ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

CONCEPT & MEANING

It is the knowledge of human behaviour

at work. Traditionally the behaviour of
the employees was simple & predictable,
but now it has taken complicated &
diversified shapes within an organisation.
It has become necessary to learn about
human behaviour within an organisation
for improving its performance. It applies
broadly to the behaviour of people in all
types of organisation. The behaviour of
people at work depends on numerous
factors such as technology, structure,
group, social set up and so on.

“ Organisational behaviour (OB) is a field

of study that investigates the impact that
individuals, groups and structure have on
behaviour within organisations for the
purpose of applying such knowledge
toward improving an organisation’s
effectiveness.

SCOPE OF OB :

The scope of OB includes the study of

individuals , groups and organizational
structure.

Individuals - organisations are

associations of individuals who differ
from each other in different aspects like
personality, attitude, perception,values,
learning , motivation etc.

Groups - Groups include group

dynamics, group conflicts,
communication, leadership, power and
politics and the like

Organisation structure - This includes

aspects such as culture, climate etc of the
organisation
OB studies 3 different determinants of
behaviour in organisations: Individuals,
Groups & Structure . Hence OB is
mainly concerned with the study of what
people do in an organisation & how that
behaviour affects the performance of the
organisation. Organisational behaviour is
an unique combination of different
disciplines. It is based on behavioural
sciences like psychology, sociology,
anthropology, political science etc. It is a
micro as well as macro concept & a
conceptual practice.

The organizational behaviour

concentrates on :

INDIVIDUAL - Each employee has his

own physical, psychological & social
needs for which he uses his own traits &
experiences. His work behaviour is
influenced not only by his biological
inheritance but is also affected by his
interactive environment i.e. family
relationship, racial background, social set
up, religious beliefs, technological
innovations & so on. Their desires ,
needs, wants, attitudes, drives, goals, &
experiences have specific work behaviour.

GROUP - Group performance is more

effective than individual performance.
Group dynamics has become a useful
force in leadership, morale building &
personal relations. The group is a
separate entity that needs to be studied
&researched. If group power is
channelised towards goal achievement , it
can put in an outstanding performance

STRUCTURE - The structure

relations are instrumental in the
behaviour of employees at work. The
method of establishing the relationship
shape the behaviour of employees either
individually or in a group. Structural
behaviour of individuals & groups have
their own identity & entity.

Apart from that two other factors are :

TECHNOLOGY - Technology has a

significant influence on work , the work
environment & working relationships.
Interpersonal roles, informational roles &
managerial functions are improved with
the use of technology.

ENVIRONMENT- The internal &

external environment of the organisation
creates a certain type of work behaviour.
The environment has its own behaviour
which influences the people’s behaviour
at work.
NATURE OF OB :

- It is identified as a separate field

of study as it has a multi
disciplinary orientation
- The nature of OB relates to an
applied science as it solves
organizational problems related
to human behaviour
- OB applies humanistic approach
as it treats people as thinking,
feeling human beings and always
has a productive and optimistic
approach
- OB has a total system approach
as it integrates all the variables
affecting organizational
functioning.

Models of OB :

Organisations differ in the nature of the

system they develop and maintain and in
the results they achieve. These results
follow from different models of OB.
Models are the guidelines or we can say
possible explanations why do people
behave as they behave at work. Because
of the differences in the models of OB,
results vary from organisation to
organisation. The model is considered to
be useful for understanding, predicting
and controlling human behaviour at
work. An important model is the SOBC
Model which identifies major variables
and their interrelationships.
STIMULUS  ORGANISM  BEHAVIOUR  CONSEQUENCE

___________________________
The The Individual Results of
Environment Individual Behaviour Behaviour

Overt stimuli : Perceptual Overt response: Positive

Observable Filters Open and Result (+)
Signs in the Sensory observable Results
Environment screens behaviour leading to
that trigger seeing satisfaction
behaviour hearing Covert response: & a desire
feeling Hidden to repeat
Covert stimuli : smelling or secret kinds the
Signs in the tasting of behaviour behaviour
Environment Emotional
that are not screens Negative
consciously Personality Result (-)
noticed Self concept Results
Attitudes leading to
Beliefs disatisfaction
Habits and desire not
to repeat the
behaviour
The model shows the interactive nature of the environment
S-C (stimulus leads to certain consequences ) the person’s
behaviour(B) and cognitions (C)

