CONTENTS

What is Biopsychology? Divisions of Biopsychology.

Sensory systems: General and specific sensations, receptors and processes

Neurons: Structure, functions, types, neural impulse, synaptic transmission.

Neurotransmitters.

The Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems – Structure and functions. Neuroplasticity.

Methods of Physiological Psychology: Invasive methods – Anatomical methods,

degeneration techniques, lesion techniques, chemical methods, microelectrode
studies. Non-invasive methods – EEG, Scanning methods.

Muscular and Glandular system: Types and functions Biological basis of Motivation: Hunger,
Thirst, Sleep and Sex. Biological basis of emotion: The Limbic system, Hormonal regulation
of behavior. Genetics and behavior: Chromosomal anomalies; Nature-Nurture
controversy [Twin studies and adoption studies]

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UNIT
4 Biological Basis
Of Behavior

NATURE AND SCOPE perceptions, emotions, thoughts, and

memories, might be produced by brain
Neuroscience is the scientific study of the activity. Hebb’s theory did much to
nervous system may prove to be the brains discredit the view that psychological
ultimate challenge. Neuroscience functioning is too complex to have its
comprises several related disciplines. The roots in the physiology and chemistry of
primary discipline being biopsychology. the brain. Hebb based his theory on
experiments involving both humans and
Biopsychology is a field devoted to our laboratory animals, on clinical case
understanding of the physiology/biology of studies, and on logical arguments
behavior. It is also known as physiological developed from his own insightful
psychology, psychobiology, observations of daily life. This eclectic
behavioral biology, or behavioral approach has become a hallmark of bio
neuroscience; but preferable term is psychological inquiry.
biopsychology because it denotes a
biological approach to the study of Bio-psychologists draw together
psychology rather than a psychological knowledge from the other neuroscientific
approach to the study of biology. disciplines and apply it to the study of
Psychology is the scientific study of behavior. The following are a few of the
behavior, the scientific study of all overt disciplines of neuroscience that are
activities of the organism as well as all the particularly relevant to biopsychology:
internal processes that are presumed to
underlie them (e.g., learning, memory, Neuroanatomical: The study of the
motivation, perception, and emotion). structure of the nervous system.
Neurochemistry: The study of the
The study of the biology of behavior has a chemical bases of neural activity.
long history, but biopsychology did not Neuroendocrinology: The study of
develop into a major neuroscientific interactions between the nervous
discipline until the 20th century. Although system and the endocrine system.
it is not possible to specify the exact date Neuropathology: The study of nervous
of biopsychology’s birth, the publication system disorders.
of The Organization of Behavior in 1949 Neuropharmacology: The study of the
by D. O. Hebb played a key role in its effects of drugs on neural activity.
emergence, Hebb developed the first Neurophysiology: The study of the
comprehensive theory of how complex functions and activities of the nervous
psychological phenomena, such as system.

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DIVISIONS OF BIOPSYCHOLOGY

Biopsychology has six major divisions:

Physiological Psychology
Psychopharmacology
Neuropsychology
Psychophysiology
Cognitive Neuroscience
Comparative Psychology

For simplicity, they are presented as distinct approaches; but there is much overlap
among them, and many bio psychologists regularly follow more than one approach.

subjects of physiological psychology

PHYSIOLOGICAL research are almost always laboratory
PSYCHOLOGY: animals, because the focus on direct
brain manipulation and controlled
It is the division of biopsychology that experiments precludes the use of
studies the neural mechanisms of human subjects in most instances.
behavior through the direct There is also a tradition of pure
manipulation of the brain in controlled research in physiological psychology;
experiments surgical and electrical the emphasis is usually on research that
methods of brain manipulation. The contributes to the development of

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theories of the neural control of layer of the cerebral hemispheres, the

behavior rather than on research that is cerebral cortex is most likely to be
of immediate practical benefit. damaged by accident or surgery; this is
one reason why neuropsychology has
PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY: focused on this important part of the
human brain. Neuropsychology is the
Psychopharmacology is similar to most applied of the biopsychological
physiological psychology, except that subdisciplines.
it focuses on the manipulation of
neural activity and behavior with PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY:
drugs. In fact, many of the early
psychopharmacologists were simply Psychophysiology is the division of
physiological psychologists who biopsychology that studies the relation
moved into drug research, and many of between physiological activity and
today’s bio psychologists identify psychological processes in human
closely with both approaches. subjects. Because the subjects of
However, the study of the effects of psychophysiological research are
drugs on the brain and behavior has human, psychophysiological recording
become so specialized that procedures are typically noninvasive;
psychopharmacology is regarded as a that is, the physiological activity is
separate discipline. A substantial recorded from the surface of the body.
portion of psychopharmacological The usual measure of brain activity is
research is applied. Although drugs are the scalp electroencephalogram (EEG).
sometimes used by psych Other common psychophysiological
pharmacologists to study the basic measures are muscle tension, eye
principles of brain behavior movement, and several indicators of
interaction, the purpose of many autonomic nervous system activity
psychopharmacological experiments is (e.g., heart rate, blood pressure, pupil
to develop therapeutic drugs or to dilation, and electrical conductance of
reduce drug abuse. the skin). The autonomic nervous
Psychopharmacologists study the system (ANS) is the division of the
effects of drugs on laboratory species nervous system that regulates the
and on humans, if the ethics of the body’s inner environment. Most
situation permits it. psychophysiological research focuses
on understanding the physiology of
NEUROPSYCHOLOGY: psychological processes, such as
attention, emotion, and information
Neuropsychology is the study of the processing, but there have also been a
psychological effects of brain damage numberofinterestingclinical
in human patients. Obviously, human applications of the
subjects cannot ethically be exposed to psychophysiological method. For
experimental treatments that endanger example, psychophysiological
normal brain function. Consequently, experiments have indicated that
neuropsychology deals almost schizophrenics have difficulty
exclusively with case studies and quasi smoothly tracking a moving object
experimental studies of patients with such as a pendulum (e.g., Chen et al.,
brain damage resulting from disease, 2008).
accident, or neurosurgery. The outer

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 COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE: genetics (the study of genetic
influences on behavior.
Cognitive neuroscience is the youngest
division of biopsychology, but it is
currently among the most active and SENSORY SYSTEMS:
exciting. Cognitive neuroscientists GENERAL AND SPECIFIC
study the neural bases of cognition, a SENSATIONS, RECEPTORS
term that generally refers to higher AND PROCESSES
intellectual processes such as thought,
Sensory receptors are specialized cells,
memory, attention, and complex
usually neurons, which detect and respond
perceptual processes. Because of its
to physical and chemical stimuli. Most are
focus on cognition, most cognitive
exquisitely sensitive to highly specific
neuroscience research involves human
inputs, or sensory modalities, such as
subjects; and because of its focus on
movement, odor chemicals or visible light
human subjects, its methods tend to be
photons. Detection of the physical stimulus
noninvasive, rather than involving
commonly occurs in a morphologically
penetration or direct manipulation of
and physiologically specialized cell region,
the brain. The major method of
while information about the stimulus is
cognitive neuroscience is functional
transmitted by action potentials along a
brain imaging (recording images of the
sensory axon to the animal's central
activity of the living human brain)
nervous system.
while a subject is engaged in a
particular cognitive activity.
Thus, a major role of sensory receptors is
COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY: to help us learn about the environment
around us, or about the state of our
Comparative psychology is the internal environment. Stimuli from
division of biopsychology that deals varying sources, and of different types, are
generally with the biology of behavior, received and changed into the
rather than specifically with the neural electrochemical signals of the nervous
mechanisms of behavior. Comparative system. This occurs when a stimulus
psychologists compare the behavior of changes the cell membrane potential of a
different species in order to understand sensory neuron. The stimulus causes the
the evolution, genetics, and sensory cell to produce an action potential
adaptiveness of behavior. Some that is relayed into the central nervous
comparative psychologists study system (CNS), where it is integrated with
behavior in the laboratory; others other sensory information—or sometimes
engage in ethological research i.e. the higher cognitive functions—to become a
study of animal behavior in its natural conscious perception of that stimulus. The
environment. The two important areas central integration may then lead to a
of biopsychological research that also motor response. Describing sensory
employ comparative analysis are often function with the term sensation or
considered as part of comparative perception is a deliberate distinction.
psychology. One of these is Sensation is the activation of sensory
evolutionary psychology (a subfield receptor cells at the level of the stimulus.
that focuses on understanding behavior Perception is the central processing of
by considering its likely evolutionary sensory stimuli into a meaningful pattern.
origins. The other is behavioral Perception is dependent on sensation,
but not all

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sensations are perceived. Receptors are STRUCTURAL RECEPTOR TYPES

the cells or structures that detect The cells that interpret information about
sensations. A receptor cell is changed the environment can be either (1) a neuron
directly by a stimulus. A trans membrane that has a free nerve ending, with dendrites
protein receptor is a protein in the cell embedded in tissue that would receive a
membrane that mediates a physiological sensation; (2) a neuron that has an
change in a neuron, most often through the encapsulated ending in which the sensory
opening of ion channels or changes in the nerve endings are encapsulated in
cell signaling processes. Trans membrane connective tissue that enhances their
receptors are activated by chemicals called sensitivity; or (3) a specialized receptor
ligands. For example, a molecule in food cell, which has distinct structural
can serve as a ligand for taste receptors. components that interpret a specific type of
Other trans membrane proteins, which are stimulus. The pain and temperature
not accurately called receptors, are receptors in the dermis of the skin are
sensitive to mechanical or thermal examples of neurons that have free nerve
changes. Physical changes in these endings. Also located in the dermis of the
proteins increase ion flow across the skin are lamellate corpuscles, neurons with
membrane, and can generate an action encapsulated nerve endings that respond to
potential or a graded potential in the pressure and touch. The cells in the retina
sensory neurons. that respond to light stimuli are an
example of a specialized receptor, a
SENSORY RECEPTORS photoreceptor.
Stimuli in the environment activate Another way that receptors can be
specialized receptor cells in the peripheral classified is based on their location relative
nervous system. Different types of stimuli to the stimuli. An exteroceptor is a
are sensed by different types of receptor receptor that is located near a stimulus in
cells. Receptor cells can be classified into the external environment, such as the
types on the basis of three different somatosensory receptors that are located in
criteria: cell type, position, and function. the skin. An interceptor is one that
Receptors can be classified structurally on interprets stimuli from internal organs and
the basis of cell type and their position in tissues, such as the receptors that sense the
relation to stimuli they sense. They can increase in blood pressure in the aorta or
also be classified functionally on the basis carotid sinus. Finally, a proprioceptor is a
of the transduction of stimuli, or how the receptor located near a moving part of the
mechanical stimulus, light, or chemical body, such as a muscle, that interprets the
changed the cell membrane potential. positions of the tissues as they move.

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FUNCTIONAL RECEPTOR TYPES nociceptor. Physical stimuli, such as
pressure and vibration, as well as the
A third classification of receptors is by sensation of sound and body position
how the receptor transduces stimuli into (balance), are interpreted through a
membrane potential changes. Stimuli are mechanoreceptor. Another physical
of three general types. Some stimuli are stimulus that has its own type of receptor
ions and macromolecules that affect is temperature, which is sensed through a
transmembrane receptor proteins when thermoreceptor that is either sensitive to
these chemicals diffuse across the cell temperatures above (heat) or below (cold)
membrane. Some stimuli are physical normal body temperature.
variations in the environment that affect
receptor cell membrane potentials. Other SENSORY MODALITIES
stimuli include the electromagnetic
radiation from visible light. For humans, Ask anyone what the senses are, and they
the only electromagnetic energy that is are likely to list the five major senses—
perceived by our eyes is visible light. taste, smell, touch, hearing, and sight.
Some other organisms have receptors that However, these are not all of the senses.
humans lack, such as the heat sensors of The most obvious omission from this list is
snakes, the ultraviolet light sensors of balance. Also, what is referred to simply as
bees, or magnetic receptors in migratory touch can be further subdivided into
birds. pressure, vibration, stretch, and hair-
follicle position, on the basis of the type of
Receptor cells can be further categorized mechanoreceptors that perceive these
on the basis of the type of stimuli they touch sensations. Other overlooked senses
transduce. Chemical stimuli can be include temperature perception by
interpreted by a chemoreceptor that thermoreceptors and pain perception by
interprets chemical stimuli, such as an nociceptors. Within the realm of
object’s taste or smell. Osmoreceptors physiology, senses can be classified as either
respond to solute concentrations of body general or specific.
fluids. Additionally, pain is primarily a
chemical sense that interprets the presence A GENERAL SENSE is one that is
of chemicals from tissue damage, or distributed throughout the body and has
similar intense stimuli, through a

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receptor cells within the structures of other modality represents the sensation of a
organs. Mechanoreceptors in the skin, specific type of stimulus. For example, the
muscles, or the walls of blood vessels are general sense of touch, which is known as
examples of this type. General senses often somatosensation, can be separated into
contribute to the sense of touch, as light pressure, deep pressure, vibration,
described above, or to proprioception itch, pain, temperature, or hair movement.
(body movement and detect changes that
occur in muscles, tendons, ligaments and (EXTRA FOR REFERENCE –
joint tissues) and kinesthesia (body IMPORTANT FOR NET)
movement), or to a visceral sense, which AUDITION (HEARING)
is most important to autonomic functions
(i.e. detect changes that occur in internal Hearing, or audition, is the transduction of
organs). sound waves into a neural signal that is
made possible by the structures of the ear
A SPECIAL SENSE is one that has a (Figure 4). The large, fleshy structure on
the lateral aspect of the head is known as
specific organ devoted to it, namely the
eye, inner ear, tongue, or nose. The senses the auricle. Some sources will also refer to
this structure as the pinna, though that term
of taste and smell (detected by
chemoreceptors), hearing and equilibrium is more appropriate for a structure that can
be moved, such as the external ear of a cat.
(detected by mechanoreceptors), and vision
(detected by photoreceptors) are the The C-shaped curves of the auricle direct
sound waves toward the auditory canal.
(detected by photoreceptors) are the five
special senses. They require specialized The canal enters the skull through the
external auditory meatus of the temporal
sensory receptors within large, complex
sensory organs in the head region. bone. At the end of the auditory canal is
the tympanic membrane, or ear drum,
which vibrates after it is struck by sound
Each of the senses is referred to as a
waves. The auricle, ear canal, and
sensory modality. Modality refers to the
tympanic membrane are often referred to
way that information is encoded, which is
as the external ear. The middle ear consists
similar to the idea of transduction. The
of a space spanned by three small bones
main sensory modalities can be described
called the ossicles. The three ossicles are
on the basis of how each is transduced.
the malleus, incus, and stapes, which are
The chemical senses are taste and smell.
Latin names that roughly translate to
The general sense that is usually referred
hammer, anvil, and stirrup. The malleus is
to as touch includes chemical sensation in
attached to the tympanic membrane and
the form of nociception, or pain. Pressure,
articulates with the incus. The incus, in
vibration, muscle stretch, and the
turn, articulates with the stapes. The stapes
movement of hair by an external stimulus,
is then attached to the inner ear, where the
are all sensed by mechanoreceptors.
sound waves will be transduced into a
Hearing and balance are also sensed by
neural signal. The middle ear is connected
mechanoreceptors. Finally, vision involves
to the pharynx through the Eustachian
the activation of photoreceptors.
tube, which helps equilibrate air pressure
across the tympanic membrane. The tube
Listing all the different sensory modalities, is normally closed but will pop open when
which can number as many as 17, involves the muscles of the pharynx contract during
separating the five major senses into more swallowing or yawning.
specific categories, or submodalities, of
the larger sense. An individual sensory

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The inner ear is often described as a bony scala vestibule extends from the oval
labyrinth, as it is composed of a series of window, travelling above the cochlear
canals embedded within the temporal duct, which is the central cavity of the
bone. It has two separate regions, the cochlea that contains the sound-
cochlea and the vestibule, which are transducing neurons.
responsible for hearing and balance,
respectively. The neural signals from these EQUILIBRIUM (BALANCE)
two regions are relayed to the brain stem
through separate fiber bundles. However, Along with audition, the inner ear is
these two distinct bundles travel together responsible for encoding information about
from the inner ear to the brain stem as the equilibrium, the sense of balance. A
vestibulocochlear nerve. Sound is similar mechanoreceptor—a hair cell with
transduced into neural signals within the stereocilia—senses head position, head
cochlear region of the inner ear, which movement, and whether our bodies are in
contains the sensory neurons of the spiral motion. These cells are located within the
ganglia. These ganglia are located within vestibule of the inner ear. Head position is
the spiral-shaped cochlea of the inner ear. sensed by the utricle and saccule, whereas
The cochlea is attached to the stapes head movement is sensed by the
through the oval window. semicircular canals. The neural signals
generated in the vestibular ganglion are
The oval window is located at the transmitted through the vestibulocochlear
beginning of a fluid-filled tube within the nerve to the brain stem and cerebellum.
cochlea called the scala vestibule. The

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NEURONS: STRUCTURE, FUNCTIONS, TYPES, NEURAL IMPULSE,

SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION. NEUROTRANSMITTERS.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS system (brain and the spinal cord), and
OF NEURONS bring motor information from the central
nervous system to the motor organs
NEURONS (muscles and the glands).

The neuron or nerve cell is the BASIC STRUCTURE

information-processing and information-
transmitting element of the nervous Nearly 12 billion neurons are found in the
system. It is the basic unit of our nervous human nervous system. They are of many
system and are specialized cells, which types and vary in shapes, size, chemical
possess the unique property of converting composition, and function. Most neurons
various forms of stimuli into electrical have, in one form or another, the following
impulses. They are also specialized for four structures or regions:
reception, conduction and transmission of
information in the form of electrochemical Cell body (Soma)
signals. They receive information from Dendrites
sense organs or from other adjacent Axons
neurons, carry them to the central nervous Terminal buttons.

SOMA: The soma (cell body) contains the actively engaged during the cell
nucleus and much of the machinery that reproduction and protein synthesis. Its
provides for the life processes of the cell. shape varies considerably in different
The genetic material of the neuron is kinds of neurons.
stored inside the nucleus and it becomes

DENDRITES: Dendron is the Greek word for tree, and the dendrites of the neuron look very
much like tress. Dendrites are branch-like specialized structures emanating from the soma.

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They are the receiving ends of a neuron. which become active when a signal arrives
Their function is to receive the incoming in electrochemical or biochemical form.
neural impulses from adjacent neurons or The received signals are passed on to soma
directly from the sense organs. On and then to axon so that the information is
dendrites are found specialized receptors, relayed to another neuron.

AXON: The axon is a long, slender tube, TERMINAL BUTTONS: The bud at the
often covered by myelin sheath, which is a end of a branch of an axon, forms synapses
fatty covering interrupted at the nodes of with another neuron, sends information to
ranvier. It carries information from the that neuron. Terminal buttons have a very
cell body to the terminal buttons. The special function: when an action potential
transferred excitation is focused by the traveling down the axon reaches them;
axon hillock on the axon and carried down they secrete a chemical called a
the axon to its terminal arborization at the neurotransmitter. This chemical either
next set of synapses. The basic message it excites or inhibits the receiving cell and
carries is called an action potential. When thus helps to determine whether an action
it reaches a point where the axon branches, potential occurs in its axon. An individual
it splits but does not diminish in size. Each neuron receives information from the
branch receives a full-strength action terminal buttons of axons of other neurons,
potential. and the terminal buttons form synapses
with other neurons.
.

