Chapter 2 - Global Brain Organization Lecture Overview:

*Global Organization of the Brain

*Hindbrain, *Midbrain, *Forebrain (Diencephalon, Basal ganglia, Limbic system, Cortex (neocortex)

Cortex: Outer surface of brain, cognitive processes

Subcortical regions: Brain areas below cortex, Evolutionarily older (when looking around different animal species, subcortical is found in other species as well, Life-sustaining processes

Global brain organization cont.: Two hemispheres/bilateral, Gyrus (gyri)=Outward fold, Sulcus (sulci), Fissure: Very deep inward fold

Cortex: six-layered structure (⅔ of cortex is below visible surface of brain (axons come from deepest part of brain, then cell body, then dendrite on outside)

Gray matter: Outer region, Cell bodies and dendrites

White matter: Inner region, Contains the axons, Key Tracts: Axon tracts connect neurons in key regions

Corpus callosum: Connects hemispheres (Motor tracts: Spinal cord - thalamus - cortex

(Association tract = cortical within hemisphere, Commisure (cortical between hemisphere), Projection tract (cortical to subcortical)) (*They connect the occipital lobe (vision) and the frontal lobe (planning,
executive functions, decision making)

Anarchic (Alien) Hand Syndrome: *Uncontrollable left hand (hand not recognized as own)

Problem source: Uninhibited right hemisphere (RH) - Severed corpus callosum eliminates ability of LH to influence RH, RH exhibits enhanced emotionality (esp. negative emotions)​

Ventricular System (*Brain tissue = no mechanism by which structure would be provided) *Ventricles: Cavities filled with CSF (generated in ventricle walls)/Protection & waste removal system, Subarachnoid
space: CSF-region within meninges surrounding outside of brain

Lateral ventricles: One in each hemisphere below corpus callosum, 3rd ventricle: Between 2 thalamic nuclei, 4th ventricle: Within pons (Ventricles get bigger with cell loss in brain)

Global Organization cont. *Hindbrain, *Midbrain, *Forebrain: Diencephalon, Basal ganglia, Limbic system, Cerebral cortex

Hindbrain: Medulla: Vital functions (Brain death associated), Pons: Regulates sleep and wake (Comas associated), Cerebellum (Movement, Coordination)

Midbrain: Nuclei between hindbrain and forebrain, Nuclei = group of cell bodies involved in similar function, Range of functions: Examples: Superior colliculi (visual), inferior colliculi (auditory)

Forebrain: Diencephalon -> Thalamus: Another group of nuclei; Acts as relay station (sensory)

Hypothalamus: Regulates basic functions (Hunger, Thirst, Hormone levels)

Basal ganglia: Regulates movement, Procedural (action) memories (Affected greatly by Parkinson’s (Dopamine influx into is reduced due to cell death in substantia nigra))

Forebrain cont.​ Limbic system: Learning and memory, Fear/aggression

Key structures: Hippocampus (memory), Amygdala (fear-based learning & aggression)

Cortex Lobes: Temporal- Language processing, memory; Frontal: Decision making, Emotion,​ Planning

Differences in plasticity and cell density/formation in cortex depending on individual & learned info.

The Developing Brain (Ward ch. 6) Overview: *Structural brain development

*Functional development (sensitive periods for developing abilities), *Interface between genes and environment, Structural brain development, Most neurons created during Week 5-25 @ 250,000 neurons/minute,
At week 4: key CNS regions begin forming

Neural Plate, Day 18: neural plate forms, Comes from ectoderm cell layer, Day 22-23: neural groove closes to form neural tube, Improper closing can result in spina bifida

Neural Tube cont.: Walls form CNS neurons/structures, Inside of tube becomes ventricular system

Brain development: Brain derives 3 primary vesicles of neural tube: *Forebrain, *Midbrain, *Hindbrain

(Rest of the tube forms the spinal cord)

Cell birth & Migration: Neurogenesis, Multipotent neural stem cells… Located in subventricular zone (which lines inside of neural tube) & …Later lines inside of ventricles

Radial migration: Neurons travel from birthplace to final brain position; Neurons migrate vertically from subventricular to cortical surface, Move along thin radial glial fibers, Inside layer of cortex (layer VI) is oldest

Neurotrophic Factors Lead the Way! Neurotrophic factors: Extracellular chemicals that direct development

Tell cell: Where to go in brain

What type of cell to become, Dictate where connections (dendrites and axons) will form

Postnatal brain development: Most neurons formed prior to birth. Brain continues to grow post-birth (synaptogenesis: new neuronal connections), Myelination: oligodendrocytes (glial cell) surround axons, Glial
cell proliferation: support cells are made, Prefrontal cortex develops last (into 20s)

Functional Development - Plasticity: Brain can change as result of experience

Neurogenesis: Acquisition of new neurons… Hippocampus= Olfactory cortex

Synaptogenesis: New connections between existing neurons, More likely than neurogenesis after birth, Critical periods: Experience must occur by certain point in development for behavior to develop

Sensitive period: Point in time when experience is important to development and exposure is most likely to produce a favorable outcome

Plasticity through lifespan: Usually synaptogenesis (from birth to death), Kennard principle

Genes vs Enviro.-Heritability (Not the same as causation): Measure of degree of variance in trait in a population that can be linked to genes rather than enviro.; Controlled environments usually increases heritability
for a trait

Phenotype plasticity

Genotype: Genetic makeup, Phenotype: Observable characteristics/behaviors, 1 genotype can express a number of phenotypes

Epigenetics: Environment helps (or hinders) gene expression Block transcription of a gene= (decrease expression, Methyl group) OR Activate transcription of a gene= Increase expression (Acetyl group)