PERSONALITY
Personality is an important factor
influencing an employee’s behaviour.
Individual traits & attributes reflect an
employee’s personality. When
psychologist’s talk of personality , they
mean a dynamic concept describing the
growth & development of a person’s
whole psychological system. Rather than
looking at parts of the person, personality
looks at some aggregate whole that is
greater than the sum of the parts. It is
derived from latin word Per sona which
means to speak through. Personality has
many dimensions depending upon angles
such as the self concept personality,
influencing personality, pleasing
personality & so on. The traits of a person
decide his personality. Traits are
generally two directional i.e positive &
negative. Positive behaviour is reflected
by a positive personality. Perception helps
in learning which moulds the personality
& reflects in behaviour. Behaviour is the
outcome of the personality which is
influenced by personal quality situations
& the interaction process.

Nature of Personality

Personality has some basic characterstics

which are observed in the behaviour of
employees.
They are :

(a) Personality traits : Personality is the

sum of various traits that an individual
has. It is a composition of physical
appearance, emotional attributes,
sociabililty, objectivity, friendliness,
thoughtfulness etc

(b) Individual difference : Personality

differs from person to person as each
person has his own characterstics. Two
persons of the same personality are rarely
found because personality traits are not
the same in people. Permutation and
combination of different traits have given
rise to persons of varied personality

(c) Consistent traits : Persons develop

consistency in their traits. They do not
like to change attributes developed since
childhood. He continues to practise
whatever attributes he has acquired since
birth. Personality development continues
till death. It is an unending & enduring
process

(d) Perceptual process & modification :

Though the personality traits of a
person are consistent & enduring, but
they can be modified through the learning
process. The perceptual processes like
stimuli & mobilisers are used to mobilise
employees for development & has a great
impact on the modification of personality.

Determinants of Personality
Man is born with certain physical &
mental qualities which are developed in
the environment of family, society,
education etc. Personality is recognised
in a situation. The determinants of
personality can be studied under five
broad categories :
(a) Biological factors: This can further
be subdivided into several aspects i.e
hereditary, managerial thinking,
biofeedback & physical characterstics
- Heredity- Heredity refers to those
factors that were determined at
conception. Physical ststure, facial
attractiveness, gender ,
temperament, muscle composition
& reflexes, energy level &
biological rhythms are
characterstics that are generally
considered to be either completely
or substantially influenced by
parents.
- Managerial thinking-Managers
think differently than common
people. They have the capacity to
think of the future, forecast,
analyse & take risks unlike most
others
- Bio feed back-There is a belief that
biological functioning can be
 consciously controlled through
biofeedback. In biofeedback
training, a person learns the
internal rhythms of a particular
body process through electronic
signals obtained by connecting
various parts of the body to
instruments which measure the
signals.
- Physical characterstics- Physical
appearances is biologically
determined . It is of prime
importance to personality as it has
specific effects on not only a
person himself but also on others.

(b) Cultural factors : They are

considered more important than
biological factors in personality.
Personality development is influenced to a
large extent by learning processes. ‘What
is learnt” is as important as “How it is
learnt”. The process of learning starts
right from infancy when the family
teaches the culture. Personality
development from early stages of life to
adulthood is culture influenced. Certain
behaviours like respect, aggression,
cooperation etc are observed to be more
dominant in certain cultures, but
dominant in others. A person exposed to a
particular culture for long is likely to
adapt to most of the requirement of that
culture, even though his own culture is
extremely different.

(c) Family factors : A person’s first

contact with culture is provided by his
family members. As an individual grows
up & progresses in life , the culture of the
work/social groups with which he
interacts and the various society in which
he moves from time to time will all have a
bearing on his personality. Socialization
process is especially important as it
determines a person’s behaviour in the
organisation. In turn he is likely to
influence those who interact with him.
These influences tend to exert themselves
almost till the end of a person’s career.
However the influence of parents is
perhaps the most crucial.

(d) Social factors : Besides the

family , other relevant person’s , groups
and organisations influence personality
(socialisation process). Organisations are
socialisation tactics(i.e introduction to
organisation culture, training, induction
to work groups etc). it is necessary for the
individual to learn the values, norms &
behaviour prescribed by the organisation,
so as to be capable of performing
effectively.

