- Chemistry is the scientific study of matter, its properties, composition, structure

and the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions.

- For studying matter, we to understand first what is matter; anything which

occupy space and having mass is called matter.

- When you look around yourself you observe pen, book, table, your fingers, the
air around us which you can’t see these all are different kinds of matter, so
when we think about universe there are different different kinds of matter in
universe so classification of matter is necessary for studying matter.
 MIXTURES

HOMOGENOUS HETEROGENOUS
MIXTURES MIXTURES
- In a homogeneous mixture, - In a heterogeneous mixture,
the components completely the composition is not uniform
mix with each other. This throughout and sometimes different
means particles of components are Visible.
components of the mixture
are uniformly distributed - For example, mixtures of salt and
throughout the bulk of the sugar, grains and pulses along with some
mixture and its composition is dirt (often stone pieces), are
uniform throughout. heterogeneous
mixtures.
- Sugar solution and air are
the examples of
homogeneous mixtures.
SOLUTIONS: Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more than two
components. By homogenous mixture we mean that its composition and properties are
uniform throughout the mixture.

TOPICS:

1. SOLUTIONS
2. COMPONENTS OF SOLUTIONS
3. TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
4. CONCENTRATION TERMS
5. SOLUBILITY a) solubility of solid solute in liquid solvent. b) solubility of gases solute in liquid
solvent.[Henry's law and its application.
6. VAPOUR PRESSURE [raoult's law] a) Vapour Pressure of Liquid Liquid Solutions. b) Vapour
Pressure of Solutions of Solids in Liquids.
7. IDEAL AND NON IDEAL SOLUTIONS
8. NON IDEAL SOLUTIONS SHOWING POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE DEVIATION
9. AZEOTROPIC MIXTURES AND ITS TYPES
10. COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES a) Relative lowering of vapour pressure. b) Elevation in boiling
point. c) Depression in freezing point. d) Osmotic pressure. e) Abnormal molar mass
COMPONENTS OF SOLUTIONS

SOLUTIONS

SOLUTE SOLVENT

- LESS IN AMOUNT - MORE IN AMOUNT

- IT MAINLY DECIDE THE - IT MAINLY DECIDE THE

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES PHYSICAL STATE OF THE
OF SOLUTIONS. SOLUTIONS.
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS

TYPES OF SOLUTIONS

ON THE BASIS OF NUMBERS OF

ON THE BASIS OF NATURE
COMPONENTS IN THE
OF SOLVENT
SOLUTIONS

BINARY SOLUTIONS GASEOUS SOLUTIONS

TERNARY SOLUTIONS LIQUID SOLUTIONS

QUATERNARY SOLUTIONS SOLID SOLUTIONS

ON THE BASIS OF NUMBER OF COMPONENTS PRESENT IN THE SOLUTION

1. BINARY SOLUTIONS

- TWO COMPONENT SOLUTION

-1 SOLUTE 1 SOLVENT

2. TERNARY SOLUTIONS

- THREE COMPONENT SOLUTION

- 2 SOLUTE 1 SOLVENT

3. QUATERNARY SOLUTIONS

-FOUR COMPONENT SOLUTION

- 3 SOLUTE 1 SOLVENT
ON THE BASIS OF NATURE OF SOLVENT
SOLUTE DECIDE THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE SOLUTIONS SO IT IS IMPORTANT TO
MEASURE THE AMOUNT OR CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS SO WE CAN CLEARLY
JUDGE THE NATURE OR PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS. FOR THAT WE USE CONCENTRATION
TERMS.

CONCENTRATION TERMS
a) mass percentage or W\W %
b) volume percentage or V\V%
c) mass by volume or W\V%
d) parts per million ppm
e) mole fraction
f) Molarity
g) molality
h) dilution law or molarity equation
i) mixing of acid and base solutions
a) mass percentage or W\W %

- Mass of solute: The substance being dissolved. E.g sugar, salt etc
- Total mass of solution: The sum of the mass of solute and the mass of the solvent.
- Unit: Both solute and solvent must be the same mass units. E.g grams.
- A 5% w\w solution means, 5g of solute present in 100g of solution.

- Example: If 20g of salt(solute) is dissolved in 80g of water(solvent), find mass percentage or w\w %
b) volume percentage or V\V%

- Volume of solute: The substance being dissolved. E.g alcohol etc

- Total volume of solution: The sum of the volume of solute and the volume of the solvent.
- Unit: Both solute and solvent must be the same volume units. E.g milliliter(ml).
- A 10% v\v solution means, 10ml of solute present in 100ml of solution.