INTERNAL STRUCTURE

The membrane defines the boundary of the membrane are a variety of protein molecules
cell. It consists of a double layer of lipid that have special
(fatlike) molecules. Embedded in the

functions. Some proteins detect permitting some substances to enter but

substances outside the cell (such as barring others and some proteins act as
hormones) and pass information to the transporters, actively carrying certain
interior of the cell. Other proteins molecules into or out of the cell.
control access to the interior of the cell,

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The cell is filled with cytoplasm, a SUPPORTING CELLS
jellylike substance that contains small Neurons constitute only about half the
specialized structures such as volume of the CNS. The rest consists of a
mitochondria, which break down variety of supporting cells. Neurons have a
nutrients such as glucose and provide the very high rate of metabolism but they have
cell with energy to perform its functions. no means of storing nutrients, they must
Mitochondria produce a chemical called constantly be supplied with nutrients and
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which can oxygen or they will quickly die. Thus,
be used throughout the cell as an energy supporting cells support and protect
source. neurons, which is very important to our
Mitochondria contain their own genetic existence.
information and multiply independently of GLIA or GLIAL CELLS
the cells in which they live. We inherit our The most important supporting cells of the
mitochondria from our mothers. The central nervous system are the neuroglia,
nucleus is present deep inside the cell and or “nerve glue”.
contains the chromosomes. Chromosomes
consist of long strands of deoxyribonucleic Glial cells surround neurons and hold
acid (DNA). The chromosomes contain the them in place, controlling their supply
recipes for making proteins. of nutrients and some of the chemicals
they need to exchange messages with
Proteins are important in cell functions. other neurons.
The cytoskeleton gives the neuron its
They insulate neurons from one
shape. It is made up of various kinds of
another so that neural messages do not
protein strands, linked to each other and
forming a cohesive mass. Besides get scrambled.
providing structure, proteins also serve as They even act as housekeepers,
enzymes, causing particular molecules to destroying and removing the carcasses
join together or split apart. Proteins are of neurons that are killed by disease or
also involved in transporting substances injury.
within the cell. For e.g., axoplasmic There are three most important types of
transport, is an active process that propels glial cells:
substances from one end of the axon to the
other. This transport is accomplished by 1. ASTROCYTE (or astroglia):
long protein strands called microtubules. Astrocyte means “star-shaped cell”.
Microtubules serve as railroad tracks,
guiding the progress of the substances It plays the following functions:
being transported. Movement from the Astrocytes provide physical support to
soma to the terminal buttons is called neurons. They serve as the matrix that
anterograde axoplasmic transport holds neurons in place. These cells also
(Antero- means “toward the front”). surround and isolate synapses, limiting
Retrograde axoplasmic transport carries the dispersion of neurotransmitters that
substances from the terminal buttons back are released by the terminal buttons.

to the soma. (Retro- means “toward the PHAGOCYTOSIS (PHAGEIN, “TO
back”). Energy for both forms of transport EAT”; KUTOS, “CELL”): When
is supplied by ATP, produced by the neurons die, certain kinds of astrocytes
mitochondria. take up the task of cleaning away the
debris. When these astrocytes contact a
piece of debris from a dead neuron,

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they push themselves against it, finally small portion of uncoated axon between
engulfing and digesting it. This the segments. This bare portion of axon
process is called phagocytosis. If there is called a node of Ranvier, after its
is a considerable amount of injured discoverer. During the development of
tissue to be cleaned up, astrocytes will the CNS, oligodendrocytes form
divide and produce enough new cells processes shaped something like canoe
to do the task. Once the dead tissue is paddles. Each of these paddle-shaped
broken down, a framework of processes then wraps itself many times
astrocytes will be left to fill in the around a segment of an axon and thus,
vacant area, and a specialized kind of produces layers of myelin. Each paddle
astrocyte will form scar tissue, thus becomes a segment of an axon’s
walling off the area. myelin sheath.
They help to control the chemical
composition of the fluid surrounding MICROGLIA: They are the smallest
 neurons by actively taking up or of the glial cells. Like some types of
releasing substances whose astrocytes, they act as phagocytes,
concentrations must be kept within engulfing and breaking down dead and
critical levels. dying neurons. They importantly serve

They produce some chemicals that as one of the representatives of the
 neurons need to fulfill their functions. immune system in the brain, protecting
Finally, astrocytes are involved in the brain from invading
providing nourishment to neurons. microorganisms. They are primarily
Recent evidence suggests that responsible for the inflammatory
astrocytes receive nutrients from the reaction in response to brain damage.
capillaries, store them, and release
them to neurons when needed
SCHWANN CELLS
(Tsacopoulos and Magistretti, 1996;
Magistretti et al., 1999). Most axons in the PNS are myelinated. In
the peripheral nervous system, the
Schwann cells perform the same functions
as the oligodendrocytes in the CNS of
2. OLIGODENDROCYTES: The
supporting axons and producing myelin.
principal function of oligodendrocytes The myelin sheath occurs in segments, as
is to provide support to axons and to it does in the CNS; each segment consists
produce the myelin sheath, which of a single Schwann cell, wrapped many
insulates most axons from one another. times around the axon. In the PNS, a
Myelin, 80 percent lipid and 20 percent Schwann cell provides myelin for only one
protein, is produced by the axon, and the entire Schwann cell and not
oligodendrocytes in the form of a tube merely a part of it surrounds the axon.
surrounding the axon. This tube does
not form a continuous sheath rather it
consists of a series of segment with a

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(Extra for References) FUNCTION OF THE BLOOD–BRAIN

THE BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER BARRIER
Blood-brain barrier is a semipermeable Transmission of messages from place to
barrier between the blood and the brain place in the brain depends on a delicate
produced by the cells in the walls of the balance between substances within
brain’s capillaries. neurons and in the extracellular fluid that
surrounds them. If the composition of the
Over one hundred years ago, Paul Ehrlich extracellular fluid is changed even slightly,
discovered that if a blue dye is injected the transmission of these messages will be
into an animal’s bloodstream, all tissues disrupted, which means that brain
except the brain and spinal will be tainted functions will be disrupted. The presence
blue. However, if the same dye is injected of the blood-brain barrier makes it easier
into the fluid-filled ventricles of the brain, to regulate the composition of this fluid.
the blue color will spread throughout the In addition, many of the foods that we eat
CNS (Bradbury, 1979). This experiment contain chemicals that would interfere
demonstrates that a barrier exists between with the transmission of information
the blood and the fluid that surrounds the between neurons. The blood-brain barrier
cells of the brain- the blood-brain barrier. prevents these chemicals from reaching the
Some substances can cross the blood-brain brain.
barrier; others cannot. Thus, it is In several places the barrier is relatively
selectively permeable. In most of the body, permeable, allowing substances that are
the cells that line the capillaries do not fit excluded elsewhere to cross freely. For
together absolutely tightly. Small gaps are example, the area postrema is a part of
found between them that permit the free the brain that controls vomiting. The
exchange of most substances between the blood-brain barrier is much weaker there,
blood plasma and the fluid outside the permitting neurons in this region to detect
capillaries that surrounds the cells of the the presence of toxic substances in the
body. In the central nervous system, the blood. A poison that enters the circulatory
capillaries lack these gaps; therefore, many system from the stomach can thus
substances cannot leave the blood. Thus, stimulate this area to initiate vomiting. If
the walls of the capillaries in the brain the organism is lucky, the poison can be
constitute the blood-brain barrier. Other expelled from the stomach before it causes
substances must be actively transported too much damage.
through the capillary walls by special
proteins. For example, glucose transporters
bring the brain its fuel, and other
transporters rid the brain of toxic waste
products. Neurons have four principal parts:
. soma (cell body), dendrites, axon, and
SUMMARY terminal buttons. They communicate
by means of synapses, located at the
Neurons are the most important cells of
 ends of the axons.
the nervous system. The central
nervous system (CNS) includes the When an action potential travels down
brain and spinal cord; the peripheral an axon, the terminal buttons secrete a
nervous system (PNS) includes nerves chemical that has either an excitatory
and some sensory organs. or an inhibitory effect on the neuron
with which it communicates. The

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interactions of circuits of neurons, CNS, astrocytes provide the primary

with their excitatory and inhibitory support and also remove debris and
synapses, are responsible for all of our form scar tissue in the event of tissue
perceptions, memories, thoughts, and damage. Oligodendrocytes form
behavior. myelin, the substance that insulates
Neurons contain a quantity of clear axons, and also support unmyelinated
cytoplasm, enclosed in a membrane. axons. Microglia are phagocytes that
Embedded in the membrane are protein serve as the representatives of the
molecules that have special functions, immune system.
such as the transport of particular Within the PNS, support and myelin
 substances into and out of the cell. The  are provided by the Schwann cells.
nucleus contains the genetic In most organs, molecules freely move
information- the recipes for the all the between the blood within the
proteins that the body can make. capillaries that serve them and the
Microtubules and other protein extracellular fluid that bathes their
filaments compose the cytoskeleton cells. The molecules pass through gaps
and help to transport chemicals from between the cells that line the
place to place. Mitochondria serve as capillaries. The walls of the capillaries
the location for most of the chemical of the CNS lack these gaps and thus
reactions through which the cell form a barrier between the blood and
 extracts energy from nutrients. the brain. As a consequence, fewer
Neurons in the central nervous system substances can enter or leave the brain
are supported by glial cells. Within the across the blood-brain barrier.

TYPES, NEURAL IMPULSE, SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION.

NEUROTRANSMITTERS.

TYPES OF NEURONS - SENSORY NEURONS

Neurons vary in structure, function, and Sensory neurons help you: taste, smell,
genetic makeup. Given the sheer number hear, see, and feel things around you.
of neurons, there are thousands of different
Sensory neurons are triggered by physical
types, much like there are thousands of
and chemical inputs from your
species of living organisms on Earth.
environment. Sound, touch, heat, and light
In terms of function, scientists classify are physical inputs. Smell and taste are
neurons into three broad types: sensory, chemical inputs.
motor, and interneurons.
For example, stepping on hot sand
activates sensory neurons in the soles of
your feet. Those neurons send a message
to your brain, which makes you aware of
the heat.

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MOTOR NEURONS INTERNEURONS

Motor neurons play a role in movement, Interneurons are neural intermediaries

including voluntary and involuntary found in your brain and spinal cord.
movements. These neurons allow the brain They’re the most common type of neuron.
and spinal cord to communicate with They pass signals from sensory neurons
muscles, organs, and glands all over the and other interneurons to motor neurons
body. and other interneurons. Often, they form
complex circuits that help you to react to
There are two types of motor neurons:
external stimuli.
lower and upper. Lower motor neurons
carry signals from the spinal cord to the For instance, when you touch something
smooth muscles and the skeletal muscles. hot, sensory neurons in your fingertips
Upper motor neurons carry signals send a signal to interneurons in your spinal
between your brain and spinal cord. cord. Some interneurons pass the signal on
to motor neurons in your hand, which
When you eat, for instance, lower motor
allows you to move your hand away. Other
neurons in your spinal cord send signals to
interneurons send a signal to the pain
the smooth muscles in your esophagus,
center in your brain, and you experience
stomach, and [Link] muscles
pain.
contract, which allows food to move
through your digestive tract.

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NEURAL IMPULSES A neuron affects other neurons by
releasing a neurotransmitter that binds to
The central nervous system (CNS) goes chemical receptors. The effect upon the
through a three-step process when it postsynaptic (receiving) neuron is
functions: sensory input, neural determined not by the presynaptic
processing, and motor output. The sensory (sending) neuron or by the
input stage is when the neurons (or neurotransmitter itself, but by the type of
excitable nerve cells) of the sensory organs receptor that is activated. A
are excited electrically. Neural impulses neurotransmitter can be thought of as a
from sensory receptors are sent to the brain key, and a receptor as a lock: the key
and spinal cord for processing. After the unlocks a certain response in the
brain has processed the information, neural postsynaptic neuron, communicating a
impulses are then conducted from the brain particular signal. However, in order for a
and spinal cord to muscles and glands, presynaptic neuron to release a
which is the resulting motor output. neurotransmitter to the next neuron in the
chain, it must go through a series of
changes in electric potential from neuron
STAGES OF NEURAL IMPULSES to neuron. In order for a neuron to move
from resting potential to action potential—
” Resting potential” is the name for the a short-term electrical change that allows
electrical state when a neuron is not an electrical signal to be passed from one
actively being signaled. A neuron at neuron to another—the neuron must be
resting potential has a membrane with stimulated by pressure, electricity,
established amounts of sodium (Na+) and chemicals, or another form of stimuli. The
potassium (K+) ions on either side, leaving level of stimulation that a neuron must
the inside of the neuron negatively charged receive to reach action potential is known
relative to the outside. as the threshold of excitation, and until it
reaches that threshold, nothing will
The action potential is a rapid change in happen. Different neurons are sensitive to
polarity that moves along the nerve fiber different stimuli, although most can
register pain.

The action potential has several stages.

2. REPOLARIZATION: Once the
1. DEPOLARIZATION: A stimulus electric gradient has reached the
starts the depolarization of the threshold of excitement, the
membrane. Depolarization, also “downswing” of repolarization begins.
referred to as the “upswing,” is caused The channels that let the positive
when positively charged sodium ions sodium ion channels through close up,
rush into a nerve cell. As these positive while channels that allow positive
ions rush in, the membrane of the potassium ions open, resulting in the
stimulated cell reverses its polarity so release of positively charged potassium
that the outside of the membrane is ions from the neuron. This expulsion
negative relative to the inside. acts to restore the localized negative
membrane potential of the cell,
bringing it back to its normal voltage.

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3. REFRACTORY PHASE: The potassium pump returns sodium ions to

refractory phase takes place over a the outside and potassium ions to the
short period of time after the inside. During the refractory phase this
depolarization stage. Shortly after the particular area of the nerve cell
sodium gates open, they close and go membrane cannot be depolarized.
into an inactive conformation. The Therefore, the neuron cannot reach
sodium gates cannot be opened again action potential during this “rest
until the membrane is repolarized to its period.”
normal resting potential. The sodium-

This process of depolarization, conditions. In unmyelinated axons

repolarization, and recovery moves (axons that are not covered by a myelin
along a nerve fiber from neuron to sheath), this happens in a continuous
neuron like a very fast wave. While an fashion because there are voltage-gated
action potential is in progress, another channels throughout the membrane. In
cannot be generated under the same myelinated axons (axons

covered by a myelin sheath), this process difference, as ions diffusing within the
is described as saltatory because voltage- cell have less resistance in a wider space.
gated channels are only found at the Damage to the myelin sheath from
nodes of Ranvier, and the electrical disease can cause severe impairment of
events seem to “jump” from one node to nerve-cell function. In addition, some
the next. Saltatory conduction is faster poisons and drugs interfere with nerve
than continuous conduction. The impulses by blocking sodium channels in
diameter of the axon also makes a nerves.

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ALL-OR-NONE SIGNALS REUPTAKE

The amplitude of an action potential is Reuptake refers to the reabsorption of a

independent of the amount of current that neurotransmitter by a presynaptic
produced it. In other words, larger currents (sending) neuron after it has performed its
do not create larger action potentials. function of transmitting a neural impulse.
Therefore, action potentials are said to be Reuptake is necessary for normal synaptic
all-or-none signals, since either they occur physiology because it allows for the
fully or they do not occur at all. The recycling of neurotransmitters and
frequency of action potentials is correlated regulates the neurotransmitter level in the
with the intensity of a stimulus. This is in synapse, thereby controlling how long a
contrast to receptor potentials, whose signal resulting from neurotransmitter
amplitudes are dependent on the intensity release lasts.
of a stimulus.
SYNAPSES
Synapse is the junction where neurons at the synapse—chemical or electrical.
trade information. It is not a physical During a chemical reaction, a chemical
component of a cell but rather a name for called a neurotransmitter is released from
the gap between two cells: the presynaptic one cell into another. In an electrical
cell (giving the signal) and the reaction, the electrical charge of one cell is
postsynaptic cell (receiving the signal).

There are two types of possible reactions influenced by the charge an adjacent cell.

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All synapses have a few common (Na+) suddenly rush through open
characteristics: sodium gates into a nerve cell. If the
membrane potential reaches -55 mV, it
Presynaptic cell: a specialized area has reached the threshold of excitation.
within the axon of the giving cell Additional sodium rushes in, and the
that transmits information to the membrane of the stimulated cell
 dendrite of the receiving cell. actually reverses its polarity so that the
 Synaptic cleft: the small space at outside of the membrane is negative
the synapse that receives relative to the inside. The change in
 neurotransmitters. voltage stimulates the opening of
G-protein coupled receptors: receptors additional sodium channels (called a
that sense molecules outside the voltage-gated ion channel), providing
cell and thereby activate signals what is known as a positive feedback
 within it. loop. Eventually, the cell potential
Ligand-gated ion channels: receptors reaches +40 mV, or the action
that are opened or closed in potential.
response to the binding of a 3. REPOLARIZATION. The
 chemical messenger. “downswing” of repolarization is
Postsynaptic cell: a specialized area caused by the closing of sodium ion
within the dendrite of the receiving channels and the opening of potassium
cell that contains receptors ion channels, resulting in the release of
designed to process positively charged potassium ions (K+)
neurotransmitters. from the nerve cell. This expulsion acts
to restore the localized negative
THE ELECTRICAL SYNAPSE membrane potential of the cell.
4. REFRACTORY PHASE. The
The stages of an electrical reaction at a refractory phase is a short period of
synapse are as follows: time after the repolarization stage.
Shortly after the sodium gates open,
1. RESTING POTENTIAL. The they close and go into an inactive
membrane of a neuron is normally at conformation where the cell’s
rest with established concentrations of membrane potential is actually even
sodium ions (Na+) and potassium ions lower than its baseline -70 mV. The
(K+) on either side. The membrane sodium gates cannot be opened again
potential (or, voltage across the until the membrane has completely
membrane) at this state is -70 mV, with repolarized to its normal resting
the inside being negative relative to the potential, -70 mV. The sodium-
outside. potassium pump returns sodium ions to
DEPOLARIZATION. the outside and potassium ions to the
A stimulus begins the depolarization of inside. During the refractory phase this
the membrane. Depolarization, also particular area of the nerve cell
referred to as the “upswing,” occurs membrane cannot be depolarized; the
when positively charged sodium ions cell cannot be excited.

THE CHEMICAL SYNAPSE

from an electrical reaction. Chemical
The process of a chemical reaction at the synapses are much more complex than
synapse has some important differences electrical synapses, which makes them
slower, but also allows them to generate

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different results. Like electrical reactions, membrane, but chemical reactions also
chemical reactions involve electrical require chemical messengers, such as
modifications at the postsynaptic neurotransmitters, to operate.

A basic chemical reaction at the synapse neurotransmitter contents into the

undergoes a few additional steps: synaptic cleft, the narrow space
between the membranes of the pre- and
The action potential (which occurs as postsynaptic cells.
described above) travels along the The neurotransmitter diffuses within
membrane of the presynaptic cell until the cleft. Some of it escapes, but the
it reaches the synapse. The electrical rest of it binds to chemical receptor
depolarization of the membrane at the molecules located on the membrane of
synapse causes channels to open that the postsynaptic cell.
are selectively permeable, meaning The binding of neurotransmitter causes
they specifically only allow the entry the receptor molecule to be activated in
of positive sodium ions (Na+). some way. Several types of activation
The ions flow through the presynaptic are possible, depending on what kind
membrane, rapidly increasing their of neurotransmitter was released. In
concentration in the interior. any case, this is the key step by which
The high concentration activates a set of the synaptic process affects the
ion-sensitive proteins attached to behavior of the postsynaptic cell.
vesicles, which are small membrane Due to thermal shaking,
compartments that contain a neurotransmitter molecules eventually
neurotransmitter chemical. break loose from the receptors and drift
These proteins change shape, causing the away.
membranes of some “docked” vesicles The neurotransmitter is either
to fuse with the membrane of the reabsorbed by the presynaptic cell or
presynaptic cell. This opens the repackaged for future release, or else it
vesicles, which releases their is broken down metabolically.

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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN The response is always the same sign
ELECTRICAL AND CHEMICAL as the source. For example,
SYNAPSES depolarization of the presynaptic
membrane will always induce a
Electrical synapses are faster than depolarization in the postsynaptic
chemical synapses because the membrane, and vice versa for
receptors do not need to recognize  hyperpolarization.
chemical messengers. The synaptic The response in the postsynaptic
delay for a chemical synapse is neuron is generally smaller in
typically about 2 milliseconds, while amplitude than the source. The amount
the synaptic delay for an electrical of attenuation of the signal is due to the

synapse may be about 0.2 membrane resistance of the presynaptic
milliseconds.  and postsynaptic neurons.

Because electrical synapses do not Long-term changes can be seen in
involve neurotransmitters, electrical electrical synapses. For example,
neurotransmission is less modifiable changes in electrical synapses in the
than chemical neurotransmission. retina are seen during light and dark
adaptations of the retina.
SYNAPTICS TRANSMISSION When the electrical impulse (action
Synaptic transmission is the process by potential) reaches these synaptic vesicles,
which one neuron communicates with they release their contents of
another. Information is passed down the neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters then
axon of the neuron as an electrical impulse carry the signal across the synaptic gap.
known as action potential. Once the action They bind to receptor sites on the post-
potential reaches the end of the axon it synaptic cell, thereby completing the
needs to be transferred to another neuron process of synaptic transmission.
or tissue. It must cross over the synaptic Chemical synapses enable the transmission
gap between the presynaptic neuron and of information (action potentials) from one
post-synaptic neuron. At the end of the neuron to another. These synapses require
neuron (in the axon terminal) are the chemicals known as neurotransmitters.
synaptic vesicles, which contain chemical
The process of synaptic transmission
messengers, known as neurotransmitters.
involves four steps:

I. SYNTHESIS AND STORAGE Unlike the small-molecule

Neurotransmitters are divided into two neurotransmitters, the synthesis of
categories: (1) small-molecule neuropeptides requires more effort and is
neurotransmitters and (2) neuropeptides. likened to that of the synthesis of an
Small-molecule neurotransmitters are ordinary secretory protein. The first step in
processed within the axon terminal. An neuropeptide synthesis is DNA
example of this is acetylcholine (Ach), transcription, followed by messenger RNA
which is particularly known as an or mRNA construction and travel, and then
excitatory neurotransmitter. On the other translation. After the synthesis of
hand, neuropeptides are larger than small- neurotransmitters, they are stored in
molecule neurotransmitters and act as vesicles located at the axon terminal.
messengers. Because of their large size, While in storage, they await the arrival of
they are made inside the neuronal cell an action potential, which is the triggering
body. factor for their release.

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II. NEUROTRANSMITTER zones, places found at the pre-synaptic
RELEASE membrane. Once an action potential
The terminal of a neuron serves as the arrives at the presynaptic neuron terminal,
storage of vesicles containing there would be a considerable influx of
neurotransmitter when at rest. These calcium ions, causing the neurotransmitter
vesicles are strategically located in active to be released from the vesicles.