(e) Situational factors : Behaviour is a

function of the person, his personality &
the situation. Consider a situation where
a highly individualistic but efficient
worker is placed under an autocratic
superior. He is discontent & thereby
performs poorly. As a result, the person is
viewed as an inefficient worker, under the
circumstances. Thus the situation
influences a person’s work behaviour
either positively or negatively. The human
being is constantly with the environment.
Under the situation, it is almost
impossible to determine the behavioural
expressions of a person’s personality at
any particular point of time. Personality
constantly changes. So too, the
environment in which the process
operates

Theories of Personality
Behaviourist have developed several
theories of personality development.
Personality is the combination of several
traits & situations. No one theory can be
isolated as the best one . All the theories
include some features of other theories.
There are several theories but the more
prominent among them are : (1) type
theory (11) trait theory (111) psycho-
analytic theory & (1V) social learning

Type Theory :

The type theories basically establish the

relationship between body, mind &
behaviour. Personality classification was
made on two bases i.e body build and
psychological factors. Human nature
depends on the body structutre. It is a
scientific theory which believes that a type
of person having a specific formal
structure behaves differently from other
persons having different structures. A
short person is considered to be social ,
relaxed & well behaved. Similarly
different types of persons have different
types of personality. Such personality
development techniques have been
explored by Sheldon-Jung, Myers- Brigg
etc.
Sheldon’s Physiognomy theory :
William Sheldon has explored the unique
body type temperament. The body type
has a direct impact on behaviour. The
relationship between anatomy &
physiology of a person & his behaviour is
clear & predictable. Sheldon has
identified the relationship between
physique & behaviour & has explained
this relationship under 3 body types :
(a) Endomorphic body : Endomorphic
body is thick & bulky. These bodies are
unproportionally developed. People are
fat, comfort seekers & less active. They
are submissive & jubilant. Although they
contribute less in an organisational
function, they try to maintain a healthy
atmosphere by their humanistic
behaviour. People love to work with them.
They show tolerance towards their fellow
beings. They like to be led. They are
therefore slow thinkers & decision
avoiders.
(b) Mesomorphic body : Mesomorphic
body is tough, strong & athletic. The
physique is well built & pleasant. Other
persons work to develop this
mesomorphs. Such people are work
oriented, active, smart & challenging.
They like physical work more than
mental work. Being self assertive & active
they do not like personal interaction or
useless talk. The work atmosphere is
upset if they are confronted by anyone on
any front.
(c) Ectomorphic body : Ectomorphic
body is slim, thin & long..They are
physically weak & like to work at a table
as they prefer mental work. They are self-
satisfiers & do not believe in others. They
are shy, absent minded, isolated, brilliant,
restrained & critical.
Sheldon’s body type theory has been
widely recognised in organisational
behaviour. A personality based on the
body can be modified & changed through
learning & interacting with situation.

Body build vrs Personal characterstics

Endomorph - Friendly, slow to react

(fleshy) loves to eat

Mesmorph - Adventurous, aggressive

(athletic) risk taker, competition
oriented

Ectomorph - Likes privacy, quick to

(thin) react, more sensitive to
pain

Carl Jung’s Extrovert- Introvert Theory :

Carl Jung, a Swiss psychologist developed

a personality theory based on the type of
body. Jung has classified psychological
dimensions into four aspects : (a) Sensing
(b) Intuition (c) Thinking & (d) Feeling.
Sensing type : The person approaches
the problem in a step by step organised
way. The person works steadily and
patiently with details.
Intuitive type : One who does not show a
lot of emotion, who can put things in a
logical order and who can be firm and
fair
Thinking type : One who have a greater
reasoning and analysing power
Feeling type : The person is very aware
of other people, dislikes telling people
unpleasant things and prefers harmony
among people.
Employees develop their personalities
based on those four dimensions. The
permutation & combination of these
dimensions lead to different types of
personality.
1) The sensing – feeling person likes to
collect data in an orderly way and make
decisions that take into account the
needs of people.
2) The intuitive – feeling person is
equally concerned with the people side
of decisions but the focus is on new
ideas which are often broad in scope
and lacking in details
3) Sensing- thinkers emphasise details
and the quality of a decision. They are
not as concerned with the people aspect
of an organisation as with a technically
sound decision.
4) Intuitive – thinking types like to tackle
new and innovative problems, but make
decisions primarily on technical terms.
They tend to be good planners , but no
so good at implementing.