- Example: If 28ml of ethanol is dissolved in water to make 250ml of total solution express the
concentration of ethanol in v\v%
c) mass by volume or W\V%

- Mass of solute must be taken in grams(g) and volume of solution in milliliter(ml)

- A 1% w\v solution means 1 gram of solute dissolved in a total volume of 100mL.

- Example: If 5g of solute dissolved in water to make 50mL of total solution. Then express the
concentration of solute in terms w\v%.
d) parts per million ppm

- The Parts per Million (ppm) formula is used to express the concentration of solute when it is present
in very minute (trace) quantities within a solution.
- Unit: Both solute and solvent must be the same mass units. E.g grams.
- Common use cases like measuring pollutants in the atmosphere or water.
- 15ppm means 15g of solute present in 10^6 g of solution.
e) mole fraction

- Mole fraction of a component in a mixture is the ratio of

mole of the solute to the total moles of all the components.
- It is a dimensionless quantity.
f) Molarity
- Molarity of a solution is defined as the number of moles of the solute
dissolved per litre of the solution.
- It is represented as ʻM’.

- The units of molarity are moles per litre (mol L^-1) OR moles per cubic decimetre (mol dm^-3).

- Molarity has one disadvantage, it changes with temperature because of expansion or contraction
of the liquid with temperature.
g) molality

- Molality of a solution is defined as the number of moles of the solute dissolved per 1000g or 1kg of the
solvent.
- It is denoted by ʻm’.

- The units of molality are moles per kilogram i.e. molkg^-1.

- Molality is considered better for expressing the concentration as compared to molarity because the
molarity changes with temperature because of change in volume of the solution due to expansion or
contraction of liquid with temperature.
- Motility does not change with temperature because mass of the solvent does not change with
change in temperature.
h) dilution law or molarity equation

- M1 = Molarity of the given solution

- M2= Molarity of the required solution
- V1= Volume of given solution
- V2= Volume of the required solution
i) mixing of acid and base solutions

- M1 = Molarity of solution 1
- V1 = Volume of solution 1
- M2 = Molarity of solution 2
- V2 = Volume of solution 2
- M3 = Molarity of solution 3
- V3 = Volume of solution 3
PRACTICE SESSION
SOLUBILITY
- On the basis of solubility solutions are of three types:

1. Saturated solution. A solution which contains maximum amount of solute which

dissolves completely in a given solvent at a particular temperature.
2. Unsaturated solution. A solution which contains less amount of solute than required for
forming saturated solution.
3. Supersaturated solution. A solution which contains excess of solute than required for
formation of saturated solution.

- Solubility of a substance expresses the maximum amount of it which can be dissolved in

a specific amount of solvent at a specified temperature.

- Factors on which solubility depends:

1. Nature of solute
2. Nature of solvent
3. Temperature
4. Pressure
SOLUBILITY OF SOLID SOLUTE DISSOLVED IN LIQUID SOLVENT

- The amount of the solid solute that dissolves in 100g of the solvent at a given temperature
to form a saturated solution.

- Factors affecting the solubility of a solid in a liquid:

1. Nature of solute and the solvent.

2. Temperature
3. Pressure has almost insignificant effect on the solubility of a solid in a liquid.

- Nature of solute and the solvent:

1. Every solid does not dissolve in a liquid, a solid dissolves in a liquid(solvent) if the
intermolecular interactions are similar in solute and the solvent. i.e we also called ʻ’like
dissolves like’’ which also means polar solute dissolve in polar solvent and non polar
solute dissolve in non polar solvent.
2. Ionic (or polar) compounds dissolve more easily in polar solvents like water and are very little soluble or almost
insoluble in non polar solvents like benzene, ethers, carbon tetrachloride.

3. Non polar (covalent or organic) compounds are soluble in non polar solvents like benzene, ethers, carbon
tetrachloride.

- Effect of temperature:
1. The solubility of solid in liquid may increase or decrease with increase in temperature:

(A) The solubility of solid solutes increases with increase in temperature.

- If the solute dissolves with absorption of heat (endothermic process), the solubility increases with rise in
temperature.

(B) The solubility of solid solutes decreases with increase in temperature.