III. NEUROTRANSMITTER neurotransmitters must be recognized by

POSTSYNAPTIC RECEPTORS postsynaptic receptors first. As a result,
Neurotransmitters released into the membrane ionic channels open, and
synaptic cleft go into an interaction at the another action potential is initiated. In turn,
postsynaptic cell together with receptor this leads to depolarization.
proteins. In order to interact, these

IV. INACTIVATION OF transfer these neurotransmitters back to the

NEUROTRANSMITTERS pre-synaptic cells. Then, they undergo re-
Some neurotransmitters are sent back to packaging and re-storage in a vesicle until
the synaptic cleft once they have been it is needed once again for chemical
identified by the appropriate post-synaptic signaling. Other neurotransmitters simply
receptors. Special transporter proteins diffuse away
.

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NEUROTRANSMITTERS postsynaptic cell membrane open up to
receive neurotransmitters from vesicles in
the presynaptic cell.
Neurotransmitters are chemicals that
transmit signals from a neuron across a
Inhibitory neurotransmitters cause
synapse to a target cell. Neurotransmitters
hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic cell
are chemicals that transmit signals from a
neuron to a target cell across a synapse. (that is, decreasing the voltage gradient of
When called upon to deliver messages, the cell, thus bringing it further away from
they are released from their synaptic an action potential), while excitatory
vesicles on the presynaptic (giving) side of neurotransmitters cause depolarization
the synapse, diffuse across the synaptic (bringing it closer to an action potential).
cleft, and bind to receptors in the Neurotransmitters match up with receptors
membrane on the postsynaptic (receiving) like a key in a lock. A neurotransmitter
side. binds to its receptor and will not bind to
receptors for other neurotransmitters,
An action potential is necessary for making the binding a specific chemical
neurotransmitters to be released, which event.
means that neurons must reach a certain
threshold of electric stimulation in order to There are several systems of
complete the reaction. A neuron has a neurotransmitters found at various
negative charge inside the cell membrane synapses in the nervous system. The
relative to the outside of the cell following groups refer to the specific
membrane; when stimulation occurs and chemicals, and within the groups are
the neuron reaches the threshold of specific systems, some of which block
excitement this polarity is reversed. This other chemicals from entering the cell and
allows the signal to pass through the some of which permit the entrance of
neuron. When the chemical message chemicals that were blocked before.
reaches the axon terminal, channels in the

CHOLINERGIC SYSTEM acetylcholine receptor, which is known as

the muscarinic receptor. Both of these
The cholinergic system is a receptors are named for chemicals that
neurotransmitter system of its own, and is interact with the receptor in addition to the
based on the neurotransmitter neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Nicotine,
acetylcholine (ACh). This system is found the chemical in tobacco, binds to the
in the autonomic nervous system, as well nicotinic receptor and activates it similarly
as distributed throughout the brain. to acetylcholine. Muscarine, a chemical
product of certain mushrooms, binds to the
The cholinergic system has two types of muscarinic receptor. However, they cannot
receptors: the nicotinic receptor and the bind to each other’s’ receptors.

AMINO ACIDS chemical structures. Glutamate is one of

the 20 amino acids used to make proteins.
Another group of neurotransmitters are Each amino acid neurotransmitter is its
amino acids, including glutamate (Glu), own system, namely the glutamatergic,
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid, a GABAergic, and glycinergic systems.
derivative of glutamate), and glycine They each have their own receptors and do
(Gly). These amino acids have an amino not interact with each other. Amino acid
group and a carboxyl group in their neurotransmitters are eliminated from the

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synapse by reuptake. A pump in the cell the amino acid from the synaptic cleft so
membrane of the presynaptic element, or that it can be recycled, repackaged in
sometimes a neighboring glial cell, clears vesicles, and released again.

BIOGENIC AMINES
Another class of neurotransmitter is the groups in them, but do not have carboxyl
biogenic amine, a group of groups and are therefore no longer
neurotransmitters made enzymatically classified as amino acids.
from amino acids. They have amino

NEUROPEPTIDES DOPAMINE
A neuropeptide is a neurotransmitter Dopamine is the best-known
molecule made up of chains of amino neurotransmitter of the catecholamine
acids connected by peptide bonds, group. The brain includes several distinct
similar to proteins. However, proteins are dopamine systems, one of which plays a
long molecules while some neuropeptides major role in reward-motivated behavior.
are quite short. Neuropeptides are often Most types of reward increase the level
released at synapses in combination with of dopamine in the brain, and a variety of
another neurotransmitter. addictive drugs increase dopamine
neuronal activity. Other brain dopamine
systems are involved in motor control and
in controlling the release of several other
important hormones.

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EFFECT ON THE SYNAPSE effect. Glutamate is considered an
excitatory amino acid because Glu
The effect of a neurotransmitter on the receptors in the adult cause depolarization
postsynaptic element is entirely dependent of the postsynaptic cell. Glycine and
on the receptor protein. If there is no GABA are considered inhibitory amino
receptor protein in the membrane of the acids, again because their receptors cause
postsynaptic element, then the hyperpolarization, making the receiving
neurotransmitter has no effect. The cell less likely to reach an action potential.
depolarizing (more likely to reach an
action potential) or hyperpolarizing (less THE RIGHT DOSE
likely to reach an action potential) effect is
also dependent on the receptor. When Sometimes too little or too much of a
acetylcholine binds to the nicotinic neurotransmitter may affect an organism’s
receptor, the postsynaptic cell is behavior or health. The underlying cause
depolarized. However, when acetylcholine of some neurodegenerative diseases, such
binds to the muscarinic receptor, it might as Parkinson’s, appears to be related to
cause depolarization or hyperpolarization overaccumulation of proteins, which under
of the target cell. normal circumstances would be regulated
by the presence of dopamine. On the other
The amino acid neurotransmitters hand, when an excess of the
(glutamate, glycine, and GABA) are neurotransmitter dopamine blocks
almost exclusively associated with just one glutamate receptors, disorders like
schizophrenia can occur.

(EXTRA FOR REFERENCES)

KEY TERMINOLOGIES:

ACTION POTENTIAL: change in end bulb of a neuron to cause a change in

voltage of a cell membrane in response to the target cell
a stimulus those results in transmission of PRECENTRAL GYRUS OF THE
an electrical signal; unique to neurons and FRONTAL CORTEX: region of the
muscle fibers. cerebral cortex responsible for generating
CEREBRAL CORTEX: outermost layer motor commands, where the upper motor
of gray matter in the brain, where neuron cell body is located
conscious perception takes place. PROPAGATION: movement of an action
GRADED POTENTIAL: change in the potential along the length of an axon
membrane potential that varies in size, THALAMUS: region of the central
depending on the size of the stimulus that nervous system that acts as a relay for
elicits it sensory pathways
LOWER MOTOR NEURON: second THERMORECEPTOR: type of sensory
neuron in the motor command pathway receptor capable of transducing
that is directly connected to the skeletal temperature stimuli into neural action
muscle potentials
NEUROTRANSMITTER: chemical THRESHOLD: membrane voltage at
signal that is released from the synaptic which an action potential is initiated

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UPPER MOTOR NEURON: first neuron synapses on the lower motor neuron in
in the motor command pathway with its the spinal cord
cell body in the cerebral cortex that

THE CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL nervous system is so named because it is

NERVOUS SYSTEMS – STRUCTURE on the periphery—meaning beyond the
AND FUNCTIONS. brain and spinal cord. Depending on
different aspects of the nervous system, the
dividing line between central and
The nervous system controls bodily peripheral is not necessarily universal.
function by gathering sensory input,
integrating that information internally, and
The nervous system is the body’s main
communicating proper motor output.
communication system; it gathers,
The nervous system can be divided into synthesizes, and uses data from the
two major regions: the central and  environment.
peripheral nervous systems. The central The most basic unit of the nervous
nervous system (CNS) is the brain and system is the neuron, which serves
spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous as both a sensor and communicator
system (PNS) is everything else. The brain  of internal and external stimuli.
is contained within the cranial cavity of the The nervous system can be broken
skull, and the spinal cord is contained down into two major parts—the
within the vertebral cavity of the vertebral central nervous system and the
column. It is a bit of an oversimplification  peripheral nervous system.
to say that the CNS is what is inside these The central nervous system, the main
two cavities and the peripheral nervous data center of the body, includes
system is outside of them, but that is one  the brain and spinal cord.
way to start to think about it. In actuality, The peripheral nervous system
there are some elements of the peripheral includes all of the neurons that
nervous system that are within the cranial sense and communicate data to the
or vertebral cavities. The peripheral central nervous system.

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THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM ACTIVITY OF THE CNS
(CNS) The nervous system has three main
The central nervous system is made up of functions: gathering sensory information
the brain and spinal cord, which process from external stimuli, synthesizing that
sensory input and provide instructions to information, and responding to those
the body. stimuli. The CNS is mainly devoted to the
The CNS includes the brain and spinal “information synthesizing” function.
cord, which together comprise the body’s During this step in the process, the brain
main control center. Together with the and spinal cord decide on appropriate
peripheral nervous system (PNS), the CNS motor output, which is computed based on
performs fundamental functions that the type of sensory input. The CNS
contribute to an organism’s life and regulates everything from organ function
behavior. to high-level thought to purposeful body
movement. Thus, the CNS is commonly
thought of as the control center of the
body.
STRUCTURE OF THE CENTRAL
NERVOUS SYSTEM
rest of the body. The pons houses the
The CNS is comprised of the brain, brain
control centers for respiration and
stem, and spinal cord.
inhibitory functions. The medulla also
helps regulate respiration, as well as
- BRAIN cardiovascular and digestive functioning.
The brain is found in the cranial cavity and
consists of the cerebrum and cerebellum. It - SPINAL CORD
houses the nerve centers responsible for
coordinating sensory and motor systems in The spinal cord is a tail-like structure
the body. The cerebrum, or the top portion embedded in the vertebral canal of the
for the brain, is the seat of higher-level spine. The adult spinal cord is about 40 cm
thought. It is comprised of two long and weighs approximately 30 g. The
hemispheres, each controlling the opposite spinal cord is attached to the underside of
side of the body. the medulla oblongata, and is organized to
serve four distinct tasks:
The cerebellum is located underneath the
- to convey (mainly sensory)
backside of the cerebrum, and governs
balance and fine motor movements. Its information to the brain;
main function is maintaining coordination to carry information generated in the
throughout the body. brain to peripheral targets like skeletal
(Discussed in detail ahead) muscles;
to control nearby organs via the
autonomic nervous system;
- BRAIN STEM to enable
The brain stem is connected to the sensorimotor
underside of the brain. It consists of the functions to
midbrain, pons, and medulla. The midbrain control
is found in between the hindbrain and the posture and
forebrain. It regulates motor function and other
allows motor and sensory information to
fundamental
pass from the brain to the
movements.

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The spinal cord connects the brain and brain, where they are processed and
brain stem to all of the major nerves in the synthesized into instructions for the rest of
body. Spinal nerves originate from the the body. This data is then sent back
spinal cord and control the functions of the through the spinal cord to muscles and
rest of the body. Impulses are sent from glands for motor output
receptors through the spinal cord to the

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF processes and behavior on a systemic

THE BRAIN level. Therefore, the field of psychology is
The human brain is one of the most tightly intertwined with the study of the
complex systems on earth. Every brain.
component of the brain must work together
in order to keep its body functioning. The THE STRUCTURE OF THE BRAIN
brain and the spinal cord make up the
central nervous system, which alongside The developing brain goes through many
the peripheral nervous system is stages. In the embryos of vertebrates, the
responsible for regulating all bodily predecessor to the brain and spinal cord is
functions. the neural tube. As the fetus develops, the
grooves and folds in the neural tube
Psychology seeks to explain the mental deepen, giving rise to different layers of
processes and behavior of individuals by the brain. The human brain is split up into
studying the interaction between mental three major layers: the hindbrain, the
midbrain, and the forebrain.

HINDBRAIN forebrain and the spinal cord passes

through the midbrain, making it a relay
The hindbrain is the well-protected central station for the central nervous system.
core of the brain. It includes the
cerebellum, reticular formation, and brain FOREBRAIN
stem, which are responsible for some of
the most basic autonomic functions of life, The forebrain is the most anterior division
such as breathing and movement. The of the developing vertebrate brain,
brain stem contains the pons and medulla containing the most complex networks in
oblongata. Evolutionarily speaking, the the central nervous system. The forebrain
hindbrain contains the oldest parts of the has two major divisions: the diencephalon
brain, which all vertebrates possess, and the telencephalon. The diencephalon is
though they may look different from lower, containing the thalamus and
species to species. hypothalamus (which together form the
limbic system); the telencephalon is on top
MIDBRAIN of the diencephalon and contains the
cerebrum, the home of the highest-level
The midbrain makes up part of the brain cognitive processing in the brain. It is the
stem. It is located between the hindbrain large and complicated forebrain that
and forebrain. All sensory and motor distinguishes the human brain from other
information that travels between the vertebrate brains.

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LOWER-LEVEL STRUCTURES: THE HINDBRAIN
The brain’s lower-level structures consist The hindbrain, which includes the medulla
of the brain stem, the spinal cord, and the oblongata, the pons, and the cerebellum, is
cerebellum. responsible some of the oldest and most
primitive body functions. Each of these
The brain’s lower-level structures consist structures is described below.
of the brain stem and spinal cord, along
with the cerebellum. With the exception of
the spinal cord, these structures are largely MEDULLA OBLONGATA
located within the hindbrain, diencephalon The medulla oblongata sits at the transition
(or interbrain), and midbrain. These lower zone between the brain and the spinal cord.
dorsal structures are the oldest parts of the It is the first region that formally belongs
brain, having existed for much of its to the brain (rather than the spinal cord). It
evolutionary history. As such they are is the control center for respiratory,
geared more toward basic bodily processes cardiovascular, and digestive functions.
necessary to survival. It is the more recent
layers of the brain (the forebrain) which
are responsible for the higher-level
cognitive functioning (language,
reasoning) not strictly necessary to keep a
body alive.

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PONS
The pons connects the medulla oblongata muscle coordination. However, it is also
with the midbrain region, and also relays responsible for balance and posture, and it
signals from the forebrain to the assists us when we are learning a new
cerebellum. It houses the control centers motor skill, such as playing a sport or
for respiration and inhibitory functions. musical instrument. Recent research shows
The cerebellum is attached to the dorsal that apart from motor functions the
side of the pons. cerebellum also has some role in emotional
sensitivity.

CEREBELLUM THE MIDBRAIN

The cerebellum is a separate region of the The midbrain is located between the
brain located behind the medulla oblongata hindbrain and forebrain, but it is actually
and pons. It is attached to the rest of the part of the brain stem. It displays the same
brain by three stalks (called pedunculi), basic functional composition found in the
and coordinates skeletal muscles to spinal cord and the hindbrain. Ventral
produce smooth, graceful motions. The areas control motor function and convey
cerebellum receives information from our motor information from the cerebral
eyes, ears, muscles, and joints about the cortex. Dorsal regions of the midbrain are
body’s current positioning (referred to as involved in sensory information circuits.
proprioception). It also receives output The substantia nigra, a part of the brain
from the cerebral cortex about where these that plays a role in reward, addiction, and
body parts should be. After processing this movement (due to its high levels of
information, the cerebellum sends motor dopaminergic neurons) is located in the
impulses from the brain stem to the midbrain.
skeletal muscles so that they can move.
The main function of the cerebellum is this

In Parkinson’s disease, which is characterized by a deficit of dopamine, death of

the substantia nigra is evident.

THE DIENCEPHALON THALAMUS

(“INTERBRAIN”) The thalamus is part of the limbic system.
The diencephalon is the region of the It consists of two lobes of grey matter
embryonic vertebrate neural tube that along the bottom of the cerebral cortex.
gives rise to posterior forebrain structures. Because nearly all sensory information
In adults, the diencephalon appears at the passes through the thalamus it is
upper end of the brain stem, situated considered the sensory “way station” of
between the cerebrum and the brain stem. the brain, passing information on to the
It is home to the limbic system, which is cerebral cortex (which is in the forebrain).
considered the seat of emotion in the Lesions of, or stimulation to, the thalamus
human brain. The diencephalon is made up are associated with changes in emotional
of four distinct components: the thalamus, reactivity. However, the importance of this
the subthalamus, the hypothalamus, and structure on the regulation of emotional
the epithalamus. behavior is not due to the activity of the
thalamus itself, but to the connections
between the thalamus and other limbic-
system structures.

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HYPOTHALAMUS physical actions occur. The cerebral cortex
The hypothalamus is a small part of the is considered the ultimate control and
brain located just below the thalamus. information-processing center in the brain.
Lesions of the hypothalamus interfere with
motivated behaviors like sexuality, The cortex is made of layers of neurons
combativeness, and hunger. The with many inputs; these cortical neurons
hypothalamus also plays a role in emotion: function like mini microprocessors or logic
parts of the hypothalamus seem to be gates. It contains glial cells, which guide
involved in pleasure and rage, while the neural connections, provide nutrients and
central part is linked to aversion, myelin to neurons, and absorb extra ions
displeasure, and a tendency towards and neurotransmitters. The cortex is
uncontrollable and loud laughing. When divided into four different lobes (the
external stimuli are presented (for parietal, occipital, temporal, and frontal
example, a dangerous stimuli), the lobes), each with a different specific
hypothalamus sends signals to other limbic function.
areas to trigger feeling states in response to
the stimuli (in this case, fear). The cortex is wrinkly in appearance.
Evolutionary constraints on skull size
brought about this development; it allowed
CEREBRAL CORTEX for the cortex to become larger without our
The cerebral cortex is the outermost brains (and therefore craniums) becoming
layered structure of the brain and controls disadvantageously large. At times it has
higher brain functions such as information been theorized that brain size correlated
processing. The cerebral cortex, the largest positively with intelligence; it has also
part of the mammalian brain, is the been suggested that surface area of cortex
wrinkly gray outer covering of the (basically, “wrinkles” of the brain) rather
cerebrum. While the cortex is less than than brain size that correlates most directly
1/4″ thick, it is here that all sensation, with intelligence. Current research
perception, memory, association, thought, suggests that both of these may be at least
and voluntary. The “valleys” of the partially true, but the degree to which they
wrinkles are called sulci (or sometimes, correlate is not clear.
fissures); the “peaks” between wrinkles are
called gyri. While there are variations from
person to person in their sulci and gyri, the
brain has been studied enough to identify
patterns. One notable sulcus is the central
sulcus, or the wrinkle dividing the parietal
lobe from the frontal lobe.

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CEREBRUM to dominate the functions of speech,
Beneath the cerebral cortex is the language processing and comprehension,
cerebrum, which serves as the main and logical reasoning, while the right is
thought and control center of the brain. It more dominant in spatial tasks like vision-
is the seat of higher-level thought like independent object recognition (such as
emotions and decision making (as opposed identifying an object by touch or another
to lower-level thought like balance, nonvisual sense). However, it is easy to
movement, and reflexes). exaggerate the differences between the
functions of the left and right hemispheres;
The cerebrum is composed of gray and both hemispheres are involved with most
white matter. Gray matter is the mass of all processes. Additionally, neuroplasticity
the cell bodies, dendrites, and synapses of (the ability of a brain to adapt to
neurons interlaced with one another, while experience) enables the brain to
white matter consists of the long, myelin- compensate for damage to one hemisphere
coated axons of those neurons connecting by taking on extra functions in the other
masses of gray matter to each other. half, especially in young brains.
(Discussed more in referenced section)

CORPUS CALLOSUM
CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES AND
LOBES OF THE BRAIN The two hemispheres communicate with
one another through the corpus callosum.
The brain is divided into two hemispheres The corpus callosum is a wide, flat bundle
and four lobes, each of which specializes of neural fibers beneath the cortex that
in a different function. connects the left and right cerebral
hemispheres and facilitates
BRAIN LATERALIZATION interhemispheric communication. The
corpus callosum is sometimes implicated
The brain is divided into two halves, called
in the cause of seizures; patients with
hemispheres. There is evidence that each
epilepsy sometimes undergo a corpus
brain hemisphere has its own distinct

functions, a phenomenon referred to as colostomy, or the removal of the corpus

lateralization. The left hemisphere appears callosum.

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THE LOBES OF THE BRAIN

The brain is separated into four lobes: the frontal, temporal, occipital, and parietal lobes.