There is always a combination of these

types of person
Based on these four types of personality,
persons are classified as extrovert or
introvert. These terms are normally
associated with an individual’s sociability
& interpersonal orientation. Extrovert’s
are gregarious, sociable individuals, while
introvert’s are shy, quiet & retiring. In a
more technical sense, introverts are
charaterised by a greater sensitivity &
concern for feelings & are more
comfortable dealing with abstract things.
Extrovert’s are more oriented towards
other people, events & objects. Jung
believes that a relationship is important
for personality development. Extrovert &
Introvert personalities are combined to
give several types of personalities.
Sociability , interpersonal orientation,
shyness, intelligence etc fall between these
two extremes of extrovert & introvert
types of personality. Jung believes that
the part personality is an indication of
future performance.
Introverts:

- like quietness and concentration

- tend to be careful with details
- have trouble remembering
names and faces
- like to think a lot before they act
- like to work alone
- have some problems
communicating
- are patient and can work
uninterruptedly

Extrovert :

- Like variety and action

- Tend to work faster and dislike
complicated procedure
- Often good at greeting people
- Acts quickly without thinking
- Like to have people around
- Usually communicate freely
- Are impatient
Trait Theory :
The trait theory is quantitative and
empirical as contrasted to the type theory
which is qualitative. The trait theory is
quantitative and refers to measurement of
psychological characterstics called traits.
A trait is defined as any distinguishing,
relatively enduring way in which one
individual differs from another. It lays
emphasis on the enduring attributes of
people. It has continuous dimensions or
scales which are used to rate a person on
the scales of emotional stability,
intelligence, aggressiveness, and other
dimensions . Trait theory is baesd on the
following assumptions :

- Traits are common to many

individuals but vary in absolute
amounts between the individuals
- Traits are relatively stable and
their consistent occurrence
influences the human behaviour
 - One’s trait can be inferred by
measuring his / her behavioural
indicators.
Cattell identified 16 source traits which
are called primary traits or source traits .
These traits were found to be generally
steady and constant sources of behaviour.

1. Reserved vrs outgoing

2. Less Intelligent vrs moreintelligent
3. Affected by feeling vrs emotionally stable
4. Submissive vrs dominant
5. Serious vrs casual
6. Expedient vrs conscientious
7. Timid vrs venturesome
8. Tough minded vrs sensitive
9. Trusting vrs suspicious
10. Practical vrs imaginative
11. Forthright vrs shrewd
12. Self assured vrs apprehensive
13. Group dependant vrs self sufficient
14. Uncontrolled vrs Controlled
15. Relaxed vrs Tense
16. Conservative vrs Experimenting
Self Theories :
The self theory is based on a humanistic
approach. They are the self concept, self
image & locus of control theories.

Self- Concept Theory : Carl R. Roger’s

& Henry P are closely related with the
approach of self concept. They have
defined the self or self concept as an
organised , consistent, conceptual
perceptions of “I” & “ ME”. I is being
described as the personal self or one’s
belief in oneself. It is a psychological
process which helps understand the self.
If an individual has explored his self &
soul, he can develop enough strength. The
more one realises oneself, the more
powerful he will become. ‘ME’ is defined
as social self. It is the way an individual
appears to others or others appear to
him. Behaviour is the outcome of the
realisation of “Me” or is a reflection of
innerself. “ Me” is the mirror image of
what “I” believe others expect from me.
The relationship between “I”, “ME” or “
YOU” develops one’s personality. If one
realises the “I” & “Me”, he duly performs
all his duties. Since people have different
levels of understanding & relationship
between I & Me, the application of
various reinforcements, learning &
motivation have diverse impacts on
different people. The human nature is
purposeful, constructive, forward moving,
realistic, trustworthy & self satisfying.
Under normal conditions , people
perform their duties as per basic human
nature. But when they have developed
some abnormality , they go against basic
human nature. The more abnormal a
man is , the more negative functions will
be visualised in his action. The self
concept is unique & diverse. The self
concept is unique & diverse. The self
concept (both I & Me ) gives the
individual a sense of meaningfulness &
consistency.