- If the solute dissolves with evolution of heat (exothermic process), the solubility decreases with rise in
temperature.
(C) For some solids, solubility shows irregular behaviour with increase in temperature.

- Effect of Pressure:

Pressure does not have any significant effect on solubility of solids in liquids.
It is so because solids and liquids are highly incompressible and practically
remain unaffected by changes in pressure.
SOLUBILITY OF GAS SOLUTE DISSOLVED IN LIQUID SOLVENT

- Volume of the gas that can dissolve in a fixed volume of the liquid to form the saturated solution at a
given temperature.

- Factors affecting the solubility of a solid in a liquid:

1. Nature of gas and the solvent.

2. Temperature
3. Pressure

- Nature of solute and the solvent:

1. The most soluble gases are those which chemically react with the liquid solvent.
2. N2, H2, O2, etc dissolve in water only a small extent whereas NH3, SO2, HCL etc are highly soluble in
water. The solubility of these gases are high in water due to the chemical reactions of these gases with
water to form ammonium hydroxide, sulphurous acid ad hydrochloric acid respectively.
- Effect of temperature:
1. The solubility of a gas decreases with increase of temperature.

- Effect of pressure:

1. The solubility of gases increases with increase of pressure.

2. The concentration of the dissolved gas is proportional to the pressure on the gas above the solution.
3. William henry made systematic studies of the solubility of a gas in a liquid, he gave quantitative relationship
between solubility of a gas in a solvent and pressure which is known as henry’s law.
HENRY’S LAW

The mass of a gas dissolved per unit volume of the solvent at a constant temperature is directly proportional
to the pressure of the gas in equilibrium with the solution.

M = mass of the gas, Magnitude of ʻ’K’’ depends on the

P = pressure of the gas, nature of the gas, nature of the solvent,
K = proportionality constant temperature and units of pressure.

- Dalton, during the same period, also concluded independently that the solubility of a gas in a liquid
solution depends upon the partial pressure of the gas.
- Now, if we use mole fraction of the gas in the solution as a measure of its solubility, then mole fraction of
the gas in the solution is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas over the solution.
 KH is called Henry’s law constant,
units will be atm or bar or k bar

HENRY’S LAW: The partial pressure of the gas in the vapour phase is directly proportional to the mole
fraction of the gas in the solution.

GRAPH: PARTIAL PRESSURE VS MOLE FRACTION OF THE GAS

Slope of the graph gives KH value which conclude different gases

have different KH value.
Conclusion from graph and table data:

1. Henry’s law constant depend upon the nature of gas.

2. Higher the value of the henry’s law constant at a particular pressure, the lower is the solubility of the gas
in the liquid.
3. The value of henry’s law constant increases with increase in temperature which simply indicate that the
solubility of gases decreases with increase of temperature. This is the reason that aquatic species are more
comfortable in cold water rather than warm water.
APPLICATIONS OF HENRY’S LAW

1. To increase the solubility of CO2 in soda water and soft drinks, the
bottle is sealed under high pressure. When the bottle is opened under
normal atmospheric conditions; the pressure inside the bottle falls to
atmospheric pressure and the excess CO2 bubbles out of the solution
causing effervescence.

2. To avoid the toxic effects of high concentration of nitrogen in the

blood, this condition is called bends, the tanks used by scuba divers are
filled with air diluted with helium (11.7% helium, 56.2% nitrogen and 32.1%
oxygen).

3. At high altitudes, low blood oxygen causes climbers to become weak

and make them unable to think clearly, which are symptoms of a
condition known as anoxia.
FOR REFRENCE:
PRACTICE SESSION
VAPOUR PRESSURE

- When a liquid is taken in a closed vessel, a part of the liquid evaporates and its
vapours occupy the available empty space.

- These vapours cannot escape as the vessel is closed. They would rather
have a tendency to condense into liquid form.

- In fact an equilibrium is established between vapour phase and liquid phase

and the pressure that its vapour exert is termed as vapour pressure. Thus,
vapour pressure of a liquid may be defined as the pressure exerted by the
vapours above the liquid surface in equilibrium with the liquid phase at a given
temperature.
The vapour pressure of a liquid depends on the following factors:

- Nature of the liquid: Liquids having weak intermolecular forces are volatile and therefore have greater
vapour pressure.