THE FRONTAL LOBE role in the formation of emotion-laden,

The frontal lobe is associated with long-term memories based on emotional
executive functions and motor input from the amygdala. The left temporal
performance. Executive functions are lobe holds the primary auditory cortex,
some of the highest-order cognitive which is important for processing the
processes that humans have. Examples semantics of speech.
include: One specific portion of the temporal lobe,
-planning and engaging in goal- Wernicke’s area, plays a key role in
directed behavior; speech comprehension. Another portion,
Broca’s area, underlies the ability to
-recognizing future consequences of
produce (rather than understand) speech.
current actions;
Patients with damage to Wernicke’s area
-choosing between good and bad can speak clearly but the words make no
actions; sense, while patients with damage to
-overriding and suppressing socially Broca’s area will fail to form words
unacceptable responses; properly and speech will be halting and
-determining similarities and slurred. These disorders are known as
differences between objects or Wernicke’s and Broca’s aphasia
situations. respectively; aphasia is an inability to
speak.
The frontal lobe is considered to be the
moral center of the brain because it is
responsible for advanced decision-making THE OCCIPITAL LOBE
processes. It also plays an important role in The occipital lobe contains most of the
retaining emotional memories derived visual cortex and is the visual processing
from the limbic system, and modifying center of the brain. Cells on the posterior
those emotions to fit socially accepted side of the occipital lobe are arranged as a
norms. spatial map of the retinal field. The visual
cortex receives raw sensory information
through sensors in the retina of the eyes,
THE TEMPORAL LOBE
which is then conveyed through the optic
The temporal lobe is associated with the tracts to the visual cortex. Other areas of
retention of short- and long-term the occipital lobe are specialized for
memories. It processes sensory input different visual tasks, such as visuospatial
including auditory information, language processing, color discrimination, and
comprehension, and naming. It also creates motion perception. Damage to the primary
emotional responses and controls visual cortex (located on the surface of the
biological drives such as aggression and posterior occipital lobe) can cause
sexuality. blindness, due to the holes in the visual
The temporal lobe contains the map on the surface of the cortex caused by
hippocampus, which is the memory center the lesions.
of the brain. The hippocampus plays a key

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THE PARIETAL LOBE to another. The CNS includes the brain,
The parietal lobe is associated with brain stem, and spinal cord, while the PNS
sensory skills. It integrates different types includes all other sensory neurons, clusters
of sensory information and is particularly of neurons called ganglia, and connector
useful in spatial processing and navigation. neurons that attach to the CNS and other
The parietal lobe plays an important role in neurons.
integrating sensory information from
various parts of the body, understanding The peripheral nervous system (PNS)
numbers and their relations, and provides the connection between
manipulating objects. It also processes internal or external stimuli and the
information related to the sense of touch. central nervous system to allow the
 body to respond to its environment.
The parietal lobe is comprised of the
The PNS is made up of different kinds
somatosensory cortex and part of the of neurons, or nerve cells, which
visual system. The somatosensory cortex communicate with each other
consists of a “map” of the body that through electric signaling and
processes sensory information from neurotransmitters.
specific areas of the body. Several portions 
The PNS can be broken down into two
of the parietal lobe are important to
systems: the autonomic nervous
language and visuospatial processing; the
system, which regulates
left parietal lobe is involved in symbolic
involuntary actions such as
functions in language and mathematics,
breathing and digestion, and the
while the right parietal lobe is specialized
somatic nervous system, which
to process images and interpretation of governs voluntary action and body
maps (i.e., spatial relationships). reflexes.

The autonomic nervous system has two
THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS complementary parts: the
SYSTEM (PNS) sympathetic nervous system, which
The peripheral nervous system connects activates the “fight-or-flight-or-
freeze” stress response, and the
the central nervous system to
parasympathetic nervous system,
environmental stimuli to gather sensory
which reacts with the “rest-and-
input and create motor output.
 digest” response after stress.
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is The somatic nervous system
one of the two major components of the coordinates voluntary physical
body’s nervous system. In conjunction action. It is also responsible for our
with the central nervous system (CNS), the reflexes, which do not require brain
PNS coordinates action and responses by input.
sending signals from one part of the body

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DIVISIONS OF THE PERIPHERAL breathing rate. Together, these two
NERVOUS SYSTEM systems maintain homeostasis within the
The PNS can also be divided into two body: one priming the body for action, and
separate systems: the autonomic nervous the other repairing the body afterward.
system and the somatic nervous system.
SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM The somatic nervous system keeps the
The autonomic nervous system regulates body adept and coordinated, both through
involuntary and unconscious actions, such reflexes and voluntary action. The somatic
as internal-organ function, breathing, nervous system controls systems in areas
digestion, and heartbeat. This system as diverse as the skin, bones, joints, and
consists of two complementary parts: the skeletal muscles. Afferent fibers, or nerves
sympathetic and parasympathetic systems. that receive information from external
Both divisions work without conscious stimuli, carry sensory information through
effort and have similar nerve pathways, pathways that connect the skin and skeletal
but they generally have opposite effects on muscles to the CNS for processing. The
target tissues. information is then sent back via efferent
nerves, or nerves that carry instructions
The sympathetic nervous system activates from the CNS, back through the somatic
the “fight or flight” response under system. These instructions go to
sudden or stressful circumstances, such as neuromuscular junctions—the interfaces
taking an exam or seeing a bear. It between neurons and muscles—for motor
increases physical arousal levels, raising output.
the heart and breathing rates and dilating
the pupils, as it prepares the body to run or The somatic system also provides us with
confront danger. These are not the only reflexes, which are automatic and do not
two options; “fight or flight” is perhaps require input or integration from the brain
better phrased as “fight or flight or freeze,” to perform. Reflexes can be categorized as
where in the third option the body stiffens either monosynaptic or polysynaptic based
and action cannot be taken. This is an on the reflex arc used to perform the
autonomic response that occurs in animals function. Monosynaptic reflex arcs, such
and humans; it is a survival mechanism as the knee-jerk reflex, have only a single
thought to be related to playing dead when synapse between the sensory neuron that
attacked by a predator. Post-traumatic receives the information and the motor
stress disorder (PTSD) can result when a neuron that responds. Polysynaptic reflex
human experience this “fight or flight or arcs, by contrast, have at least one
freeze” mode with great intensity or for interneuron between the sensory neuron
large amounts of time. and the motor neuron. An example of a
polysynaptic reflex arc is seen when a
The parasympathetic nervous system person steps on a tack—in response, their
activates a “rest and digest” or “feed and body must pull that foot up while
breed” response after these stressful simultaneously transferring balance to the
events, which conserves energy and other leg.
replenishes the system. It reduces bodily
arousal, slowing the heartbeat and

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For References (This will help you as white (“fatty”) material, much like the
connect the dots and know the concept fat on a raw piece of chicken or beef.
in detail) Actually, gray matter may have that color
ascribed to it because next to the white
matter, it is just darker—hence, gray.
Nervous tissue, present in both the CNS
and PNS, contains two basic types of cells:
neurons and glial cells. (Discussed above)
Looking at nervous tissue, there are
regions that predominantly contain cell
bodies and regions that are largely
composed of just axons. These two regions
within nervous system structures are often
referred to as gray matter (the regions
with many cell bodies and dendrites) or
white matter (the regions with many
axons). The colors ascribed to these
regions are what would be seen in “fresh,”
or unstained, nervous tissue. Gray matter is
not necessarily gray. It can be pinkish
because of blood content, or even slightly
tan, depending on how long the tissue has
been preserved. But white matter is white
because axons are insulated by a lipid-rich
substance called myelin. Lipids can appear
.
visual stimuli, which takes place in the
FUNCTIONAL DIVISIONS OF cerebral cortex, or for the reflexive
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM responses of smooth muscle tissue that are
processed through the hypothalamus.
The nervous system can also be divided on
the basis of its functions, but anatomical There are two ways to consider how the
divisions and functional divisions are nervous system is divided functionally.
different. The CNS and the PNS both First, the basic functions of the nervous
contribute to the same functions, but those system are sensation, integration, and
functions can be attributed to different response. Secondly, control of the body
regions of the brain (such as the cerebral can be somatic or autonomic—divisions
cortex or the hypothalamus) or to different that are largely defined by the structures
ganglia in the periphery. The problem with that are involved in the response. There is
trying to fit functional differences into also a region of the peripheral nervous
anatomical divisions is that sometimes the system that is called the enteric nervous
same structure can be part of several system that is responsible for a specific set
functions. For example, the optic nerve of the functions within the realm of
carries signals from the retina that are autonomic control related to
either used for the conscious perception of gastrointestinal functions.

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BASIC FUNCTIONS of touch. There are actually more senses
than just those, but that list represents the
The nervous system is involved in major senses. Those five are all senses that
receiving information about the receive stimuli from the outside world, and
environment around us (sensation) and of which there is conscious perception.
generating responses to that information Additional sensory stimuli might be from
(motor responses). The nervous system can the internal environment (inside the body),
be divided into regions that are responsible such as the stretch of an organ wall or the
for sensation (sensory functions) and for concentration of certain ions in the blood.
the response (motor functions). But there
is a third function that needs to be RESPONSE
included. Sensory input needs to be
integrated with other sensations, as well as The nervous system produces a response
with memories, emotional state, or on the basis of the stimuli perceived by
learning (cognition). Some regions of the sensory structures. An obvious response
nervous system are termed integration or would be the movement of muscles, such
association areas. The process of as withdrawing a hand from a hot stove,
integration combines sensory perceptions but there are broader uses of the term. The
and higher cognitive functions such as nervous system can cause the contraction
memories, learning, and emotion to of all three types of muscle tissue. For
produce a response. example, skeletal muscle contracts to
move the skeleton, cardiac muscle is
SENSATION influenced as heart rate increases during
exercise, and smooth muscle contracts as
The first major function of the nervous the digestive system moves food along the
system is sensation—receiving information digestive tract. Responses also include the
about the environment to gain input about neural control of glands in the body as
what is happening outside the body (or, well, such as the production and secretion
sometimes, within the body). The sensory of sweat by the eccrine and merocrine
functions of the nervous system register sweat glands found in the skin to lower
the presence of a change from homeostasis body temperature.
or a particular event in the environment,
known as a stimulus. The senses we think Responses can be divided into those that
of most are the “big five”: taste, smell, are voluntary or conscious (contraction of
touch, sight, and hearing. The stimuli for skeletal muscle) and those that are
taste and smell are both chemical involuntary (contraction of smooth
substances (molecules, compounds, ions, muscles, regulation of cardiac muscle, and
etc.), touch is physical or mechanical activation of glands). Voluntary responses
stimuli that interact with the skin, sight is are governed by the somatic nervous
light stimuli, and hearing is the perception system and involuntary responses are
of sound, which is a physical stimulus governed by the autonomic nervous
similar to some aspects system, which are discussed in the next
section.

INTEGRATION processed. This is called integration.

Stimuli are compared with, or integrated
Stimuli that are received by sensory with, other stimuli, memories of previous
structures are communicated to the stimuli, or the state of a person at a
nervous system where that information is particular time. This leads to the specific

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response that will be generated. Seeing a three balls and one strike, and the batter
baseball pitched to a batter will not wants to let this pitch go by in the hope of
automatically cause the batter to swing. getting a walk to first base. Or maybe the
The trajectory of the ball and its speed will batter’s team is so far ahead; it would be
need to be considered. Maybe the count is fun to just swing away.

CONTROLLING THE BODY external or internal environmental stimuli.

The motor output extends to smooth and
The nervous system can be divided into cardiac muscle as well as glandular tissue.
two parts mostly on the basis of a The role of the autonomic system is to
functional difference in responses. The regulate the organ systems of the body,
somatic nervous system (SNS) is which usually means to control
responsible for conscious perception and homeostasis. Sweat glands, for example,
voluntary motor responses. Voluntary are controlled by the autonomic system.
motor response means the contraction of When you are hot, sweating helps cool
skeletal muscle, but those contractions are your body down. That is a homeostatic
not always voluntary in the sense that you mechanism. But when you are nervous,
have to want to perform them. Some you might start sweating also. That is not
somatic motor responses are reflexes, and homeostatic; it is the physiological
often happen without a conscious decision response to an emotional state.
to perform them. If your friend jumps out
from behind a corner and yells “Boo!” you There is another division of the nervous
will be startled and you might scream or system that describes functional responses.
leap back. You didn’t decide to do that, The enteric nervous system (ENS) is
and you may not have wanted to give your responsible for controlling the smooth
friend a reason to laugh at your expense, muscle and glandular tissue in your
but it is a reflex involving skeletal muscle digestive system. It is a large part of the
contractions. Other motor responses PNS, and is not dependent on the CNS. It
become automatic (in other words, is sometimes valid, however, to consider
unconscious) as a person learns motor the enteric system to be a part of the
skills (referred to as “habit learning” or autonomic system because the neural
“procedural memory”). structures that make up the enteric system
are a component of the autonomic output
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is that regulates digestion. There are some
responsible for involuntary control of the differences between the two, but for our
body, usually for the sake of homeostasis purposes here there will be a good bit of
(regulation of the internal environment). overlap. See Figure 5 for examples of
Sensory input for autonomic functions can where these divisions of the nervous
be from sensory structures tuned to system can be found.

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HOW MUCH OF YOUR BRAIN
DO YOU USE? An easy way to see how much of the brain
a person uses is to take measurements of
brain activity while performing a task. An
Have you ever heard the claim that example of this kind of measurement is
humans only use 10 percent of their functional magnetic resonance imaging
brains? Maybe you have seen an (fMRI), which generates a map of the most
advertisement on a website saying that active areas and can be generated and
there is a secret to unlocking the full presented in three dimensions. This
potential of your mind—as if there were procedure is different from the standard
90 percent of your brain sitting idle, just MRI technique because it is measuring
waiting for you to use it. If you see an changes in the tissue in time with an
ad like that, don’t click. It isn’t true. experimental condition or event.

ENDOCRINE GLANDS

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NEUROPLASTICITY cells leads to pronounced increase in
synaptic strength between those cells, a
theory that is widely accepted today. Cell
(NOTE: Topic is covered in detail, not assembly, or Hebbian theory, asserts that
required to go into this much detail. “cells that fire together wire together,”
Details are given so as to give you a meaning neural networks can be created
comprehensive idea of the concept and its through associative experience and
practicality) learning. Since Hebb’s discovery,
neuroscientists have continued to find
HEBBIAN THEORY evidence of plasticity and modification
within neural networks.
In 1949, neuroscientist Donald Hebb
proposed that simultaneous activation of

The brain is constantly adapting synapses that result from changes in

throughout a lifetime, though sometimes behavior, environmental and neural
over critical, genetically determined processes, and changes resulting from
periods of time. Neuroplasticity is the bodily injury. Neuroplasticity has replaced
brain’s ability to create new neural the formerly held theory that the brain is a
pathways based on new experiences. It physiologically static organ, and explores
refers to changes in neural pathways and how the brain changes throughout life.

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Neuroplasticity occurs on a variety of levels, rats illustrate how the brain changes in
ranging from minute cellular changes response to experience: rats that lived in
resulting from learning to large-scale cortical more enriched environments had larger
remapping in response to injury. The role of neurons, more DNA and RNA, heavier
neuroplasticity is widely recognized in cerebral cortices, and larger synapses
healthy development, learning, memory, and compared to rats that lived in sparse
recovery from brain damage. During most of environments.
the 20th century, the consensus among
neuroscientists was that brain structure is A surprising consequence of
relatively immutable after a critical period neuroplasticity is that the brain activity
during early childhood. It is true that the associated with a given function can move
brain is especially “plastic” during to a different location; this can result from
childhood’s critical period, with new neural normal experience, and also occurs in the
connections forming constantly. However, process of recovery from brain injury. In
recent findings show that many aspects of fact, neuroplasticity is the basis of goal-
the brain remain plastic even into adulthood. directed experiential therapeutic programs
in rehabilitation after brain injury. For
Plasticity can be demonstrated over the example, after a person is blinded in one
course of virtually any form of learning. eye, the part of the brain associated with
For one to remember an experience, the processing input from that eye doesn’t
circuitry of the brain must change. simply sit idle; it takes on new functions,
Learning takes place when there is either a perhaps processing visual input from the
change in the internal structure of neurons remaining eye or doing something else
or a heightened number of synapses entirely. This is because while certain parts
between neurons. Studies conducted using of the brain have a typical function, the
brain can be “rewired”—all because of
plasticity.
SYNAPTIC PRUNING

“Synaptic (or neuronal or axon) pruning” replaced by more intricately

refers to neurological regulatory processes interconnected structures.
that facilitate changes in neural structure
by reducing the overall number of neurons Pruning removes axons from synaptic
and synapses, leaving more efficient connections that are not functionally
synaptic configurations. At birth, there are appropriate. This process strengthens
approximately 2,500 synapses in the important connections and eliminates
cerebral cortex of a human baby. By three weaker ones, creating more effective
years old, the cerebral cortex has about neural communication. Generally, the
15,000 synapses. Since the infant brain has number of neurons in the cerebral cortex
such a large capacity for growth, it must increases until adolescence. Apoptosis
eventually be pruned down to remove occurs during early childhood and
unnecessary neuronal structures from the adolescence, after which there is a
brain. This process of pruning is referred decrease in the number of synapses.
to as apoptosis, or programmed cell death. Approximately 50% of neurons present at
As the human brain develops, the need for birth do not survive until adulthood. The
more complex neuronal associations selection of the pruned neurons follows the
becomes much more pertinent, and simpler “use it or lose it” principle, meaning that
associations formed at childhood are synapses that are frequently used have
strong connections, while the rarely used
synapses are eliminated.

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EXTRA FOR REFERENCES (Read only if you find Neuroplasticity interesting and want
to know more about it)

1. NEUROGENESIS IN ADULT embraced by a generation of

MAMMALS: neuroscientists who had been trained to
think of the adult brain as fixed, but
Prior to the early 1980s, brain acceptance grew as confirmatory reports
development after the early developmental accumulated. Particularly influential
period was seen as a downhill slope: were reports that new neurons are added
Neurons continually die throughout a to the hippocampus of primates,
person’s life, and it was assumed that the including humans (Erikkson et al., 1998),
lost cells are never replaced by new ones. and that the number of new neurons
Although researchers began to chip away added to the adult hippocampus is
at this misconception in the early 1980s, it substantial, an estimated 2,000 per hour.
persisted until the turn of the century as
one of the central principles of New olfactory bulb neurons and new
neurodevelopment. hippocampal neurons come from different
places (Hagg, 2006). New olfactory bulb
The first serious challenge to the neurons are created from adult neural stem
assumption that neurogenesis is restricted cells at certain sites in the subventricular
to early stages of development came with zone of the lateral ventricles and then
the discovery of the growth of new migrate to the olfactory bulbs. In contrast,
neurons in the brains of adult birds. new hippocampal cells are created near
Nottebohm and colleagues (e.g., Goldman their final location in the dentate gyrus of
Nottebohm, 1983) found that brain the hippocampus.
structures involved in singing begin to
grow in songbirds just before each mating Since the hippocampus is involved in some
season and that this growth results from an kinds of memory, perhaps exercise can be
increase in the number of neurons. This used as a treatment for memory problems.
finding stimulated the re-examination of Indeed, aerobic exercise has been shown to
earlier unconfirmed claims that new improve cognitive function in older adults.
neurons are created in the adult rat It is now established that neurons
hippocampus. Then, in the 1990s, generated during adulthood survive,
researchers, armed with newly developed become integrated into neural circuits, and
immunohistochemical markers that have a begin to conduct neural signals. Adult-
selective affinity for recently created generated olfactory neurons become
neurons, convincingly showed that adult interneurons, and adult-generated
neurogenesis does indeed occur in the rat hippocampal neurons become granule cells
hippocampus. And shortly thereafter, it in the dentate gyrus. However, although
was discovered that new neurons are also there has been some progress in
continually added to adult rat olfactory understanding the anatomy and
bulbs. Subsequently, it was reported that physiological functions of adult-generated
new neurons are added to the cortex, but neurons, understanding of their behavioral
apparently this report was erroneous. functions has proven to be elusive.

In adult mammals, substantial neurogenesis

seems to be restricted to the olfactory bulbs
and hippocampus. At first, reports of adult
neurogenesis were not

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EFFECTS OF EXPERIENCE ON somatosensory cortex; Thus, once the
THE REORGANIZATION OF THE brain has adapted to abnormal
ADULT CORTEX environmental conditions, it acquires the
ability to adapt more effectively if it
The second line of research on adult encounters the same conditions again.
neuroplasticity deals with the effects of Although the cellular mechanisms
experience on the reorganization of adult underlying changes to adult sensory cortex
cortex. Experience in adulthood can lead are unknown, there are numerous
to reorganization of sensory and motor possibilities. Experience has been shown
cortical maps. For example, Mühlnickel to increase, decrease, or otherwise modify
and colleagues (1998) found that tinnitus cortical synapses, buttons, and dendritic
(ringing in the ears) produces a major spines.
reorganization of primary auditory cortex;
The discovery of adult neuroplasticity is
Elbert and colleagues (1995) showed that
changing the way that we humans think
adult musicians who play stringed
about ourselves. More importantly for
instruments that are fingered with the left
those with brain damage, it has suggested
hand (e.g., the violin) have an enlarged
some promising new treatment options.
hand representation area in their right

Neuroplastic Responses to Nervous Degeneration.