Locus of control :
Some people believe that they are masters
of their own fate. Other people see
themselves as pawns of fate, believing that
what happens to them in their lives is due
to luck or chance. The first type those
who believe that they control their
destinies, have been called Internals,
whereas the later, who see their lives as
being controlled by outside forces have
been called Externals. A person’s
perception of the source of his or her fate
is termed locus of Control. Researches
have shown that individual’s who have
high scores in externality are less satisfied
with their jobs, have higher absenteeism
rates, are more alienated from the work
setting & are less involved on their jobs
than are internals. The Externals are
more dissatisfied because of the fact that
they perceive themselves as having little
control over those organisational
outcomes that are important to them.
Internals facing the same situation
attribute organisational outcomes to
their own actions. If the situation is
unattractive, they believe that they have
no one else to blame but themselves. Also
the dissatisfied internal is more likely to
quit a dissatisfying job. Internals believe
that health is substantially under their
own control through proper habits, so
they take more responsibility for their
health & have better health habits.
Consequently their incidences of sickness
& hence absenteeism are lower. The
overall evidence indicates that internals
generally perform better on their jobs,
but that conclusion should be moderated
to reflect differences in jobs. Internals
search more actively for information
before making a decision, are more
motivated to achieve & make a greater
impact to control their environment.
Externals however are more compliant &
willing to follow directions. Therefore
internals do well on sophisticated tasks
which include most managerial &
professional jobs that require complex
information processing & learning. In
addition, internals are more suited to jobs
that require initiative & independence of
actions.

Machiavellianism :

The personality characterstics of

machiavellianism is warned after Niccolo
Machiavelli who wrote in the 16th century
on how to gain & use power. The term
refers to the tendency to “manipulate
people “ . Machiavellianism would be
prone to participate in organisational
politics. They are also adapt to
interpersonal game playing , power
tactics & identifying influence systems in
organisation. In jobs that require
bargaining skills or where there are
substantial rewards for winning,
Machiavellianism performs better.

Self image theory :

The image theory has been exposed by
Calvin S. Hall & Gardner Lindsey where
they have laid emphasis on organism &
phenomenal field. The organism is the
locus of all activities & assumes the
frame of reference. A person is influenced
mostly by his inner self image. If he has
developed some factors as satisfying , he
will develop his own image according to
the factors. The external factors
ultimately influence the inner factors to
mobilise the people to [Link]
actualisation is the point for developing
one’s self image. The expected self image
is a motivating factor for personality
development. People try to behave
differently by extending their self image.
Psycho- analytic theory :
The psycho-analytic theory emphasise on
psychological factors which influence
personality development.

Sigmund Freud’s Theory :

Sigmund Freud formulated meaningful
personality development stages. People
have unconscious needs, desires, drives,
motives for personality development. He
specified three interacting systems – Id,
Ego and Super Ego
The Id : Id is the mind’s instinctive
energy. It is a store house of primitive and
impulsive drives. We are born with the Id
and it residues within the unconscious. It
is the desire for thirst, hunger, shelter, sex
etc. Id is an unconscious drive. The
desires and wishes of an individual exist
at the unconscious state which is known
as the Id. We are not aware of the Id but
it influences our behaviour.
The Ego : Ego realises the reality in
life. It is the second part of the psyche to
develop. Ego refers to your identity or
sense of self. It grows out of the Id and
can control the Id to an extent. Because
the ego is concerned both with reality and
the Id, it operates on all the three levels of
awareness( the conscious, preconscious
and unconscious levels of the psyche). It
therefore keeps the psychological balance
between reality and theoritical
conceptions.
The Super Ego : Super ego refers to
the highest order of morality. It tells
about real satisfaction through mental
and physical [Link] five or six
years of age, we begin to learn about the
norms, rules and values of society.
The Id is the mentor; the ego is the
physical force; the super ego is the sensor
of actions before performance. Psycho
analysis views the mind as an entity
containing primitive and sophisticated
elements. Hierarchically based instincts
(known as the Id), striving for expression
against more structured reality based
elements (known as Ego), which strive to
make instinctual gratification consonant
with internalized moral standards(known
as Super Ego)
Stages of Personality development under
Freudian theory : The personality of an
individual develops with increasing age.
Freud has given five names to these stages
i.e Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latent and
Genital. Freud has given his theory in the
context of sex.