- Temperature: Vapour pressure of a liquid increases with increase in temperature. This is because with
increase in temperature, the kinetic energy of the molecules increases and therefore large number of
molecules are available for escaping from the surface of the liquid.
VAPOUR PRESSURE OF LIQUID-LIQUID SOLUTIONS (VOLATILE COMPONENT DISSOLVED IN
VOLATILE COMPONENT)

- Raoult’s Law for solutions of volatile liquids: It states that for a

solution of volatile liquids the partial pressure of each component
of the solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction present in
a solution.

where pA and pB are partial vapour pressures, xA and xB are mole

fractions, poA and poB are the vapour pressure of pure components
A and B respectively.
 If p is total vapour pressure then according to Dalton’s law of partial
pressure,

As poA and poB are constants at a given temperature, it is evident from the above
equations that the total vapour pressure varies linearly with the mole fraction xB.
VAPOUR PRESSURE OF SOLID-LIQUID SOLUTIONS (NON-VOLATILE COMPONENT DISSOLVED IN
VOLATILE COMPONENT)

- It states that the relative lowering of vapour pressure is equal to mole

fractions of solute which is non-volatile.

Relative lowering of vapour pressure = Mole fraction of solute

RAOULT’S LAW AS A SPECIAL CASE OF HENRY’S LAW

- In the solution of a gas in a liquid, if one of the components is so volatile

that it exists as a gas, then it can be said that Raoult’s law becomes a
special case of Henry’s law in which KH becomes equal to poA.
MOLE FRACTION IN VAPOUR PHASE

- The composition of the vapour phase in equilibrium with the solution can be determined from the partial
pressure of the two components. If yA and yB are the mole fractions of components A and B respectively in
the vapour phase,
PRACTICE SESSION
IDEAL AND NON-IDEAL SOLUTIONS

(a) Ideal solution: A solution is called an ideal solution if it obeys Raoult’s

law over a wide range of concentration at a specified temperature.

For an ideal solution,

Liquids having similar nature and structure are likely to form ideal solutions.

Reason for formation of ideal solutions:

(i) If FA – A is the force of attraction between molecules of A and FB – B is that of molecules of B, then A
and B will form an ideal solution only if,

(ii) The solution of A and B liquids will be ideal if A and B have similar structures and polarity. Methanol and
ethanol have the same functional group and almost same polarity and therefore, form ideal solutions.
Examples:
1. Methanol and ethanol
2. n-hexane and n-heptane
3. Benzene and toluene
4. Bromoethane and chloroethane.
NON-IDEAL SOLUTIONS

A solution which does not obey Raoult’s law for all concentrations is called a non-ideal
solution.

A non-ideal solution can show either positive or negative deviation from Raoult’s law.
NON-IDEAL SOLUTIONS SHOWING POSITIVE DEVIATION TOWARDS RAOULT’S LAW

- The deviation will be called positive when the partial pressure of each
component and the resultant total pressure are greater than the pressure
expected on the basis of Raoult’s law.

- In such cases, the intermolecular forces between solvent–solute

molecules (FA – B) are weaker than those between solvent–solvent (FA
–A) and solute–solute (FB – B) molecules.

- This shows that the molecules of A or B will escape more easily from the
surface of the solution,i.e., the vapour pressure of solution will be higher.
Examples:

1. Ethyl alcohol and water

2. Acetone and carbon disulphide
3. Carbon tetrachloride and benzene
4. Acetone and benzene
5. Ethanol and acetone
NON-IDEAL SOLUTIONS SHOWING NEGATIVE DEVIATION TOWARDS RAOULT’S LAW

- The deviation is called negative deviation, if the partial pressure of

each
component (A and B) and resultant total vapour pressure are less than
the pressure expected on the basis of Raoult’s law.
- This type of deviation is shown by the solutions in which

- Due to this, there is decrease in the escaping tendency of A or B

molecules from the surface of solution. Consequently, the vapour
pressure of the solution will be lower.
Examples:

1. HNO3 and water

2. Chloroform and acetone
3. Acetic acid and pyridine
4. Hydrochloric acid and water
5. Phenol and aniline
AZEOTROPES

- Azeotropes are binary mixtures having the same composition in liquid and vapour phase and boil at
a constant temperature.