System Damage: Degeneration, Regeneration.
Regeneration, Reorganization, and Reorganization.
Recovery Recovery of function.
There are four major neuroplastic
responses of the brain to damage:

1. NEURAL DEGENERATION: separates the distal segment of the axon

from the cell body, which is the metabolic
Neural degeneration (neural deterioration) center of the neuron. The entire distal
is a common component of both brain segment becomes badly swollen within a
development and disease. A widely used few hours, and it breaks into fragments
method for the controlled study of neural within a few days.
degeneration is to cut the axons of
neurons. Two kinds of neural degeneration The course of retrograde degeneration is
ensue: anterograde degeneration and different; it progresses gradually back
retrograde degeneration. Anterograde from the cut to the cell body. In about 2 or
degeneration is the degeneration of the 3 days, major changes become apparent in
distal segment the segment of a cut axon the cell bodies of most axotomized
between the cut and the synaptic neurons. These early cell body changes are
terminals. Retrograde degeneration is either degenerative or regenerative in
the degeneration of the proximal nature. Early degenerative changes to the
segment the segment of a cut axon cell body (e.g., a decrease in size) suggest
between the cut and the cell body. that the neuron will ultimately die usually
by apoptosis but sometimes by necrosis or
Anterograde degeneration occurs quickly a combination of both.
following axotomy, because the cut

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Early regenerative changes (e.g., an linked to them by synapses; this is called
increase in size) indicate that the cell body Trans neuronal degeneration. In some
is involved in a massive synthesis of the cases, transneuronal degeneration spreads
proteins that will be used to replace the from damaged neurons to the neurons on
degenerated axon. But early regenerative which they synapse; this is called
changes in the cell body do not guarantee anterograde transneuronal
the long-term survival of the neuron; if the degeneration. And in some cases, it
regenerating axon does not manage to spreads from damaged neurons to the
make synaptic contact with an appropriate neurons that synapse on them; this is
target, the neuron eventually dies. called retrograde transneuronal
Sometimes, degeneration spreads from degeneration.
damaged neurons to neurons that are

2. NEURAL REGENERATION: The capacity for accurate axonal growth,

which higher vertebrates possess during
Neural regeneration- the regrowth of their early development, is lost once they
damaged neurons does not proceed as reach maturity. Regeneration is virtually
successfully in mammals and other higher nonexistent in the CNS of adult mammals,
vertebrates as it does in most invertebrates and is at best a hit-or-miss affair in the
and lower vertebrates. PNS. In the mammalian PNS, regrowth
from the proximal stump of a damaged

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nerve usually begins 2 or 3 days after axonal damage.

There are three possibilities. First, if the PNS by producing both neurotrophic
original Schwann cell myelin sheaths factors and cell-adhesion molecules
remain intact, the regenerating peripheral (CAMs). The neurotrophic factors released
axons grow through them to their original by Schwann cells stimulate the growth of

targets at a rate of a few millimeters per new axons, and the cell-adhesion
day. Second, if the peripheral nerve is molecules on the cell membranes of

severed and the cut ends become separated Schwann cells mark the paths along which
by a few millimeters, regenerating axon regenerating PNS axons grow. In contrast,
tips often grow into incorrect sheaths and oligodendroglia, which myelinate CNS
are guided by them to incorrect axons, do not clear debris or stimulate or
destinations; that is why it is often difficult guide regeneration; indeed, they release
to regain the coordinated use of a limb factors that actively block regeneration.
affected by nerve damage even if there has Furthermore, oligodendroglia tends to
been substantial regeneration. And third, if survive for long periods of time (e.g.,
the cut ends of a severed mammalian months) after nerve damage, thus
peripheral nerve become widely separated chronically inhibiting regeneration of the
or if a lengthy section of the nerve is axons.
damaged, there may be no meaningful If the factors that promote accurate
regeneration at all; regenerating axon tips regeneration in lower vertebrates can be
grow in a tangled mass around the identified and applied to the human brain,
proximal stump, and the neurons it might be possible to cure currently
ultimately die. untreatable brain injuries. Remarkably,
Some CNS neurons are capable of when invertebrates lose an entire limb, the
regeneration if they are transplanted to the regenerating axons release a factor that
PNS, whereas some PNS neurons are not promotes regeneration of that limb.
capable of regeneration if they are
transplanted to the CNS. Clearly, there is
something about the environment of the
PNS that promotes regeneration and
something about the environment of the
CNS that does not. Schwann cells, which
myelinate PNS axons, clear the debris
resulting from neural degeneration and
promote regeneration in the mammalian

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3. NEURAL REORGANIZATION: imaging technology to study the cortices of
blind individuals. The findings are
Adult mammalian brains have the ability consistent with the hypothesis that there is
to reorganize themselves in response to continuous competition for cortical space
experience. by functional circuits. Without visual input
Most studies of neural reorganization to the cortex, there is an expansion of
following damage have focused on the auditory and somatosensory cortex, and
sensory and motor cortex of laboratory auditory and somatosensory input is
animals. Sensory and motor cortex are processed in formerly visual areas. There
ideally suited to the study of neural seems to be a functional consequence to
reorganization because of their this reorganization: Blind volunteers have
topographic layout. The damage-induced demonstrated skills superior to those of
reorganization of the primary sensory and sighted controls on a variety of auditory
motor cortex has been studied under two and somatosensory tasks.
conditions: following damage to peripheral
nerves and following damage to the
cortical areas themselves. MECHANISMS OF NEURAL
REORGANIZATION:
The following studies have been
particularly influential: Two kinds of mechanisms have been
proposed to account for the reorganization
Kaas and colleagues (1990) assessed of neural circuits: a strengthening of
the effect of making a small lesion in existing connections, possibly through
one retina and removing the other. release from inhibition, and the
Several months after the retinal lesion establishment of new connections by
was made, primary visual cortex collateral sprouting.
neurons that originally had receptive Indirect support for the first mechanism
fields in the lesioned area of the retina comes from two observations:
were found to have receptive fields in Reorganization often occurs too quickly to
the area of the retina next to the lesion; be explained by neural growth, and rapid
remarkably, this change began within reorganization never involves changes of
minutes of the lesion. more than 2 millimeters of cortical surface.
 Indirect support for the second mechanism
Sanes, Suner, and Donoghue (1990) comes from the observation that the
transected the motor neurons that magnitude of long-term reorganization can
controlled the muscles of rat’s be too great to be explained by changes in
vibrissae (whiskers). A few weeks existing connections. Although sprouting
later, stimulation of the area of motor and release from inhibition are considered
cortex that had previously elicited to be the likely mechanisms of cortical
vibrissae movement now activated reorganization following damage, these are
other muscles of the face. not the only possibilities.

CORTICAL REORGANIZATION
FOLLOWING DAMAGE IN
HUMANS:
Demonstrations of cortical reorganization
in controlled experiments on nonhumans
provided an incentive to search for similar
effects in human clinical populations. One
such line of research has used brain-

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4. RECOVERY OF FUNCTION biographical study of doctors and
AFTER BRAIN DAMAGE: neuroscientists with brain damage, and he
observed a surprising degree of what
Recovery of function in humans after appeared to be cognitive recovery. His
nervous system damage is a poorly results suggested, however, that the
understood phenomenon. Nevertheless, observed improvement did not occur
there is a general consensus that recovery because these patients had actually
of function is most likely when lesions are recovered lost brain function but because
small and the patient is young. their cognitive reserve allowed them to
Neuroplastic phenomena are presumed to accomplish tasks in alternative ways.
underlie recovery of function. However, it Cognitive reserve has also been used to
has proven difficult to provide strong explain why educated people are less
evidence for this assumption. Recovery of susceptible to the effects of aging-related
function after nervous system damage is brain deterioration.
difficult to study because there are other Several recent experiments in laboratory
compensatory changes that can easily be animals have shown that various
confused with it. treatments are maximally effective only if
Cognitive reserve (roughly equivalent to initiated within a few days of the brain
education and intelligence) is thought to damage. This finding has a potentially
play a role in the improvements observed vital implication: It suggests that
after brain damage that do not result from rehabilitation of human patients with brain
true recovery of brain function. Let me damage should begin as soon as possible
explain. Kapur (1997) conducted a after the damage occurs.

NEUROPLASTICITY AND THE patients. The following four subsections

TREATMENT OF NERVOUS describe research on some major new
SYSTEM DAMAGE: treatment approaches. Most of this
The dream of recent discoveries about research has focused on animal models,
neuroplasticity can be applied to the but some of it has progressed to clinical
treatment of brain damage in human . trials with human patients

REDUCING BRAIN DAMAGE The hippocampuses of rats in the

BY BLOCKING experimental group were treated with
NEURODEGENERATION: viruses genetically engineered to release
apoptosis inhibitor protein. Amazingly, the
Several studies in animals have shown that apoptosis inhibitor protein reduced both
it may be possible to reduce brain damage the loss of hippocampal neurons and the
by blocking neural degeneration in human deficits in Morris water maze performance.
patients. For example, in one study, Xu In addition to apoptosis
and colleagues (1999) induced cerebral inhibitor protein, several other
ischemia in rats by limiting blood flow to neurochemicals have been shown to block
the brain. This had two major effects on the degeneration of damaged neurons. The
rats in the control group: It produced most widely studied of these is nerve
damage to the hippocampus, a structure growth factor. Estrogens have a similar
that is particularly susceptible to ischemic effect. Estrogens are a class of steroid
damage, and it produced deficits in the hormones that are released in large
rat’s performance in the Morris water amounts by the ovaries (the female
maze.

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gonads). These hormones have several models. These neuroprotective effects of

important effects on the maturation of the estrogens may explain why several brain
female body. They also have been shown disorders (e.g., Parkinson’s disease) are
to limit or delay neuron death in animal more prevalent in males than in females.

PROMOTING RECOVERY FROM then transplanted sections of myelinated

CNS DAMAGE BY PROMOTING peripheral nerve across the transection. As
REGENERATION: a result, spinal cord neurons regenerated
through the implanted Schwann cell
Although regeneration does not normally myelin sheaths, and the regeneration
occur in the mammalian CNS, several allowed the rats to regain use of their
studies in laboratory animals have shown hindquarters.
that it can be induced. The following two
studies are particularly promising because
they have shown that such regeneration
can be associated with functional recovery.
Cheng, Cao, and Olson (1996) transected
the spinal cords of rats, thus rendering
them paraplegic (paralyzed in the posterior
portion of their bodies). The researchers

PROMOTING RECOVERY FROM patients improved. The results of these

CNS DAMAGE BY case studies triggered a large-scale double-
NEUROTRANSPLANTATION: blind evaluation study of patients suffering
from advanced Parkinson’s disease. The
Efforts to treat CNS damage by study was extremely thorough; it even
neurotransplantation have taken two included placebo controls patients who
different approaches. The first is to received surgery but no implants.
transplant fetal tissue into the damaged
Unfortunately, however, about 15% of
area; the second is to transplant cultures of
these patients started to display a variety of
stem cells.
uncontrollable writhing and chewing
TRANSPLANTING FETAL TISSUE: movements about a year after the surgery.
The first approach to neurotransplantation The incidence of adverse motor side
was to replace a damaged structure with effects is likely to stifle further attempts to
fetal tissue that would develop into the develop neurotransplantation as a
same structure. This approach focused on treatment for Parkinson’s disease.
Parkinson’s disease. Early signs were However, many still believe that this is an
positive. Bilateral transplantation of fetal extremely promising therapeutic approach,
substantia nigra cells was successful in but that the large-scale clinical trial was
treating the MPTP monkey model of premature. Researchers do not yet know
Parkinson’s disease (Bankiewicz et al., how to maximize the survival and growth
1990; Sladek et al., 1987). of neurotransplants and how to minimize
Soon after the favorable effects of their side effects.
neurotransplants in the MPTP monkey Investigators are trying to develop
model were reported, neurotransplantation procedures for repairing brain damage by
was offered as a treatment for Parkinson’s injecting embryonic stem cells into the
disease at major research hospitals. The damaged site. Once injected, the stem cells
results of the first case studies were could develop and replace the damaged
promising. More importantly, some of the

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neurons or myelin, under guidance from be done (Li et al., 2008). First, techniques
surrounding tissue. for promoting the survival, maturation, and
Many studies triggered a frenzy of the establishment of correct connections
research activity. Effective treatment for with surviving cells need to be identified.
severe CNS damage appeared to be within Second, methods for encouraging
reach. However, it quickly became functional recovery have to be developed.
apparent that much research still needs to

PROMOTING RECOVERY FROM beneficial neurological outcomes in human

CNS DAMAGE BY patients. Individuals who are cognitively
REHABILITATIVE TRAINING: and physically active are less likely to
contract neurological disorders; and if they
Several demonstrations of the important do, their symptoms tend to be less severe
role of experience in the organization of and their recovery better. However, in such
the developing and adult brain kindled a correlational studies, there are always
renewed interest in the use of rehabilitative problems of causal interpretation.
training to promote recovery from CNS
damage. Physical exercise has also been shown to
have a variety of beneficial effects on the
One of the principles that have emerged rodent brain. For example, Van Praag and
from the study of neurodevelopment is that colleagues found that wheel running can
neurons seem to be in a competitive increase adult neurogenesis in the
situation: They compete with other hippocampus (2002), reduce age-related
neurons for synaptic sites and declines in the number of neurons in the
neurotrophins, and the losers die. Weiller hippocampus (2005), and improve
and Rijntjes (1999) designed a performance on tests of memory and
rehabilitative program based on this navigation, two abilities that have been
principle. Their procedure, called linked to the hippocampus.
constraint-induced therapy, was to tie
down the functioning arm for 2 weeks
while the affected arm received intensive PHANTOM LIMBS: NEUROPLASTIC
training. Performance with the affected PHENOMENA
arm improved markedly over the 2 weeks, Most amputees continue to experience the
and there was an increase in the area of limbs that have been amputated a
motor cortex controlling that arm. condition referred to as phantom limb.
In one approach to treating spinal injuries, Phantom limbs are the product of
patients who were incapable of walking neuroplasticity. The most striking feature
were supported by a harness over a of phantom limbs is their reality. Their
moving treadmill. With most of their existence is so compelling that a patient
weight supported and the treadmill may try to jump out of bed onto a
providing feedback, the patients gradually nonexistent leg or to lift a cup with a
learned to make walking movements. nonexistent hand. In most cases, the
Then, as they improved, the amount of amputated limb behaves like a normal
support was gradually reduced. limb; for example, as an amputee walks, a
phantom arm seems to swing back and
forth in perfect coordination with the intact
BENEFITS OF COGNITIVE AND arm. About 50% of amputee’s experience
PHYSICAL EXERCISE chronic severe pain in their phantom
There are numerous studies linking limbs. A typical complaint is that an
cognitive and physical activity to amputated hand is clenched so tightly that

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the fingernails are digging into the palm of involved cutting off the stump or various
the hand. parts of the neural pathway between the
Based on the premise that phantom limb stump and the cortex. Unfortunately, these
pain results from irritation at the stump, treatments haven’t worked.
surgical efforts to control it have often

METHODS OF An enormous array of research methods is

PHYSIOLOGICAL available to the investigator. One of the
most important research methods used to
PSYCHOLOGY investigate brain functions is:

AN OVERVIEW

EXPERIMENTAL ABLATION EXPERIMENTAL ABLATION: From

Evaluating the Behavioral Effects the Latin word ablatus, a “carrying away”.
of Brain Damage. The removal or destruction of a portion of
Producing Brain Lesions. the brain of a laboratory animal;
Stereotaxic Surgery presumably, the functions that can no
Histological Methods longer be performed are the ones the
Tracing Neural Connections region previously controlled. It is the
oldest method used in neuroscience, and it
NON-INVASIVE METHODS remains one of the most important ones
Studying the Structure of the today.
Living Human Brain

EVALUATING THE BEHAVIORAL lesions. For example, how do we ascertain

EFFECTS OF BRAIN DAMAGE: that the lesioned animal is blind? Does it
bump into objects, or fail to run through a
A lesion is a wound or injury, and a maze toward a light that signals the
researcher who destroys part of the brain location of food, or no longer constrict its
usually refers to the damage as a brain pupils to light? An animal could bump into
lesion. Experiments in which part of the objects because of deficits in motor
brain is damaged and the animal’s coordination, it could have lost its appetite
behavior is subsequently observed are for food (and thus its motivation to run
called lesion studies. The rationale for through the maze), or it could see quite
lesion studies is that the function of an area well but could have lost its visual reflexes.
of the brain can be inferred from the Researchers can often be fooled.
behaviors that the animal can no longer
perform after the area is damaged. For The distinction between brain function and
example, if, after part of the brain is behavior is an important one. Circuits
destroyed, an animal can no longer within the brain perform functions, not
perform tasks that require vision, we can behaviors. No one brain region or neural
conclude that the animal is blind- and that circuit is solely responsible for a behavior;
the damaged area plays some role in each region performs a function (or set of
vision. The most difficult task in such functions) that contributes to performance
studies is interpreting the effects of brain of the behavior.

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PRODUCING BRAIN LESIONS: brain lesions employs an excitatory
amino acid such as kainic acid, which
It is easy to destroy parts of the brain kills neurons by stimulating them to death.
immediately beneath the skull; we Lesions produced this way are referred to
anesthetize the animal, cut open its scalp, as excitotoxic lesions. When an excitatory
remove part of its skull, and cut through amino acid is injected through a cannula
the dura mater, bringing the cortex into into a region of the brain, the chemical
view. Then we can use a suction device to destroys neural cell bodies in the vicinity
aspirate the brain tissue. To accomplish but spares axons that belong to different
this tissue removal, we place a glass neurons that happen to pass nearby. This
pipette on the surface of the brain and suck selectivity permits the investigator to
away brain tissue with a vacuum pump determine whether the behavioral effects
attached to the pipette. Brain lesions of of destroying a particular brain structure
subcortical regions (regions located are caused by the death of neurons located
beneath the cortex) are usually there or by the destruction of axons that
produced by passing electrical current pass nearby. When we produce subcortical
through a stainless steel wire that is coated lesions by passing RF current through an
with an insulating varnish except for the electrode or infusing a chemical through a
very tip. We guide the wire stereotaxically cannula, we always cause additional
so that its end reaches the appropriate damage to the brain. Therefore, we cannot
location. (Stereotaxic surgery: Brain simply compare the behavior of brain-
surgery using a stereotaxic apparatus to lesioned animals with that of unoperated
position an electrode or cannula in a control animals; the incidental damage to
specified position of the brain). Then we the brain regions above the lesion may
turn on a lesion-making device, which actually be responsible for some of the
produces radio frequency (RF) current- behavioral deficits we see. What we do is
alternating current of a very high operate on a group of animals and
frequency. The passage of the current produce sham lesions- a “placebo”
through the brain tissue produces heat that procedure that duplicates all the steps of
kills cells in the region surrounding the tip producing a brain lesion except turn on the
of the electrode. Lesions produced by lesion maker or start the infusion. This
these means destroy everything in the group of animals serves as a control group;
vicinity of the electrode tip, including if the behavior of the animals with brain
neural cell bodies and the axons of neurons lesions is different from that of the sham-
that pass through the region. A more operated control animals, we can conclude
selective method of producing that the lesions caused the behavioral
deficits.

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Most of the time, investigators produce from entering or leaving that region, thus
permanent brain lesions, but sometimes it effectively producing a temporary lesion
is advantageous to disrupt the activity of a (usually called a reversible brain lesion).
particular region of the brain temporarily. Muscimol is a drug that stimulates
The easiest way to do so is to inject a local GABA receptors, inactivates a region of
anesthetic or a drug called Muscimol into the brain by inhibiting the neurons located
the appropriate part of the brain. The there. (GABA is the most important
anesthetic blocks action potentials in axons inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.)
STEREOTAXIC SURGERY
fixes the animal’s head in a standard
Stereotaxis literally means “solid position and a carrier that moves an
arrangement”; more specifically, it refers electrode or a cannula through measured
to the ability to locate objects in space. A distances in all three axes of space. To
stereotaxic apparatus contains a holder that perform stereotaxic surgery, one must first
study a stereotaxic atlas.
STEREOTAXIC ATLAS
junction is called bregma, from the Greek
A collection of drawings of sections of the word meaning “front of head.” Bregma in
brain of a particular animal with a rat’s skull serves as a convenient
measurements that provide coordinates for reference point. If the animal’s skull is
stereotaxic surgery. oriented in a specific way, a particular
region of the brain is found in a fairly
No two brains of animals of a given constant position, relative to bregma. A
species are completely identical, but there stereotaxic atlas contains photographs
is enough similarity among individuals to or drawings that correspond to frontal
predict the location of particular brain sections taken at various distances
structures relative to external features of rostral and caudal to bregma.
the head. For instance, a subcortical
nucleus of a rat might be so many Thus, by finding a neural structure (which
millimeters ventral, anterior, and lateral to we cannot see in our animal) on one of the
a point formed by the junction of several pages of a stereotaxic atlas, we can
bones of the skull. determine the structure’s location relative
to bregma (which we can see). Because of
The skull is composed of several bones variations in different strains and ages of
that grow together and form sutures animals, the atlas gives only an
(seams). The heads of newborn babies approximate location. We always have to
contain a soft spot at the junction of the try out a new set of coordinates, slice and
coronal and sagittal sutures called the stain the animal’s brain, see the actual
fontanelle. Once this gap closes, the location of the lesion, correct the numbers,
and try again.
STEREOTAXIC APPARATUS distances along the three axes: anterior–
A stereotaxic apparatus operates on simple posterior, dorsal–ventral, and lateral–
principles. The device includes a head medial. Once we obtain the coordinates
holder, which maintains the animal’s skull from a stereotaxic atlas, we anesthetize the
in the proper orientation, a holder for the animal, place it in the apparatus, and cut
electrode, and a calibrated mechanism that the scalp open. We locate bregma, dial in
moves the electrode holder in measured

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the appropriate numbers on the stereotaxic and the animal is taken out of the
apparatus, drill a hole through the skull, stereotaxic apparatus and allowed to
and lower the device into the brain by the recover from the anesthetic. Stereotaxic
correct amount. In all cases, once surgery apparatuses can also be made for humans.
is complete, the wound is sewn together,

HISTOLOGICAL METHODS mark, so we have to verify the precise

location of the brain damage after
After producing a brain lesion and testing the animal behaviorally. To do
observing its effects on an animal’s so, we must fix, slice, stain, and examine
behavior, we must slice and stain the brain the brain. Together, these procedures are
so that we can observe it under the referred to as histological methods. (The
microscope and see the location of the prefix histo- refers to body tissue.)
lesion. Brain lesions often miss the

FIXATION AND SECTIONING

If we hope to study the tissue in the form it and stain various cellular structures to see
had at the time of the organism’s death, we anatomical details. Slicing is done with a
must destroy the autolytic enzymes microtome (literally, “that which slices
(autolytic means “self-dissolving”), small”). Slices of brain tissue are usually
which will otherwise turn the tissue into referred to as sections. After the tissue is
mush. The tissue must also be preserved to cut, we attach the slices to glass
prevent its decomposition by bacteria or microscope slides. We can then stain the
molds. To achieve both of these objectives, tissue by putting the entire slide into
we place the neural tissue in a fixative. various chemical solutions. Finally, we
The most commonly used fixative is cover the stained sections with a small
formalin, an aqueous solution of amount of a transparent liquid known as a
formaldehyde, a gas. Formalin halts mounting medium and place a very thin
autolysis, hardens the very soft and fragile glass coverslip over the sections. The
brain, and kills any microorganisms that mounting medium keeps the coverslip in
might destroy it. Once the brain has been position.
fixed, we must slice it into thin sections

STAINING

If we looked at an unstained section of Incidentally, the dyes were not developed

brain tissue under a microscope, no fine specifically for histological purposes but
details would be revealed. For this reason, were originally formulated for use in
the study of microscopic neuroanatomy dyeing cloth. The discovery of cell-body
requires special histological stains. stains made it possible to identify nuclear
Researchers have developed many masses in the brain. Cresyl violet is one
different stains to identify specific such stain. The stain is not selective for
substances within and outside of cells. For neural cell bodies; all cells are stained,
verifying the location of a brain lesion, we neurons and glia alike. It is up to the
will use one of the simplest: a cell-body investigator to determine which is which-
stain. In the late nineteenth century Franz by size, shape, and location.
Nissl, a German neurologist, discovered
that a dye known as methylene blue would
stain the cell bodies of brain tissue.