Erikson’s Eight Life stages :

Erikson has defined eight life stages, each

stage is characterised by a particular
conflict that needs to be resolved
successfully before a person can move to
the next stage. Movement between the
stages is developmental
Stage One, Infancy : Age 0-1. An
infant who is cared for in a loving and
affectionate way learns to trust other
people. Lack of love an affection results in
mistrust.
Stage Two, Early childhood : Age 2-3. A
child begins assert independence. If the
child is allowed to control these aspects of
life that the child is capable controlling, a
sense of autonomy will develop. If the
child encounters constant disapproval, a
sense of self doubt and shame is likely to
develop.
Stage Three, Play age : Age 4-5. If a
child is encouraged to experiment and to
achieve reasonable goals, he or she will
develop a sense of initiative. If the child is
blocked and made to feel incapable, he or
she will develop a sense of guilt and lack
of self confidence
Stage Four, School age : Age 6-12. A
child learns many new skills and develops
social abilities. I f a child experiences real
progress at a rate compatible with his or
her abilities, the child will develop a sense
of industry. The reverse situation results
in a sense of inferiority.
Stage Five, Adolescence : Age 12 – 20.
The crisis of the teenagers is to gain a
sense of identity rather than to become
confused about who you are. The
teenager at this stage is also trying to
establish himself or herself as a socially
separate from the parents. The autonomy,
initiative and industry developed in
earlier stages are very important in
helping the teenager successfully resolve
this crisis and prepare for adulthood
Stage Six, Young adulthood : Age
20-25 years. The sense of identity
developed during the teenage years allows
the young adult to begin developing deep
lasting relationships.
Stage Seven, Late adulthood : Age
25-50 years. Self absorbed o stagnated
persons never develop an ability to look
beyond themselves. They may become
absorbed in career advancement and
maintenance, and they may never learn to
have concern for future generations.
Generative people see the world as much
bigger than themselves . Through
innovation and creativity , they begin to
exert influence that benefits their
organisation.
Stage Eight, Later life : Age 50
and above. The adult of integrity has
gained a sense of wisdom and prospective
that can truly help guide future
generations.
 PERCEPTION
Perception can be defined as a process by
which individuals organize and interpret
their sensory impression in order to give
meaning to their environment .
Perception is the intellectual process by
which a person acquires the information
from the environment , organise it and
obtain the meaning from it. It is
essentially a psychological process which
refers to the manners in which a person
experiences the world

Perception Process :

Perceptual inputs are first received, then

processed by the perceiver and the
resultant output becomes the base of the
behaviour
Inputs  selection 
(objects, events etc)
Organisation  Interpretation 

Outputs

Perception process
The mechanism of perception are
selection, organisation, and
interpretation. Perceptual selection takes
account of only those stimuli that are
relevant and appropriate for an
individual. Perceptual organisation is
concerned with shaping the perceived
inputs and converting them into a
meaningful shape or form. The
perceptual interpretation deals with
inference from observed meaning from
the perceived events or objects. From it
emerges the resultant behaviour of
individual.

The model has 4 variables :

- Inputs- objects, events, people

etc that are received by the
perceiver
- Process- The received inputs are
processes through the selection,
organisation and interpretation
 - Outputs- Through the processing
mechanism , the output is
derived in the form of feelings,
actions, attitudes etc
- Behaviour- It is dependent on
these perceived inputs

Applications of perception in
organisations :

- During employment interview

- During performance appraisal
- During assessing level of effort
- During assessment of employee
loyalty

Factors affecting Perception :

Perception can be influenced by external

as well as internal factors.
External factors include size, intensity,
frequency,status, movement etc
Internal factors include needs and desires,
personality , experience etc

LEARNING.

Learning can simply be defined as any

change in behaviour that comes about as
a result of experience or can be said as
acquired through experience. It is a life
long process.

Theories of learning (Learning processes):

There are basically two different
processes by which learning takes place.
They are classical conditioning and
operant or Instrumental conditioning.
Another important distinction is between
simple and complex learning. Both
classical and instrumental conditioning
are cases of simple learning , complex
learning includes cognitive learning and
modeling

a) Classical conditioning :

Ivan Pavlov , a Russian Psychologist

developed classical conditioning theory
based on his experiments to teach dog to
salivate in response to the ringing of the
bell.

b) Operant conditioning :
Harvard Psychologist [Link] proved
that behaviour is a function of its
consequences which normally increases
with time.