MINIMUM BOILING AZEOTROPES

- These are the binary mixtures whose boiling point is less than either of the two components. The
non-ideal solutions which show a large positive deviation from Raoult’s law form minimum boiling
azeotrope at a specific composition, e.g., a mixture of 94.5% ethyl alcohol and 4.5% water by
volume.
MAXIMUM BOILING AZEOTROPES

- These are the binary mixtures whose boiling point is more than either of the two components. The
solutions that show large negative deviation from Raoults’s law form maximum boiling azeotrope
at a specific composition, e.g., a mixture of 68% HNO3 and 32% H2O by mass.
PRACTICE SESSION
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES

- The dilute solutions of non-volatile solutes exhibit certain characteristic properties which
do not depend upon the nature of the solute but depend only on the number of
particles(molecules or ions) of the solute i.e on the molar concentration of the solute.
These are called colligative properties.

- The four important colligative properties are:

1. Relative lowering in vapour pressure

2. Elevation in boiling point
3. Depression in freezing point
4. Osmotic pressure.
RELATIVE LOWERING OF VAPOUR PRESSURE

- The addition of a non-volatile solute to a volatile solvent decreases the escaping tendency of the solvent
molecules from the surface of solutions as some of the surface area is occupied by non-volatile solute
particles.

- According to Raoult’s law, the relative lowering of vapour pressure is equal to mole fraction of solute.

For a dilute solution, nB << nA, hence neglecting nB in the denominator,

ELEVATION IN BOILING POINT

- Boiling point is the temperature at which the vapour pressure of a liquid

becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure.

- When a non-volatile solute is added to a volatile solvent, the vapour

pressure of the solvent decreases.

- In order to make this solution boil, its vapour pressure must be

increased by raising the temperature above the boiling point of the pure
solvent.

- The difference in the boilingpoint of solution (Tbo) and that of pure

solvent (Tb) is called elevation of boiling point (DTb).

- For dilute solution, it has been found that the elevation of boiling point is directly proportional to the
molal concentration of the solute in the solution.
- where Kb is a constant called molal elevation constant or ebullioscopic constant.

- When m = 1 mol kg–1, DTb = Kb

- molal elevation constant may be defined as the elevation in boiling point when
one mole of a non-volatile solute is dissolved in one kilogram (1000 g) of solvent.
The unit of Kb is K kg mol–1.
DEPRESSION IN FREEZING POINT

- Freezing point is defined as the temperature at which the vapour

pressure of a substance in its liquid phase is equal to its vapour pressure
in the solid
Phase.

- A solution freezes when its vapour pressure equals the vapour pressure
of the pure solid solvent.

- Whenever a non-volatile solute is added to the volatile solvent, its

vapour pressure decreases and it would become equal to that of solid
solvent at a lower temperature.

- The difference in the freezing point of pure solvent (Tfo) and that of the
solution (Tf) is known as depression of freezing point (DTf).

- It has been found that for a dilute solution, depression in freezing is

directly proportional to molality of the solution.
- where Kf is a constant called molal depression constant or cryoscopic constant.

- When m = 1 mol kg–1, DTf = Kf

- molal depression constant may be defined as the depression in freezing point

when one mole of non-volatile solute is dissolved in one kilogram (1000 g) of
solvent. The unit of Kf is K kg mol–1.
OSMOTIC PRESSURE

- When a solution is separated from its solvent by a semipermeable membrane (SPM) there is a
spontaneous flow of solvent molecules from solvent compartment to solution compartment. The
phenomenon is called osmosis. This movement of solvent is only in one direction. In diffusion, however,
movement takes place in both the directions.

- The solvent molecules move from the less concentrated solution (low concentration) to a more
concentrated solution (higher solute concentration) through a semipermeable membrane.
- Semipermeable membrane (SPM): A membrane through which only
solvent molecules can pass but not the solute ones. Cellophane,
parchment paper and the wall of living cell are the examples of SPM. It is
also made of inorganic material, copper ferrocyanide [Cu2[Fe(CN)6].

- Osmotic pressure: The osmotic pressure of a solution is the excess

pressure that must be applied to a solution to prevent osmosis, i.e., to
stop the passage of solvent molecules into it through semipermeable
membrane.
- Reverse osmosis: If a pressure larger than the osmotic pressure is applied to the solution side, the
pure solvent (or water) flows out of the solution through the semipermeable membrane. In this way
the direction of osmosis is reversed and so the process is called reverse osmosis.

- we can say that reverse osmosis is just opposite to the osmosis when an extra pressure is applied.
Reverse osmosis is used in desalination to get pure water from sea water.