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ELECTRON MICROSCOPY

The light microscope is limited in its photographic film, which is exposed by the
ability to resolve extremely small details. electrons. Electron photomicrographs
A beam of electrons is passed through the produced in this way can provide
tissue to be examined. A shadow of the information about structural details on the
tissue is then cast onto a sheet of order of a few tens of nanometers.

TRACING NEURAL CONNECTIONS terminal buttons. Over the years’

neuroscientists have developed several
The next step in a research program often different methods for tracing the pathways
requires the investigator to discover the followed by efferent axons. Cell biologists
afferent and efferent connections of the have discovered that a family of proteins
region of interest with the rest of the brain. produced by plants bind with specific
Efferent connections (those that carry complex molecules present in cells of the
information from the region in question to immune system. These proteins, called
other parts of the brain) are revealed with lectins, have also found a use in tracing
anterograde tracing methods, such as the neural pathways. A particular lectin
one that uses PHA-L. Afferent connections produced by the kidney bean, PHA-L is
(those that bring information to the region used to identify efferent axons. To
in question from other parts of the brain) discover the destination of the efferent
are revealed with retrograde tracing axons of neurons located within the region,
methods, such as the one that uses we inject a minute quantity of PHA-L into
fluorogold (A dye that serves as a that nucleus by using a stereotaxic
retrograde label; taken up by terminal apparatus. The molecules of PHA-L are
buttons and carried back to the cell taken up by dendrites and are transported
bodies).To identify axons leaving a through the soma to the axon, where they
particular region and the terminal buttons travel by means of fast axoplasmic
of these axons, we use anterograde tracing transport to the terminal buttons. Within a
method, such as PHA-L. In recent years, few days the cells are filled in their
researchers have developed very precise entirety with molecules of PHA-L:
methods that make specific neurons stand dendrites, soma, axons and all their
out from all of the others. branches, and terminal buttons. Then we
kill the animal, slice the brain, and mount
TRACING EFFERENT AXONS the sections on microscope slides. A
special immunocytochemical method is
To trace the efferent axons of any used to make the molecules of PHA-L
structure, we use an anterograde labeling visible, and the slides are examined under
method (Anterograde means “moving a microscope.
forward”). Anterograde labeling methods Eventually, we will discover the relevant
employ chemicals that are taken up by pathways from the region to the motor
dendrites or cell bodies and are then neurons whose activity is necessary for
transported through the axons toward the copulatory behavior.

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TRACING AFFERENT AXONS histological method that labels cell bodies
that give rise to the terminal buttons that
To find the afferent connections to the form synapses with cells in a particular
region, we employ a retrograde labeling region) identify a single link in a chain of
method. Retrograde means “moving neurons- neurons whose axons enter or
backward”. Retrograde labeling methods leave a particular brain region.
employ chemicals that are taken up by
terminal buttons and carried back through Transneuronal tracing methods identify a
the axons toward the cell bodies. The series of two, three, or more neurons that
method for identifying the afferent inputs form serial synaptic connections with each
to a particular region of the brain is similar other. The most effective transneuronal
to the method used for identifying its tracing method uses a pseudorabies virus-a
efferent. First, we inject a small quantity of weakened form of a pig herpes virus used
a chemical called fluorogold into the for retrograde transneuronal tracing, which
region. The chemical is taken up by labels a series of neurons that are
terminal buttons and is transported back by interconnected synaptically.
means of retrograde axoplasmic transport
to the cell bodies. A few days later we kill Together, anterograde and retrograde
the animal, slice its brain, and examine the labeling methods—including transneuronal
tissue under light of the appropriate methods—enable us to discover circuits of
[Link] anterograde and interconnected neurons. Thus, these
retrograde labeling methods (retrograde methods help to provide us with a “wiring
labeling method is a diagram” of the brain.
RECORDING AND STIMULATING
NEURAL ACTIVITY
Recording Neural Activity
Recording the Brain’s Metabolic and
Synaptic Activity
Stimulating Neural Activity

INTERIM SUMMARY activity of large groups of neurons. In

rare cases macroelectrodes are placed in
When circuits of neurons participate in the depths of the human brain, but most
their normal functions, their electrical often they are placed on the scalp and their
activity, metabolic activity, and chemical activity is recorded on a polygraph.
secretions increase. Thus, by observing Metabolic activity can be measured by
these processes as an animal perceives giving an animal an injection of
various stimuli or engages in various radioactive 2-DG, which accumulates in
behaviors, we can make some inferences metabolically active neurons. The presence
about the functions performed by various of the radioactivity is revealed through
regions of the brain. Microelectrodes can autoradiography: Slices of the brain are
be used to record the electrical activity placed on microscope slides, and after a
of individual neurons. Chronic recordings while developed like photographic
require that the electrode be attached to an negatives. When neurons are stimulated,
electrical socket, which is fastened to the they synthesize the nuclear protein Fos (A
skull with a plastic adhesive. protein produced in the nucleus of a
Macroelectrodes record the neuron in response to synaptic
stimulation).

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The presence of Fos, revealed by a special after the animal has recovered from the
staining method, provides another way to surgery, they insert a smaller cannula and
discover active regions of the brain. The inject a weak solution of an excitatory
metabolic activity of various regions of the amino acid into the brain. The advantage
living human brain can be revealed by the of this procedure is that only neurons
2-DG method, but a PET scanner is used whose cell bodies are located nearby will
to detect the active regions. be stimulated; axons passing through
the region will not be affected.
Another noninvasive method of measuring Transcranial magnetic stimulation induces
regional brain activity is provided by electrical activity in the human cerebral
functional MRI, which detects localized cortex, which temporarily disrupts the
changes in oxygen level. The secretions of functioning of neural circuits located there.
neurotransmitters and neuromodulators can
be measured by implanting the tip of a Recording and Stimulating neural activity
micro dialysis probe in a particular region involves studying the brain by recording or
of the brain. A PET scanner can be used to stimulating the activity of particular
perform similar observations of the human regions. Brain functions involve activity of
brain. Researchers can stimulate various circuits of neurons; thus, different
regions of the brain by implanting a perceptions and behavioral responses
macroelectrode and applying mild involve different patterns of activity in the
electrical stimulation. Alternatively, they brain. Researchers have devised methods
can implant a guide cannula in the brain; to record these patterns of activity or to
artificially produce them.

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RECORDING NEURAL ACTIVITY behaviors. For example, recordings can be
made during stimulus presentations,
Axons produce action potentials, and decision making, or motor activities.
terminal buttons elicit postsynaptic Recordings can be made chronically, over
potentials in the membrane of the cells an extended period of time after the animal
with which they form synapses. These recovers from surgery, or acutely, for a
electrical events can be recorded, and relatively short period of time during
changes in the electrical activity of a which the animal is kept anesthetized.
particular region can be used to determine
whether that region plays a role in various

RECORDINGS WITH in unanesthetized animals, we want more

MICROELECTRODES durable electrodes so we can use arrays of
very fine wires, gathered together in a
Microelectrodes have a very fine tip, small bundle. The wires are insulated with a
enough to record the electrical activity of special varnish so that only their tips are
individual neurons. This technique is bare. The wires are flexible enough that
usually called single-unit recording (a they can follow movements of the brain
unit refers to an individual neuron). tissue caused by movements of the
Because we want to record the activity of animal’s head. As a result, they are less
single neurons over a long period of time likely to damage the neurons whose

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signals they are receiving. In addition, we rode. These electrodes can consist of
can record the activity of several unsharpened wires inserted into the brain,
individual neurons in a particular region of screws attached to the skull, or even metal
the brain. We implant the electrodes in the disks attached to the human scalp with a
brains of animals through stereotaxic special paste that conducts electricity.
surgery. Then, after recovery from surgery, Occasionally, neurosurgeons implant
the animal can be “plugged in” to the macroelectrodes directly into the human
recording system. Laboratory animals brain. The reason for doing so is to
pay no heed to the electrical sockets on detect the source of abnormal electrical
their skulls and behave quite normally. activity that is giving rise to frequent
Researchers often attach rather complex seizures. Once the source is determined,
devices to the animals’ skulls when they the surgeon can open the skull and
implant microelectrodes so that they can remove the source of the seizures—
record from several different parts of the usually scar tissue caused by brain
brain during the course of their damage that occurred earlier in life.
observations. The electrical signals Most often, the electrical activity of a
detected by microelectrodes are quite human brain is recorded through
small and must be amplified using electrodes attached to the scalp and
amplifiers for converting the weak signals displayed on an ink-writing oscillograph,
recorded at the brain into stronger ones. commonly called a polygraph. A
These signals can be stored in the memory polygraph contains a mechanism that
of a computer for analysis at a later time. moves a very long strip of paper past a
series of pens. Such records are called
Recordings with Macroelectrodes: At electroencephalograms (EEGs), or
times we may need to record the activity of “writings of electricity from the head.”
a region of the brain as a whole, not the They can be used to diagnose epilepsy or
activity of individual neurons located brain tumors or to study the stages of sleep
there. Hence, we use macroelectrodes. and wakefulness, which are associated
Macroelectrodes do not detect the activity with characteristic patterns of electrical
of individual neurons; rather, the records activity. Another use of the EEG is to
that are obtained with these devices monitor the condition of the brain during
represent the postsynaptic potentials of procedures that could potentially damage
many thousands—or millions—of cells in it.
the
area
of
the
elect

MAGNETOENCEPHALOGRAPHY somatic membrane of a neuron, magnetic

fields are also produced. These fields are
When electrical current flows through a exceedingly small, but engineers have
conductor, it induces a magnetic field. This developed superconducting detectors
means that as action potentials pass down (called superconducting quantum
axons or as postsynaptic potentials pass interference devices, or SQUIDs), that
down dendrites or sweep across the can detect magnetic fields that are

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approximately one-billionth of the size of calculate the source of particular signals in

the earth’s magnetic field. the brain. These devices can be used
Magnetoencephalography is performed clinically—for example, to find the
with devices that contain an array of sources of seizures so that they can be
several SQUIDs, oriented so that a removed surgically.
computer can examine their output and

RECORDING THE BRAIN’S this radioactivity in the form of dark spots

METABOLIC AND SYNAPTIC in the developed emulsion. Another
ACTIVITY method of identifying active regions of the
brain capitalizes on the fact that when
Electrical signals are not the only signs of neurons are activated (for example, by the
neural activity. If the neural activity of a terminal buttons that form synapses with
particular region of the brain increases, them), particular genes in the nucleus
the metabolic rate of this region called immediate early genes are turned
increases, too, largely as a result of on and particular proteins are
increased operation of ion pumps in the produced. These proteins then bind with
membrane of the cells. This increased the chromosomes in the nucleus. The
metabolic rate can be measured. The presence of these nuclear proteins
experimenter injects radioactive 2- indicates that the neuron has just been
deoxyglucose (2-DG) into the animal’s activated. One of the nuclear proteins
bloodstream. Because this chemical produced during neural activation is called
FOS.
resembles glucose (the principal food for
the brain), it is taken into cells. Thus, the
most active cells, which use glucose at the The metabolic activity of specific brain
highest rate, will take up the highest regions can be measured in human
concentrations of radioactive 2-DG. But brains, too, using a method known as
unlike normal glucose, 2-DG cannot be positron emission tomography (PET).
metabolized, so it stays in the cell. The First, the patient receives an injection of
experimenter then kills the animal, radioactive 2-DG. The person’s head is
removes the brain, slices it, and prepares it placed in a machine similar to a CT
for autoradiography. Autoradiography scanner. When the radioactive molecules
can be translated roughly as “writing of 2-DG decay, they emit subatomic
with one’s own radiation.” Sections of particles called positrons, which are
the brain are mounted on microscope detected by the scanner. The computer
slides. The slides are then taken into a determines which regions of the brain have
darkroom, where they are coated with a taken up the radioactive substance, and it
photographic emulsion (the substance produces a picture of a slice of the brain,
found on photographic film). Several showing the activity level of various
weeks later, the slides, with their coatings regions in that slice. One of the
of emulsion, are developed, just like disadvantages of PET scanners is their
photographic film. The molecules of operating cost. The most recent
radioactive 2-DG show themselves as development in brain imaging is
spots of silver grains in the developed functional MRI (fMRI). Engineers have
emulsion because the radioactivity exposes devised modifications to existing MRI
the emulsion, just as X-rays or light will scanners that acquire images very rapidly
[Link] most active regions of the brain and permit the measurement of regional
contain the most radioactivities, showing metabolism by detecting levels

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of oxygen in the brain’s blood vessels. be acquired much faster. Thus, they reveal
Functional MRI scans have a higher more detailed information about the
resolution than PET scans do, and they can activity of particular brain regions.

MEASURING THE BRAIN’S section of dialysis tubing. We use

SECRETIONS: stereotaxic surgery to place a microdialysis
probe in a rat’s brain so that the tip of the
Sometimes we are interested not in the probe is located in the region we are
general metabolic activity of particular interested in. The microdialysis procedure
regions of the brain, but in the secretion of has been applied to study of the human
specific neurotransmitters or brain, but ethical reasons prevent us from
neuromodulators in these regions. Say, to doing so for research purposes.
Fortunately, there is a noninvasive way to
measure the secretion of acetylcholine in
a region of the medulla, we use measure neurochemicals in the human
microdialysis. Dialysisis a process in brain. Although PET scanners are
expensive machines, they are also
which substances are separated by means
versatile. They can be used to localize any
of an artificial membrane that is permeable
radioactive substance that emits positrons.
to some molecules but not others. A
microdialysis probe consists of a small
metal tube that introduces a solution into a

Structural imaging, which deals with

BRAIN IMAGING TECHNIQUES
the structure of the brain and the
Recent advances in X-ray techniques and diagnosis of large-scale intracranial
computers have led to the development of disease (such as a tumor), as well
several methods for studying the anatomy as injury.
of the living brain. These advances permit Functional imaging, which is used to
researchers to study the location and extent diagnose metabolic diseases and
of brain damage while the patient is still lesions on a finer scale (such as
living. All this is provided by the processes Alzheimer’s disease), and also for
called MRI and CT. neurological and cognitive-
psychology research. Functional
Neuroimaging, or brain scanning, includes imaging allows the brain’s
the use of various techniques to directly or information processing to be
indirectly image the structure, function, or visualized directly, because activity
pharmacology of the brain. It is a in the involved area of the brain
relatively new discipline within medicine, increases metabolism and “lights
neuroscience, and psychology. up” on the scan.
Physicians who specialize in the
performance and interpretation of Four of the most common types of brain
neuroimaging in the clinical setting are scans are EEG, PET, MRI, and fMRI.
known as neuroradiologists. They scan the brain through a variety of
Neuroimaging falls into two broad methods and have varying degrees of
categories: specificity and invasiveness.

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ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY bones. Because of this, it is sometimes
(EEG) unclear exactly which region of the brain
is emitting a signal.
Electroencephalography (EEG) is used to
show brain activity in certain POSITRON EMISSION
psychological states, such as alertness or TOMOGRAPHY (PET)
drowsiness. It is useful in the diagnosis of
seizures and other medical problems that Positron emission tomography (PET) scans
involve an overabundance or lack of measure levels of the sugar glucose in the
activity in certain parts of the brain. brain in order to illustrate where neural
firing is taking place. This works because
To prepare for an EEG, electrodes are active neurons use glucose as fuel. As part
placed on the face and scalp. After placing of the scan, a tracer substance attached to
each electrode in the right position, the radioactive isotopes is injected into the
electrical potential of each electrode can be blood. When parts of the brain become
measured. According to a person’s state active, blood (which contains the tracer) is
(waking, sleeping, etc.), both the sent to deliver oxygen. This creates visible
frequency and the form of the EEG signal spots, which are then picked up by
differ. Patients who suffer from epilepsy detectors and used to create a video image
show an increase of the amplitude of firing of the brain while performing a particular
visible on the EEG record. The task. However, with PET scans, we can
disadvantage of EEG is that the electric only locate generalized areas of brain
conductivity —and therefore the measured activity and not specific locations. In
electrical potentials—may vary widely addition, PET scans are costly and
from person to person and also over time, invasive, making their use limited.
due to the natural conductivities of other However, they can be used in some forms
tissues such as brain matter, blood, and of medical diagnosis, including for
Alzheimer’s.
MAGNETIC RESONANCE signal generated as the nuclei return to
IMAGING (MRI) their baseline status. Through this process,
an MRI creates an image of the brain
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and structure. MRI scans are noninvasive, pose
functional magnetic resonance imaging little health risk, and can be used on
(fMRI) scans are the form of neural infants and in utero, providing a consistent
imaging most directly useful to the field of mode of imaging across the development
psychology. It is a technique whereby the spectrum. One disadvantage is that the
interior of the body can be accurately patient has to hold still for long periods of
imaged; involves the interaction between time in a noisy, cramped space while the
radio waves and a strong magnetic field. imaging is performed. The fMRI is a series
MRI passes an extremely strong magnetic of MRIs that measures both the structure
field through the patient’s head. The and the functional activity of the brain
scanners can use this information to through computer adaptation of multiple
prepare pictures of slices of the brain. images. Specifically, the fMRI measures
signal changes in the brain that are due to
An MRI uses strong magnetic fields to changing neural activity. In an fMRI, a
align spinning atomic nuclei (usually patient can perform mental tasks and the
hydrogen protons) within body tissues, area of action can be detected through
then disturbs the axis of rotation of these blood flow from one part of the brain to
nuclei and observes the radio frequency

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another by taking pictures less than a have been used to study a wide range of
second apart and showing where the brain psychological phenomena, including (but
“lights up.” For example, when a person by no means limited to) the neural activity
processes visual information, blood rushes of telling a lie, the differences between
to the back of the brain, which is where the novices and experts when playing a
occipital lobe is located. FMRIs make it musical instrument, and what happens
possible to show when things happen, how inside our heads when we dream.
brain areas change with experience, and
which brain areas work together. They

(For References)
Computerized Tomography (CT) is the use of a device that employs a computer to
analyze data obtained by a scanning beam of X-rays to produce a two-dimensional
picture of a “slice” through the body.

BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF be directly observed. Instead, motivation

MOTIVATION: HUNGER, THIRST, can only be inferred by noting a person’s
SLEEP AND SEX. behavior. Researchers have proposed
theories that try to explain human
A motive is an impulse that causes a motivation. These theories include drive
person to act. Motivation is an internal reduction theories and Maslow’s
process that makes a person move toward hierarchy of needs theory.
a goal. Motivation, like intelligence, can’t

DRIVE REDUCTION THEORIES People sometimes aren’t motivated by

internal needs.
Drive reduction theories of motivation
suggest that people act in order to reduce Example: Some people fast for long
needs and maintain a constant periods for political causes, despite feeling
physiological state. For example, people extreme hunger. Sometimes, people
eat in order to reduce their need for food. continue being motivated even when they
The idea of homeostasis is central to drive have satisfied internal needs.
reduction theories. Homeostasis is the
maintenance of a state of physiological Example: People sometimes eat even
equilibrium. Drive reduction theories fail when they don’t feel hungry.
to explain several aspects of motivation:

BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF HUNGER There are a number of physiological

mechanisms that serve as the basis for
hunger. When our stomachs are empty,
Hunger is a complicated motivation; they contract, causing both hunger pangs
people don’t eat only because they need and the secretion of chemical messages
food. Many factors, both biological and that travel to the brain to serve as a signal
environmental, influence hunger. These to initiate feeding [Link] our
factors interact with one another in many blood glucose levels drop, the pancreas
ways. and liver generate a number of chemical
signals that induce hunger (Konturek et al.,

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2003; Novin, Robinson, Culbreth, & behavior.