Difference in both the above cases are :

Classical - Stimulus  Response

Operant - One learned response

Becomes a stimulus for
A subsequent one

c) Cognitive theory –

Cognition refers to an individual’s

thoughts, knowledge, interpretations,
understandings or views about oneself
and his or her environment. The principle
here is perceptual reorganization i.e
putting bits of information you have
together in a new way.

d) Modelling –

Here learning takes place through the

process of identification which also helps
in taking new roles. A person who has
been promoted to a new position may at
least initially unconsciously imitate some
of the behaviour of his predecessor. It also
has negative consequences like
subordinate members of an office can
learn to come late if someone senior
behaves in this manner.

Learning principles :

Two important principles of Learning

are reinforcement and punishment

Reinforcement is defined as any event

that alters the probability of occurrence
of a response. If the consequence
following a event is positive it will be
repeated . If the consequence is negative ,
it is less likely to be repeated. Bonus paid
at the end of successful business years is
positive reinforcement whereas penalty
imposed to an employee for coming late is
an example of negative reinforcement.

Punishment is too a major tool of

behaviour modification. It is the reverse
of reward. The purpose of punishment is
to eliminate or weaken undesirable
behaviour. It can be done in two ways :

- through application of a negative

consequence following
undesirable behaviour ex-
expelling a student from the
college for undesirable behaviour
- through withholding of a positive
consequence following an
undesirable behaviour. Ex- less
 incentive to a sales person who
could not fulfil the target

ATTITUDES

Attitudes are a way of responding either

favourably or unfavourably to objects,
persons , concepts etc. They are
evaluative statements. They reflect how
one feels about something. Attitude is an
undimensional behaviour i.e positive or
negative. Attitude affects one’s behaviour.
Formation of Attitudes :

Attitudes are not inherited but are

acquired or learned by the people from
the environment in which they interact.
Attitudes in a person could be observed in
mainly two ways :

1) Direct Experience with the person or

situation :
Attitudes are formed on the basis of one’s
past experience in the concerned subject
or person for ex : liking or disliking for a
subject. Attitudes derived from direct
experience are more powerful , stronger ,
durable and are difficult to change
because of their availability to our
cognitive processes.

2) Social Learning or association with

other persons or situations :

Learning from others is like reflection

and observation . Attitudes evolve out of
perception and learning processes . One is
not born with attitudes but acquires them
through life experiences or interaction
with family members, peer groups,
religious organisations and culture i.e
indirect way of learning.
Learning attitudes from observations
involve few important steps or processes :
* Attention - Attention on the
model
* Retention - Retention of what is
observed
* Reproduction - Practise again &
again
* Motivation - Learner must be
motivated to learn
the model

Types of Attitudes :

As OB is related to organisations only ,

we have mainly three job related attitudes

# Job Satisfaction - It refers to an

individual’s general attitude toward his
or her job which is either positive or
negative i.e satisfied or dissatisfied

# Job involvement - It measures the

degree to which a person identifies with
his job, actively participates in it and
considers his performance as important
for the organisation

# Organisational
commitment - It is orientation
towards the organisation in terms of
loyalty , identity and involvement in the
organisation

Measurement of Attitude :
Attitudes are measured so that
behaviours like productivity, absenteeism
and turnover can be predicted. Changes
in attitude make behaviour
unpredictable. There are mainly 4 types
of methods for measuring attitudes :

^ Self report
^ Indirect tests
^ Direct observation techniques
^ Psychological reaction techniques

The most commonly accepted method is

the self report method which uses
responses from employees (attitude
surveys ) through questionnaires dealing
with their feelings about their work and
work related matters.
VALUES :
Values are general beliefs alongwith
moral flavour containing an individual’s
judgemental ideas about what is good ,
right or desirable.

Values and Attitudes

Simmilarities :

1. Both are learned or acquired

2. Both affect behaviour of people
3. Both are difficult to change
4. Both influence each other or are
used interchangeably

Differences :

1. Attitudes are predisposition to

response whereas values are
judgemental ideas like what is right
2. Attitudes refer to several beliefs
relating to a specific object or
situation whereas values represent
single belief focussed on objects oe
situation
3. Attitude’s are one’s personal
experiences whereas values are
derived from social and cultural
surroundings.