive: 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑁 = ∑𝑁
𝑛=1 𝑅𝑛
𝐼 1 1 1 1 1 1
𝐺 = 𝑅 then, 𝐺𝑒𝑞
= 𝐺 = 𝐺 + 𝐺 + ⋯ + 𝐺 = ∑𝑛𝑛=1 𝐺
𝑡 1 2 𝑁 𝑛

C. Voltage drop across each is different due to its different resistance and is given by Ohm’s
Law. The larger the resistance, the larger the voltage drop.
D. The total voltage of the circuit is equal to the sum of individual voltage drop in each resistor.
Voltage drops are additive: 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑎𝑏 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + ⋯ + 𝑣𝑁 = ∑𝑁
𝑛=1 𝑣𝑛 = 𝐼𝑡 𝑅𝑡

2 𝑣2
E. Powers are additive: 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑆 = 𝑃𝐺 = 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑝1 + 𝑝2 + ⋯ + 𝑝𝑁 = ∑𝑁
𝑛=1 𝑝𝑛 = 𝐼𝑡 𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅
𝑡
Parallel Resistors
Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to the same two nodes [11]
and consequently have the same voltage across them [9]. A parallel circuit has more than one
current path [10].

A node is the point of connection between two or more branches [11], [12]. If a short circuit (a
connecting wire) connects two nodes, the two nodes constitute a single node. While, a branch
represents a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor [13].

Characteristics of parallel circuit [11], [8]:

A. The same voltage v is impressed across all resistors which are equal to the total impressed
emf. Same voltage acts across all parts of the circuit.
Vt = v = vab = v1 = v2 = … = vn
B. Current in each resistor is different due to its different resistance and is given by Ohm’s
Law. Larger current flows through the smaller resistance.
C. The total current for the complete circuit is equal to the sum of the individual branch
current.
𝑉
Branch currents are additive: 𝐼𝑡 = 𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + ⋯ + 𝑖𝑁 = ∑𝑁
𝑛=1 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅
𝑡
𝑒𝑞

D. The total equivalent resistance of the circuit is equal to reciprocal of the sum of the
reciprocal of the individual resistance while conductances are additive.
1 1
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅𝑡 = 1 1 1 = ∑𝑁
+ +⋯+
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑛 𝑛=1 𝑅𝑛

𝐺𝑒𝑞 = 𝐺𝑡 = 𝐺1 + 𝐺2 + ⋯ + 𝐺𝑛 = ∑𝑁
𝑛=1 𝐺𝑛

When two resistors are in parallel, product over the sum method [14], [11], [15]:
𝑅1 (𝑅2 )
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = . It follows when R1 and R2 are equal, Req is half of the R1 or R2.
𝑅1 +𝑅2

CURRENT DIVIDER RULE (CDR)

 Current division occurs when there are two or more different resistances are connected in
parallel. It is used to determine how current entering a node is split between the various parallel
resistors connected to the node [16], [17].

Consider CDR for two parallel elements:

v = v1 = v2
iReq = i1R1 = i2R2
𝑅1 (𝑅2 )
𝑖𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑖 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅2
𝑖1 = = =( )𝑖
𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑅1 (𝑅2 )
𝑖𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑖 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1
𝑖2 = = =( )𝑖
𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
The current through one resistor is the value of the total input current times the ratio of the
resistance other resistor divided by the total resistance of the two resistor [18], [19].

VOLTAGE DIVIDER RULE (VDR)

Voltage division occurs when a dependent or independent voltage source is connected in
series with two or more resistors. It is used to determine the voltage across all resistors within a
series network [16].
i = i1 = i2
𝑣 𝑣1 𝑣2
= =
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑣𝑅1 𝑅1
𝑣1 = =( )𝑣
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑣𝑅2 𝑅2
𝑣2 = =( )𝑣
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
The voltage across a single resistor is the value of the input voltage times the ratio of the value
of the given resistance divided by the total series circuit resistance [18], [19]

Sample Problems

1. How many branches and nodes does the circuit have? Identify the elements that are in
series and in parallel.
 Answer:
a.) There were five (5) branches identified in the circuit (4 resistors and 1 voltage
source)
b.) Since there is connecting wire that connects two nodes, three nodes (3) were
identified in the circuit.

c.) Elements that are parallel: i.) 1 and 2 are parallel, ii.) 10V voltage source and
4 are also in parallel
Elements that are in series: The combination of 1 and 2 in parallel is in series
with 3.

2. Simplify the circuit shown, that is, find the simpler circuit that is equivalent at the terminals
a – b.

Solution:
(3𝑅)(5𝑅) 15𝑅
3R and 5R are in parallel: 𝑅𝑎 = =
3𝑅+5𝑅 8
(4𝑅)(5𝑅) 20𝑅
4R and 5R are in parallel: 𝑅𝑏 = 4𝑅+5𝑅
= 8

Redraw the circuit,

 15 31𝑅
2R now is in series with Ra: 𝑅𝑐 = 2𝑅 + 𝑅𝑎 = (2 + )𝑅 =
8 8

Current sources, 3i0 and 5i0 are in parallel but in opposite direction (5i0 is dominant), the
equivalent current is: 5i0 – 3i0 = 2i0 (following the direction of 5i0).
Voltage sources, v0 and 2v0 are in series with difference polarities (2v0 is dominant), the
equivalent voltage is: 2v0 – 2v0 = v0 (adopt the polarity of 2v0)

Simplified Circuit

3. Two groups of batteries, each group containing 4 batteries in series are, connected in
parallel. Each battery has voltage source (emf) 1.50 V and internal resistance r of 0.075 . If the
load resistance of the circuit is 2.35 , find the load current I.

Solution:
Voltage source per group, 4 batteries connected in series = 4 (1.50) = 6V
The two groups of battery are in parallel; voltages are the same: Vt = 6V
𝑟(#𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝) (0.075)(4)
Total internal resistance, 𝑟𝑡 = #𝑜𝑓𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑠
= 2
= 0.15 Ω
𝑉 𝑉𝑡 6
The load current. 𝐼 = 𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅 = (2.35+0.15) = 𝟐. 𝟒 𝑨
𝑡 𝐿 +𝑟

4. Two coils connected in series have resistances of 600 Ω and 300 Ω with temperature
coefficient of 0.1% and 0.4% respectively at 20°C. Find the resistance of the combination at a
temperature of 50°C. What is the effective temperature coefficient of combination?

Given: RA1 = 600 Ω, 1 = 0.1% at 20°C

RB1 = 300 Ω, 2 = 0.4% at 20°C
Required: a.) Rt at 50C, b.) t
Solution: R2 = R1[1 + (T2 – T1)]
a.) RA2 = 600 [1 + 0.001 (50 –20)] = 618 
RB2 = 300 [1 + 0.004 (50 –20)] = 336 
RA and RB in series:
At 20C, Rt1 = RA1 + RB1 = 600 + 300 = 900 
At 50C, Rt2 = RA2 + RB2 = 618 + 336 = 954 
b.) 954 = 900[1 + t (50 – 20)
t = 0.002 = 0.2 %

5. Three resistors are connected in series across a 12-V battery. The first resistor has a value
of 1 Ω, second has a voltage drop of 4 V and the third has a power dissipation of 12 W. Calculate
the value of the circuit current.