Tordoff, 1985) and thus initiate feeding

BIOLOGICAL FACTORS in hunger. The brain, the digestive system,

Researchers believe certain genetic and hormones are all involved in
differences among individuals play a role influencing hunger at the biological level.

Once again, he returns to his set point.

GENETIC DIFFERENCES AMONG
The set point is maintained not only by
INDIVIDUALS food intake and energy expenditure but
Researchers theorize that people have also by the body’s basal metabolic rate,
a genetically influenced set point for another genetically influenced variable.
body weight. If a person’s weight rises Basal metabolic rate is the rate at
too far above his set point, his appetite which a person at complete rest uses
decreases, or energy. Some researchers disagree
about set points and believe that

he uses up more energy. His weight then people can reset their normal weight if they
returns to its set point. If, on the other add or lose pounds slowly. They also point
hand, his weight falls too far below his out that people usually gain weight when
set point, his appetite increases, or he they have easy access to rich foods.
uses less energy.

THE BRAIN

Researchers believe three areas in the The ventromedial nucleus of the

hypothalamus play a key role in regulating hypothalamus is involved in
hunger: recognizing satiety or fullness. In rats,
damage to the ventromedial nucleus
The lateral hypothalamus is involved in results in excessive eating and weight
recognizing hunger. In rats, damage to the gain. The paraventricular nucleus of
lateral hypothalamus results in loss of the hypothalamus is also involved in
interest in eating. hunger regulation. When the
paraventricular nucleus of a rat is

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damaged, the rat will eat a very large

quantity of food at each meal. HORMONES
The hormone insulin also plays an
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM important role in regulating hunger.
The digestive system influences hunger in Insulin allows cells to access glucose in
several ways. For instance, after a meal, the blood. When the pancreas secretes
the stomach and intestines send nerve insulin, hunger increases. Diabetes is a
impulses to the brain to help people condition caused by a deficiency of
recognize that they are full. insulin. People who have diabetes take
injections of insulin. Without these
The body converts food to glucose, a injections, their cells would be unable to
simple sugar that acts as an energy source use the glucose in their blood.
for cells. The level of glucose in the blood Another hormone involved in hunger
affects hunger. Low blood glucose regulation is leptin. Fat cells in the body
secrete leptin and release it into the blood.
increases hunger; high blood glucose
When the leptin level in the blood is high,
decreases hunger.
hunger decreases.
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF SEX
Many environmental factors influence
hunger, including the availability of rich Unlike hunger, sexual drive does not
foods, taste preferences, habits, memory, motivate people to fulfill a basic
stress, and cultural attitudes. biological need. A lack of food leads to
death; a lack of sex, on the other hand,
does not. Both biological and
psychological factors strongly influence
sexual drive.

KINSEY’S STUDIES

One of the first researchers to give a bore little relation to actual sexual
modern account of human sexuality was practices. Kinsey provided statistics
Alfred Kinsey. In the 1940s, he and his showing that sexual practices varied
colleagues interviewed more than 18,000 widely and that even in the 1940s there
U.S. men and women about their sexual was a high prevalence of masturbation and
behavior and attitudes. In his premarital sex. These statistics shocked
comprehensive reports about human many people of his day.
sexuality, Kinsey denounced the repressive
social attitudes of his time, which he said

Critics of Kinsey’s research maintained his colleagues used questionable methods

three arguments: to gather their data, especially asking
Kinsey’s
 sample was not random. leading questions when interviewing
Instead, it consisted largely of well- subjects.Kinsey may have let his own
educated, white city [Link] and beliefs influence his results

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MASTERS AND JOHNSON’S may secrete a small amount of fluid
STUDIES from the penis.
Orgasm phase: Physiological arousal
Other pioneers of sexual research were peaks. Men ejaculate seminal fluid.
William Masters and Virginia Johnson. Both men and women experience
In the 1960s, they studied several hundred muscular contractions in the pelvic
male and female volunteers who agreed to area, along with a sensation of
either masturbate or have intercourse in a pleasure.
laboratory. Masters and Johnson hooked Resolution phase: Physiological
up the volunteers to instruments that responses return to normal levels. Men
measured various physiological indicators then go through a refractory period that
during sexual activity. Using the results of can vary in length, during which they
these studies, they described the sexual are not responsive to stimulation. The
response cycle. refractory period tends to get longer as
men age.
THE SEXUAL RESPONSE CYCLE
Critics of Masters and Johnson’s
Masters and Johnson divided the human research maintained two arguments:
sexual response cycle into four phases:
Masters and Johnson studied a biased
1. Excitement phase: Physiological sample of people. The sample
arousal increases quickly. Muscle included only people who were
tension, heart rate, blood pressure, and both willing and able to perform
breathing rate increase. In men, the  sexual acts in a laboratory setting.
penis gets erect and the testes swell. In Masters and Johnson didn’t pay
women, the clitoris hardens and swells,  attention to individual differences.
the vaginal lips open, and the vagina In reality, people’s sexual
lubricates. responses vary according to factors
Plateau phase: Physiological arousal  such as age, amount of sexual
continues. In women, the clitoris experience, and cultural
retracts under the clitoral hood. Men 
background.

THE ROLE OF TESTOSTERONE EROTIC STIMULI: Both men and
women can become sexually aroused
Sexual drive is related to testosterone level by external and internal erotic stimuli.
in both men and women, but the External erotic stimuli include sexually
relationship is a complex one. Sexual exciting material that is read, heard, or
activity increases testosterone levels, and seen. Internal erotic stimuli include
testosterone levels increase sex drive. thoughts, fantasies, and memories of
Psychological Factors in Sexual past sexual experiences. What is
Motivation:Hormones alone cannot cause considered erotic varies according to
sexual arousal. Psychological factors are the individual, historical period, and
also highly influential. cultural context.

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 DESIRES: People have an infinite when deciding whether they should
number of desires that influence the initiate sexual activity or wait to
motivation for sex, including to receive a partner’s advances.
procreate, to express love, to have
physical enjoyment, to cope with A culture’s social and economic structure
difficult situations and emotions, to determines the gender roles that men and
validate one’s desirability, and to do women adopt. These gender roles in turn
 what peers do. determine people’s attitude toward sexual
CULTURAL CONTEXT: Having a activity. In some cultures, for instance,
strong influence on sexual behavior, women need marriage to get access to
cultures inform people about sexual status and wealth. In such cultures, a
scripts, or implicit rules that allow a woman is less likely to be interested in sex
person to judge the appropriate sexual for its own sake, since casual sex can
behavior for a given situation. For damage her reputation and reduce her
example, people follow sexual scripts chances of marriage.

SEX AND THE BRAIN GENDER DIFFERENCES IN SEXUAL

BEHAVIOR AND PARTNER CHOICE
Psychological influences are clearly Many researchers have found that some
powerful motivators for sex, and the brain differences exist between men and women
is highly involved in sexual arousal. in sexual behavior and partner choice,
People who have lost all sensation in their though all men and all women do not
genitals because of spinal injuries, for behave the same way or feel the same
example, are still capable of sexual desire. things.
Men Women
More interested in sex; initiate and think about
Less interested in sex
sex more often
Want sex with more partners Not as interested in sex with many partners
Desire sex without emotional commitment Desire sex with emotional commitment
Focus on youth and physical attractiveness Focus on social and economic status when
when choosing a sex partner choosing a sex partner
Feel more jealous when partner is physically Feel more jealous when partner is
unfaithful emotionally unfaithful

EVOLUTIONARY EXPLANATIONS standpoint, men invest no more than the

energy required for intercourse. Women,
Some theorists use evolutionary theory to on the other hand, invest time and energy
explain these gender differences. Their in pregnancy and breast feeding. Because
explanations are generally based on Robert of these biological differences, females can
Trivers’s idea that men and women make produce only a limited number of
different parental investments in order to offspring, whereas males can potentially
produce offspring. From a biological produce virtually unlimited offspring.

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Males can increase their reproductive PROBLEMS WITH EVOLUTIONARY

success by producing as many offspring as EXPLANATIONS
possible. Evolutionary theory predicts that
men tend to choose attractive, youthful Many people criticize the use of
partners because these qualities imply evolutionary explanations of gender
good health and an ability to reproduce differences in sexual behavior. Some
successfully. Females increase their critics argue that alternative explanations
reproductive success by being highly can account equally well for the observed
discriminating when choosing mates. They gender differences. For example, women’s
try to select males who have the most history of social and economic
access to material resources, because such subservience may have taught them to
males can contribute the most to caring for place a high value on their partners’ access
[Link], men must contend to material resources. Men’s preferences
with paternity uncertainty—they can never and behaviors may likewise be a product
be certain that they are the fathers of their of socialization. See page 43 for more
partners’ offspring. Evolutionary theorists information on problems with evolutionary
predict that men would therefore tend to explanations.
have concerns about their partners’ sexual
infidelity. Women, on the other hand, can SEXUAL ORIENTATION
be certain that their offspring are their
own, though they cannot be certain that Sexual orientation is such a controversial
their partners will provide for their subject that people cannot even agree
offspring. Therefore, they are more likely about how the term sexual orientation
to be concerned about the emotional should be defined. Some people argue over
fidelity of their partners. whether it refers to sexual behavior, sexual
attraction, emotional attraction, or all
POSSIBLE BIOLOGICAL FACTORS three. Researchers define sexual
orientation in a variety of ways, which
Researchers have many ideas about the means there is no clear idea about what
possible biological factors of proportion of the population is
homosexuality: homosexual. Researchers also have many
different opinions regarding how many
HORMONES: Some researchers have biological and environmental factors
suggested that homosexuals and contribute to sexual orientation.
heterosexuals have different levels of
GENES: Others have proposed that there
various hormones in the blood.
is a genetic basis for predisposition to
However, research in this area has
homosexuality. To investigate the
failed consistently to find hormonal
possibility of a genetic basis, researchers
variations that could account for
have studied the sexual orientations of the
differences in sexual orientation.
identical, fraternal, and adoptive siblings
of homosexual people. This research has
shown that the identical twins of
homosexuals are much more likely to be
homosexual than the fraternal twins of
homosexuals. In turn, the fraternal twins of
homosexuals are more likely to be
homosexual than the adoptive siblings of
homosexuals.

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 PRENATAL FACTORS:Some prenatal Androgens became

researchers have focused on prenatal homosexual and that many
environment. These researchers homosexual women were not exposed
believe that the level of hormones to androgens prenatally.
present during a critical period in  BRAIN DIFFERENCES: One
prenatal development can affect the researcher, Simon LeVay, examined
organization of the brain, which in turn anatomical differences in the brains of
can influence sexual orientation. homosexual and heterosexual men. He
Research shows that women who were found that a specific area of the
exposed to high prenatal levels of hypothalamus tended to be smaller in
androgens are more likely to be homosexual men and in heterosexual
homosexual. Critics point out that not women than in heterosexual men.
all women who were exposed to

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS  Many of these Proposals

lack empirical support.
Many researchers believe biological
At this time, no one knows exactly what
factors alone can’t explain the origin of
determines sexual orientation. Possibly,
homosexuality. For example, there is only
men and women develop homosexual
about a 50 percent chance that the identical
orientations through various pathways. It is
twins of homosexual men will also be
also possible that the cause of homosexual
homosexual. Therefore, some other factor
orientation differs from individual to
must make the other 50 percent
individual.
heterosexual. Although this other factor
remains unknown, researchers have
proposed a number of environmental SEXUAL ORIENTATION IN THE
situations that might influence sexual ANIMAL WORLD
orientation: Humans are not the only species to engage
in homosexual or bisexual activity.
 An ineffectual, distant father and
Biologists have documented that animals
an overly close, domineering
belonging to hundreds of different species
 mother
engage in homosexual or bisexual
 Seduction in childhood by a
behavior. Many both male and female
homosexual adult
form exclusive, long-term homosexual
 Same-sex sexual play as children
pairs.

(EXTRA FOR REFERENCE – IMPORTANT FOR NET)

EATING DISORDERS many adverse health consequences (Mayo

Clinic, 2012a, 2012b). People suffering
While nearly two out of three US adults from bulimia nervosa engage in binge
struggle with issues related to being eating behavior that is followed by an
overweight, a smaller, but significant, attempt to compensate for the large
portion of the population has eating amount of food consumed. Purging the
disorders that typically result in being food by inducing vomiting or through the
normal weight or underweight. Often, use of laxatives are two common
these individuals are fearful of gaining compensatory behaviors. Some affected
weight. Individuals who suffer from individuals engage in excessive
bulimia nervosa and anorexia nervosa face

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amounts of exercise to compensate for body weight well below average through
their binges. Bulimia is associated with starvation and/or excessive exercise.
many adverse health consequences that Individuals suffering from anorexia
can include kidney failure, heart failure, nervosa often have a distorted body image,
and tooth decay. In addition, these referenced in literature as a type of body
individuals often suffer from anxiety and dysmorphia, meaning that they view
depression, and they are at an increased themselves as overweight even though
risk for substance abuse (Mayo Clinic, they are not. Like bulimia nervosa,
2012b). The lifetime prevalence rate for anorexia nervosa is associated with a
bulimia nervosa is estimated at around 1% number of significant negative health
for women and less than 0.5% for men outcomes: bone loss, heart failure, kidney
(Smink, van Hoeken, & Hoek, 2012). failure, amenorrhea (cessation of the
menstrual period), reduced function of the
As of the 2013 release of the Diagnostic gonads, and in extreme cases, death.
and Statistical Manual, fifth edition, Binge Furthermore, there is an increased risk for
eating disorder is a disorder recognized by a number of psychological problems,
the American Psychiatric Association which include anxiety disorders, mood
(APA). Unlike with bulimia, eating binges disorders, and substance abuse (Mayo
are not followed by inappropriate Clinic, 2012a). Estimates of the prevalence
behavior, such as purging, but they are of anorexia nervosa vary from study to
followed by distress, including feelings of study but generally range from just under
guilt and embarrassment. The resulting one percent to just over four percent in
psychological distress distinguishes binge women. Generally, prevalence rates are
eating disorder from overeating (American considerably lower for men (Smink et al.,
Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013). 2012).

Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder

characterized by the maintenance of a

BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF EMOTION: THE LIMBIC SYSTEM,

HORMONAL REGULATION OF BEHAVIOR.

THE LIMBIC SYSTEM also our higher mental functions, such as

The limbic system combines higher mental learning and formation of memories. The
functions and primitive emotion into one limbic system is the reason that some
system. physical things such as eating seem so
pleasurable to us, and the reason why some
The limbic system is a complex set of medical conditions, such as high blood
structures found on the central underside pressure, are caused by mental stress.
of the cerebrum, comprising inner sections There are several important structures
of the temporal lobes and the bottom of the within the limbic system: the
frontal lobe. It combines higher mental
amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus,
functions and primitive emotion into a
hypothalamus, basal ganglia, and cingulate
single system often referred to as the gyrus.
emotional nervous system. It is not only
responsible for our emotional lives but

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THE AMYGDALA seahorse. It consists of two horns curving
The amygdala is a small almond-shaped back from the amygdala. Psychologists
structure; there is one located in each of and neuroscientists dispute the precise role
the left and right temporal lobes. Known as of the hippocampus, but generally agree
the emotional center of the brain, the that it plays an essential role in the
amygdala is involved in evaluating the formation of new memories about past
emotional valence of situations (e.g., experiences. Some researchers consider
happy, sad, scary). It helps the brain the hippocampus to be responsible for
recognize potential threats and helps general declarative memory (memories
prepare the body for fight-or-flight that can be explicitly verbalized, such as
reactions by increasing heart and breathing memory of facts and episodic memory).
rate. The amygdala is also responsible for Damage to the hippocampus usually
learning on the basis of reward or results in profound difficulties in forming
punishment. new memories (anterograde amnesia), and
Due to its close proximity to the may also affect access to memories formed
hippocampus, the amygdala is involved in prior to the damage (retrograde amnesia).
the modulation of memory consolidation, Although the retrograde effect normally
particularly emotionally-laden memories. extends some years prior to the brain
Emotional arousal following a learning damage, in some cases older memories
event influences the strength of the remain intact; this leads to the idea that
subsequent memory of that event, so that over time the hippocampus becomes less
greater emotional arousal following a important in the storage of memory.
learning event enhances a person’s
retention of that memory. In fact, THE THALAMUS AND
experiments have shown that HYPOTHALAMUS
administering stress hormones to
individuals immediately after they learn Both the thalamus and hypothalamus are
something enhances their retention when associated with changes in emotional
they are tested two weeks later. reactivity. The thalamus, which is a
sensory “way-station” for the rest of the
brain, is primarily important due to its
THE HIPPOCAMPUS connections with other limbic-system
The hippocampus is found deep in the structures. The hypothalamus is a small
temporal lobe, and is shaped like a part of the brain located just below the

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thalamus on both sides of the third THE CINGULATE GYRUS

ventricle. Lesions of the hypothalamus The cingulate gyrus is located in the
interfere with several unconscious medial side of the brain next to the corpus
functions (such as respiration and callosum. There is still much to be learned
metabolism) and some so-called motivated about this gyrus, but it is known that its
behaviors like sexuality, combativeness, frontal part links smells and sights with
and hunger. The lateral parts of the pleasant memories of previous emotions.
hypothalamus seem to be involved with This region also participates in our
pleasure and rage, while the medial part is emotional reaction to pain and in the
linked to aversion, displeasure, and a regulation of aggressive behavior.
tendency for uncontrollable and loud
laughter.

THE BASAL GANGLIA rule-based habit learning (e.g.,

initiating, stopping, monitoring,
The basal ganglia are a group of nuclei
lying deep in the subcortical white matter temporal sequencing, and maintaining
of the frontal lobes that organizes motor the appropriate movement);
behavior. The caudate, putamen, and inhibiting undesired movements and
globus pallidus are major components of permitting desired ones;
the basal ganglia. The basal ganglia choosing from potential actions;
appears to serve as a gating mechanism for motor planning;
physical movements, inhibiting potential sequencing;
movements until they are fully appropriate predictive control;
for the circumstances in which they are to working memory;
be executed. The basal ganglia are also attention.
involved with:

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EARLY LANDMARKS IN THE BIOPSYCHOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION OF

EMOTION:

There are six major early landmarks in the skull and measuring it precisely, paying
biopsychological investigation of emotion. particular attention to the position of the
entry and exit holes. From these
measurements, they reconstructed the
THE CASE OF PHINEAS GAGE accident and determined the likely region
(1848): of Gages brain damage. It was apparent
In 1994, Damasio and her colleagues that the damage to Gages brain affected
brought the power of computerized both medial prefrontal lobes, which are
reconstruction to bear on Gages classic involved in planning and emotion.
case. They began by taking an X-ray of the

CASE STUDY: PHINEAS GAGE religious man who was well liked by his
friends and fellow workers. Once
recovered, he appeared to be as able-
In 1848, Phineas Gage, a 25-year-old bodied and intellectually capable as before,
construction foreman for the Rutland and but his personality and emotional life had
Burlington Railroad, was the victim of a totally changed. He became irreverent and
tragic accident. In order to lay new tracks, impulsive. He became so unreliable and
the terrain had to be leveled, and Gage was undependable that he soon lost his job, and
in charge of the blasting. His task involved was never again able to hold a responsible
drilling holes in the rock, pouring some position. Gage became itinerant, roaming
gun powder into each hole, covering it the country for a dozen years until his
with sand, and tamping the material down death in San Francisco.
with a large tamping iron before
detonating it with a fuse. On the fateful Five years later, neurologist John Harlow
day, the gunpowder exploded while Gage was granted permission from Gages family
was tamping it, launching the 3-cm-thick, to exhume the body and tamping iron to
90-cm-long tamping iron through his face, study them. Since then, Gages skull and
skull, and brain and out the other side. the tamping iron have been on display in
Amazingly, Gage survived his accident, the Warren Anatomical Medical Museum
but he survived it a changed man. Before at Harvard University.
the accident, Gage had been a responsible,
intelligent, socially well-adapted person,

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 DARWIN’S THEORY OF THE evolution of emotional expression that was
EVOLUTION OF EMOTION: composed of three main ideas:
The first major event in the study of the Expressions of emotion evolve from
biopsychology of emotion was the behaviors that indicate what an
publication in 1872 of Darwin’s book:  animal is likely to do next.
The Expression of Emotions in Man and If the signals provided by such
Animals. In it, Darwin argued, largely on behaviors benefit the animal that
the basis of anecdotal evidence that  displays them, they will evolve in
particular emotional responses, such as ways that enhance their
human facial expressions, tend to communicative function, and their
accompany the same emotional states in all  original function may be lost.
members of a species. Darwin believed Opposite messages are often signaled
that expressions of emotion, like other by opposite movements and
behaviors, are products of evolution; he postures, an idea called the
therefore tried to understand them by principle of antithesis.
comparing them in different species.
From such interspecies comparisons,
Darwin developed a theory of the

JAMES-LANGE AND
CANNON-BARD THEORIES:
The first physiological theory of emotion
was proposed independently by James and
Lange in 1884. According to the James-
Lange theory, emotion-inducing sensory
stimuli are received and interpreted by
the cortex, which triggers changes in the
visceral organs via the autonomic
nervous system and in the skeletal
muscles via the somatic nervous system.
Then, the autonomic and somatic
responses trigger the experience of
emotion in the brain.