- Isotonic solutions: Two solutions are said to be isotonic when they exert the same osmotic pressure
because they have the same molar concentration. All intravenous injections must be isotonic with
body fluids.

- Isosmotic solutions: When two isotonic solutions are separated by a semipermeable membrane, no
osmosis occurs. The solutions are called isosmotic solutions.

- Hypotonic solutions: A solution having lower osmotic pressure than the other solution is said to be
hypotonic with respect to the other solution.

- Hypertonic solution: A solution having higher osmotic pressure than the other solution is said to be
hypertonic with respect to other solution.

- Plasmolysis: When the cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, the fluid comes out of the cell due to
osmosis and as a result cell material shrinks gradually. This process is called plasmolysis.
APPLICATIONS OF OSMOTIC PRESSURE

1. If the cell comes in contact with water or some dilute solution whose
osmotic pressure is less than that of cell sap present in the cell, there will
be a tendency of water to enter into the cell through the cell wall. This
causes swelling or rupture of the cell, a process known as hemolysis.

2. If the cell comes in contact with a solution of higher osmotic pressure

than that of cell sap present in the cell, the water from the cell will go out
resulting shrinkage of the cell. The shrinking of the cells is called
plasmolysis.

3. The solutions having same osmotic pressure at a same temperature

are called isotonic solutions or isosomotic solutions.

4. If two solutions have same osmotic pressure at the same temperature.

Thus, solutions of equimolar concentrations at the same temperature
have same osmotic pressure, i.e., isotonic.

5. If a solution has more osmotic pressure than some other solution, it is

called hypertonic. Eg 0.1M urea solution exerts higher osmotic pressure
than 0.05M sucrose solution. Hence, 0.1M urea solution is hypertonic to
0.05M sucrose solution.
6. A solution having less osmotic pressure than the other solution is
called hypotonic. Eg 0.05M sucrose solution exerts lower osmotic
pressure than 0.1M urea solution, therefore, 0.05M sucrosse solution
is hypotonic to 0.1M urea solution.

7. A hypertonic solution will be more concentrated with respect to

other solution and hypotonic solution will be less concentrated with
respect to other solution.

8. Osmotic pressure method is used for measuring molecular

masses of proteins, polymers and others macro molecules because:

a) It can be measured around room temperature.

b) Osmotic pressure values are larger and measurable even for
dilute solutions.
c) Molarity of the solution is used instead of molality.

9. A pure sodium chloride solution with salt concentration less than

0.91% (mass/volume) is said to be hypotonic solution, when red
blood cells are placed in this solutions, water flows into the cells and
they swell or burst.
10. A pure sodium chloride solution with salt concentration more
than 0.91% (mass/volume) is said to be hypertonic solution. When
red blood cells are placed in this solution, water flows out of the
cells and they shrinks or collapse due to loss of water by osmosis.

11. People taking a lot of salt or salty food experience water

retension in the tissue cells and intercellular spaces because of
osmosis. The swelling or puffiness is called edema.

12. Carrots which have become limp because of water loss into
atmosphere can be placed into water which makes them firm
again. Water will move into them through osmosis.

13. A raw mango placed in concentrated salt solution (brine) loses

water due to osmosis and shrivel into pickle.

14. Wilted flowers revive when placed in fresh water due to osmosis.

15. The preservation of meat y salting and fruits y adding sugar

protects against arterial action. A bacterium on salted meat or
candid fruit loses water due to osmosis, shrivels and ultimately dies.
ABNORMAL MOLAR MASS

ELECTROLYTIC SOLUTIONS

1. The colligative properties help us to calculate the molar

masses of solutes. But in some cases, the molar masses
determined by these methods do not agree with the
expected or theoretical values.

2. The accurate values of molar masses can be obtained

only if the following two conditions are satisfied:

A) The solutions should be dilute.

B) The solute must not dissociate or associate in
solution.
3. The equations derived for measuring colligative are for
non-electrolyte solutes which do not undergo any
dissociation or association in the solution.

4. But some solutes shows discrepancies in determination

of molar mass arise when the solutes dissociate or
associate on dissolving in a solvent. This is because due to
association or the dissociation of the solute molecules in
the solution, the number of molecules undergo change.
Therefore abnormal molar masses are obtained.

5. Colligative property of an electrolyte is always greater

than that of non electrolyte solution of the same molar
concentration because of the dissociation of the
electrolyte.
VAN’T HOFF FACTOR