Four ways of thinking about the relations

among the perception of emotion
inducing stimuli, the autonomic and
somatic responses to the stimuli, and the
emotional experience.

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James and Lange argued that the nervous system activity; according to the
autonomic activity and behavior that are Cannon-Bard theory, emotional experience
triggered by the emotional event (e.g., is totally independent of such feedback.
rapid heartbeat and running away) produce Both extreme positions have proved to be
the feeling of emotion, not vice versa. incorrect. On the one hand, it seems that
the autonomic and somatic feedback is
Around 1915, Cannon proposed an
not necessary for the experience of
alternative to the James-Lange theory of
emotion: Human patients whose
emotion, and it was subsequently extended
autonomic and somatic feedback has
and promoted by Bard. According to the
been largely eliminated by a broken
Cannon-Bard theory, emotional stimuli neck are capable of a full range of
have two independent excitatory effects: emotional experiences (e.g., Lowe &
They excite both the feeling of emotion Carroll, 1985).
in the brain and the expression of
emotion in the autonomic and somatic Failure to find unqualified support for
nervous systems. That is, the Cannon- either the James-Lange or the Cannon-
Bard theory, in contrast to the James- Bard theory led to the modern
Lange theory, views emotional experience biopsychological view. According to this
and emotional expression as parallel view, each of the three principal factors in
processes that have no direct causal an emotional response the perception of
[Link] to the James-Lange the emotion-inducing stimulus, the
theory, emotional experience depends autonomic and somatic responses to the
entirely on feedback from autonomic and stimulus and the experience of the emotion
somatic. can influence the other two.

4. SHAM RAGE:
In the late 1920s, Bard (1929) discovered decorticates animals as sham rage. Sham
that decorticate cats whose cortex has rage can be elicited in cats, whose cerebral
been removed respond aggressively to the hemispheres have been removed down to,
slightest provocation i.e., after a light but not including, the hypothalamus; but it
touch, they arch their backs, erect their cannot be elicited if the hypothalamus is
hair, growl, hiss, and expose their teeth. also removed. On the basis of this
The aggressive responses of decorticate observation, Bard concluded that the
animals are abnormal in two respects: they hypothalamus is critical for the
are inappropriately severe, and they are expression of aggressive responses and
not directed at particular targets. Bard that the function of the cortex is to
referred to the exaggerated, poorly inhibit and direct these responses.
directed aggressive responses of

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5. LIMBIC SYSTEM AND Papez proposed that emotional states are

EMOTION: expressed through the action of the other
structures of the circuit on the
In 1937, Papez (pronounced Payps) hypothalamus and that they are
proposed that emotional expression is experienced through their action on the
controlled by several interconnected nuclei cortex. Papez’s theory of emotion was
and tracts that ring the thalamus. revised and expanded by Paul MacLean in
The figure illustrates some of the key 1952 and became the influential limbic
structures in this circuit, now known as system theory of emotion.
the limbic system (limbic means
border): the amygdala, mammillary
6. KLUVER-BUCY SYNDROME:
body, hippocampus, and fornix, cortex
of the cingulate gyrus, septum, olfactory In 1939, Kluver and Bucy observed a
bulb, and hypothalamus. striking syndrome (pattern of behavior)
in monkeys whose anterior temporal
lobes had been removed. This syndrome,
which is commonly referred to as the
Kluver-Bucy syndrome, includes the
following behaviors: the consumption of
almost anything that is edible, increased
sexual activity often directed at
inappropriate.

EXTRA FOR REFERENCES (TRY TAKING OUT TIME TO ATLEAST

GO THROUGH THIS SECTION)

EMOTIONS AND THE AUTONOMIC EMOTIONAL SPECIFICITY OF THE

NERVOUS SYSTEM AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM:
Research on the role of the autonomic The James-Lange and Cannon-Bard
nervous system (ANS) in emotion has theories differ in their views of the
focused on two issues: the degree to which emotional specificity of the autonomic
specific patterns of ANS activity are nervous system. The James-Lange theory
associated with specific emotions and the says that different emotional stimuli
effectiveness of ANS measures in induce different patterns of ANS activity
polygraphs (lie detection). and that these different patterns produce
different emotional experiences.

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There is ample evidence that not all crime that would be known only to the
emotions are associated with the same guilty person. Rather than attempting to
pattern of ANS activity. However, there is catch the suspect in a lie, the polygrapher
insufficient evidence to make a strong case simply assesses the suspects reaction to a
for the view that each emotion is list of actual and contrived details of the
characterized by a different pattern of ANS crime. Innocent suspects, because they
activity. have no knowledge of the crime, react to
all such details in the same way; the guilty
react differentially.
POLYGRAPHY:
It is a method of interrogation that
employs autonomic nervous system EMOTIONS AND FACIAL
indexes of emotion to infer the EXPRESSION:
truthfulness of the subject’s responses. Ekman and his colleagues have been
Polygraph tests administered by skilled preeminent in the study of facial
examiners can be useful additions to expression. They began in the 1960s by
normal interrogation procedures, but they analyzing hundreds of films and
are far from infallible. The main problem photographs of people experiencing
in evaluating the effectiveness of various real emotions. From these, they
polygraphy is that it is rarely possible in compiled an atlas of the facial expressions
real-life situations to know for certain that are normally associated with different
whether a suspect is guilty or innocent. emotions (Ekman & Friesen, 1975). For
The usual interrogation method is the example, to produce the facial expression
control-question technique, in which the for surprise, models were instructed to pull
physiological response to the target their brows upward so as to wrinkle their
question (e.g., did you steal that purse?) is forehead, to open their eyes wide so as to
compared with the physiological responses reveal white above the iris, to slacken the
to control questions whose answers are muscles around their mouth, and to drop
known (e.g., Have you ever been in jail their jaw.
before?). Universality of Facial Expression:
The assumption is that lying will be Several studies have found that people of
associated with greater sympathetic different cultures make similar facial
activation. The average success rate in expressions in similar situations and that
various mock-crime studies using the they can correctly identify the emotional
control-question technique is about 80%. significance of facial expressions
Despite being commonly referred to as displayed by people from cultures other
lie detection, polygraphy detects than their own.
emotions, not lies. Consequently, it is less Remarkably, human facial expressions are
likely to successfully identify lies in real similar in many respects to those of our
life than in experiments. In real-life primate relatives. Ekman and Friesen
situations, questions such as did you concluded that the facial expressions of
steal that purse? Are likely to elicit a the following six emotions are primary:
reaction from all suspects, regardless of surprise, anger, sadness, disgust, fear,
their guilt or innocence, making it and happiness. They further concluded
difficult to detect deception. that all other facial expressions of genuine
The guilty-knowledge technique emotion are composed of predictable
circumvents this problem. In order to use mixtures of these six primaries.
this technique, the polygrapher must have
a piece of information concerning the

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FACIAL FEEDBACK HYPOTHESIS:

expression was first described by the
Is there any truth to the old idea that French anatomist Duchenne in 1862.
putting on a happy face can make you feel Duchenne said that the smile of enjoyment
better? Research suggests that there is. could be distinguished from deliberately
The hypothesis that our facial produced smiles by consideration of the
expressions influence our emotional two facial muscles that are contracted
experience is called the facial feedback during genuine smiles: orbicularis oculi,
hypothesis. In a test of the facial feedback which encircles the eye and pulls the skin
hypothesis, Rutledge and Hupka (1985) from the cheeks and forehead toward the
instructed subjects to assume one of two eyeball, and zygomaticus major, which
patterns of facial contractions while they pulls the lip corners up.
viewed a series of slides; the patterns
corresponded to happy or angry faces,
although the subjects were unaware of
that. The subjects reported that the slides
made them feel more happy and less angry
when they were making happy faces, and
less happy and more angry when they were
making angry faces.

VOLUNTARY CONTROL OF
FACIAL EXPRESSION:
Because we can exert voluntary control
over our facial muscles, it is possible to
inhibit true facial expressions and to
substitute false ones. There are many
reasons for choosing to put on a false
facial expression. Some of them are
positive (e.g., putting on a false smile to
reassure a worried friend), and some are
negative (e.g., putting on a false smile to According to Duchenne, the zygomaticus
disguise a lie). In either case, it is difficult major can be controlled voluntarily,
to fool an expert. whereas the orbicularis oculi is normally
There are two ways of distinguishing true contracted only by genuine pleasure. Thus,
expressions from false ones (Ekman, inertia of the orbicularis oculi in smiling
1985). unmasks a false friend a fact you would do
First, micro-expressions (brief facial well to remember. Ekman named the
expressions) of the real emotion often genuine smile the Duchenne smile (see
break through the false one. Such micro- Ekman & Davidson, 1993).
expressions last only about 0.05 second, Facial Expressions: Current
but with practice they can be detected Perspectives
without the aid of slow-motion
photography. Ekman’s work on facial expression began
before video recording became
Second, there are often subtle differences commonplace. Now, video recordings
between genuine facial expressions and provide almost unlimited access to natural
false ones that can be detected by skilled facial expressions made in response to
observers. real-life situations. As a result, it is now
The most widely studied difference clear that Ekman’s six primary facial
between a genuine and a false facial

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expressions of emotion rarely occur in share the same facial expression. The
pure form they are ideals with many subtle research on pride by Tracy and Robins
variations. Also, the existence of other (2004) argues against this view. The
primary emotions has been recognized. For expression of pride is readily identified by
example, Ekman (1992) agrees that there individuals of various cultures, cannot be
is evidence for adding contempt and created from a mixture of other primary
embarrassment to his original six. Have expressions, and involves postural as well
you noticed that only one of the eight as facial components. Pride is expressed
primary emotions, happiness, has a through a small smile, with the head tilted
positive emotional valence? (Emotional back slightly and the hands on the hips,
valence refers to the general positive or raised above the head, or clenched in fists
negative character of an emotion). with the arms crossed on the chest.
This imbalance has led some to
hypothesize that all positive emotions may

BRAIN MECHANISMS OF HUMAN EMOTION

COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE OF These three fundamental findings are

EMOTION: influencing how researchers are thinking
Cognitive Neuroscience is currently the about the neural mechanisms of emotion.
dominant approach being used to study the For example, the activity observed in
brain mechanisms of human emotion. sensory and motor cortex during the
There have been many functional brain experience of human emotions is now
imaging studies of people experiencing or believed to be an important part of the
imagining emotions or watching others mechanism by which the emotions are
experiencing them. These studies have experienced. The re-experiencing of
established three points that have advanced related patterns of motor, autonomic,
our understanding of the brain mechanisms and sensory neural activity during
of emotion in fundamental ways Brain emotional experiences is generally
activity associated with each human referred to as the embodiment of
emotion is diffuse there is not a center for emotions. These three fundamental
each emotion. Think mosaic, not center, findings may also help explain the
for locations of brain mechanisms of remarkable ability of humans to grasp the
emotion. There is virtually always activity emotional states of others.
in motor and sensory cortices when a Mirror neurons, which have been
person experiences an emotion or identified in nonhuman primates, are
empathizes with a person experiencing an neurons that fire when a specific response
[Link] similar patterns of brain is performed by a subject or the subject
activity tend to be recorded when a person watches the response being performed.
experiences an emotion, imagines that The discovery that certain patterns of brain
emotion, or sees somebody else experience activity are observed on fMRI scans when
that emotion. individuals experience an emotion or
watch somebody else experience the same
emotion suggests that a mirror-like
system might be the basis for human
empathy.

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AMYGDALA AND HUMAN the same system. The medial portions of
EMOTION: the prefrontal lobes (including the medial
Amygdala plays an important role in fear portions of the orbitofrontal cortex and
conditioning in rats. Numerous functional cingulate cortex) are the sites of emotion-
brain-imaging studies have found the cognition interaction that have received the
amygdala to be involved in human most attention. Functional brain-imaging
emotions particularly in fear and other studies have found evidence of activity in
negative emotions. Furthermore, the the medial prefrontal lobes when
amygdala appears to be involved in only emotional reactions are being cognitively
some aspects of human fear. It seems to be suppressed or re-evaluated. Most of the
more involved in the perception of fear in studies of medial prefrontal lobe activity
others than in its experience. employ suppression paradigms or
reappraisal paradigms. In studies that
Although recent research has focused on use suppression paradigms, participants
the role of the amygdala in the recognition are directed to inhibit their emotional
of negative facial expressions, patients reactions to unpleasant films or pictures; in
with Urbach-Wiethe disease sometimes studies that use reappraisal paradigms,
have difficulty recognizing the negative participants are instructed to reinterpret a
expressions and other complex visual picture to change their emotional reaction
stimuli. to it. The medial prefrontal lobes are active
when both of these paradigms are used,
MEDIAL PREFRONTAL LOBES AND and they seem to exert their cognitive
HUMAN EMOTION: control of emotion by interacting with the
amygdala. The medial prefrontal lobes are
Emotion and cognition are often studied
large and complex, and they likely perform
independently, but it is now believed that
many functions.
they are better studied as components of

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LATERALIZATION OF EMOTION: Most studies of the cerebral lateralization
There is considerable evidence that of emotion have employed functional
emotional functions are lateralized, that is, brain-imaging methods, and the results
that the left and right cerebral hemispheres have been complex and variable. Overall
are specialized to perform different comparisons made in many studies
emotional functions. This evidence has led between left and right hemispheres
to several theories of the cerebral
revealed no interhemispheric differences
lateralization of emotion; the following are
the two most prominent: in either the amount of emotional
processing or the valence of the emotions
The right-hemisphere model of the
being processed. However, when the
cerebral lateralization of emotion
comparisons were conducted on a
holds that the right hemisphere is
specialized for all aspects of emotional structure-by-structure basis, they revealed
processing: perception, expression, and substantial evidence of lateralization of
experience of emotion. emotional processing. Some kinds of
The valence model proposes that the emotional processing were lateralized to
right hemisphere is specialized for the left hemisphere in certain structures
processing negative emotion and the and to the right in others.
left hemisphere is specialized for Clearly, neither the right-hemisphere
processing positive emotion. model nor the valence model of the
lateralization of emotion is supported by
the evidence. The models are too general.
Another approach to studying the
lateralization of emotions is based on
observing the asymmetry of facial
expressions. In most people, each facial
expression begins on the left side of the
face and, when fully expressed, is more
pronounced there which implies right-
hemisphere dominance for facial
expressions.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN THE participants who scored high on

NEURAL MECHANISMS OF extraversion with those of healthy
EMOTION: participants who scored high on
neuroticism. These personality dimensions
In general, more complex brain functions were selected because of their relation to
tend to show more individual differences emotion people high on the extraversion
in cerebral localization. The cortical scale have a tendency toward positive
localization of language processes varies emotional reaction; people high on the
substantially from person to person. neuroticism scale have a tendency toward
Nevertheless, few studies of the neural negative emotional reaction. Although all
mechanisms of emotion have focused on the participants displayed increased
individual differences. activity in the amygdala when viewing
Let’s consider this study by Canli and fearful faces, only the extraverts displayed
colleagues (2002) that used functional increased amygdalae activity when
MRIs to compare the reactions of healthy viewing happy faces. The following case

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study reveals that the brain mechanisms of emotion differ from person to person.

GENETICS AND BEHAVIOR: CHROMOSOMAL ANOMALIES;

NATURE-NURTURE CONTROVERSY [TWIN STUDIES AND
ADOPTION STUDIES]

CHROMOSOMES AND GENES

Chromosomes contain genetic material proteins. Research dating back to the

that can determine a person’s 1800s shows that every living creature has
characteristics. a specific set of chromosomes in the
Chromosomes are structures in the nucleus nucleus of each of its cells.
of a cell containing DNA, histone protein,
and other structural proteins. Human chromosomes are divided into
Chromosomes also contain genes, most of two types—autosomes and sex
which are made up of DNA and RNA. chromosomes. Some genetic traits are
linked to a person’s sex and therefore
DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, passed on by the sex chromosomes. The
determines whether our eyes are blue or autosomes contain the remainder of a
brown, how tall we will be, and even our person’s genetic information. All human
preference for certain types of behavior. beings have 23 pairs of chromosomes by
Known as our “genetic code,” it is shaped which genetic material is developed and
like a double helix, made of sequences of characteristically demonstrated; 22 of
nucleic acids attached to a sugar phosphate these are autosomes, while the remaining
backbone. Genes are subsections of DNA pair (either XX, female, or XY, male)
molecules linked together that create a represents a person’s sex chromosomes.
particular characteristic. These 23 pairs of chromosomes work
together to create the person we ultimately
Each chromosome is made up of a single become.
DNA molecule coiled around histone

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Chromosomal abnormalities can occur impacts on mental processes; for example,

during fetal development if something Down syndrome can cause mild to
goes wrong during the replication of the moderate intellectual disabilities.
cells. Common abnormalities include
Down syndrome (caused by an extra As science advances, the ability to
chromosome #21), Klinefelter syndrome manipulate chromosomes is becoming
(caused by an extra X chromosome), and more realized. Cloning is an example of
Turner syndrome (caused by a missing X taking chromosomal and genetic material
chromosome). Genetic counseling is and creating a new animal, and was first
available for families in order to determine successfully achieved in the famous
if any abnormalities exist that may be example of Dolly the sheep. There is much
passed along to offspring. Many controversy surrounding the manipulation
chromosomal abnormalities are of of chromosomes in human beings, with
psychological importance, with substantial many people believing it to be unethical.

NATURE VS NURTURE
Genetic expression can be influenced
by various social factors, as well as
environmental factors, from light and
temperature to exposure to chemicals.

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Our genetic destiny is not necessarily genes nor environment work alone; rather,
written in stone; it can be influenced by the two work in tandem to create the
several factors, such as social factors, as people we ultimately become.
well as environmental influences among
which we live, including anything from Environmental elements like light and
light and temperature to exposure to temperature have been shown to induce
chemicals. The environment in which a certain changes in genetic expression;
person is raised can trigger the expression additionally, exposure to drugs and
of behavior for which a person is chemicals can significantly affect how
genetically predisposed, while the same genes are expressed. People often inherit
person raised in a different environment sensitivity to the effects of various
may exhibit different behavior. environmental risk factors, and different
individuals may be differently affected by
Long-standing debates have taken place exposure to the same environment in
over the idea of which factor is more medically significant ways. For example,
important, genes or environment. Is a sunlight exposure has a much stronger
person destined to have a particular influence on skin cancer risk in fair-
outcome in life because of his or her skinned humans than in individuals with
genetic makeup, or can the environment an inherited tendency for darker skin. The
(and the people in it) work to change what color of a person’s skin is largely genetic,
might be considered “bad” genes? Today, but the influence of the environment will
it is generally agreed upon that neither affect these genes in different ways.

(EXTRA FOR REFERENCES)

Gene-environment correlations, can be the person’s environment, particularly in

explained in 3 particular ways—passive, the case of children, is largely determined
evocative, or active. by the parent’s genetic characteristics.
Parents create a home environment that is
PASSIVE GENE-ENVIRONMENT influenced by their own heritable
CORRELATIONS characteristics. When the children’s own
In passive gene-environment correlation, genotype influences their behavior or
an association exists between a person’s cognitive outcomes, the result can be a
genetic makeup and the environment in misleading relationship between
which he or she is raised. In other words, environment and outcome. For example,

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an intelligent parent is likely to create a ADOPTION AND TWIN STUDIES IN

home environment rich in educational THE NATURE VS. NURTURE
materials and experience. Since DEBATE
intelligence is moderately heritable, it can Adoption and twin studies can help make
be argued that intelligence in the child is sense of the influence of genes and the
inherited rather than a factor of the home environment. Studies of adult twins are
environment created by the parents. It is used to investigate which traits are
relatively unclear whether the genetic or heritable. Identical twins share the same
environmental factors had more to do with genotype, meaning their genetic makeup is
the child’s development. the same. Twins raised apart tend to be
similar in intelligence and, in some cases,
EVOCATIVE GENE-ENVIRONMENT life events and circumstance, when studied
CORRELATIONS years later, even when raised separately.
Evocative gene-environment correlation
happens when an individual’s (heritable) However, researchers have discovered that
behavior evokes an environmental the phenotype (or the observable
response. For example, the association expression of a gene) of identical twins
between marital conflict and depression grows apart as they age. In adoption
may reflect the tensions that arise when studies, identical twins raised by different
engaging with a depressed spouse rather families can give insight into the nature-
than a causal effect of marital conflict on versus-nurture debate. Since the child is
risk for depression. being raised by parents who are genetically
different from his or her biological parents,
ACTIVE GENE-ENVIRONMENT the influence of the environment shows in
CORRELATIONS how similar the child is to his or her
In active gene-environment correlation, the adoptive parents or siblings. Adoption
person’s genetic makeup may lead them to studies make a strong case for the
select particular environments. For influence of environment, whereas twin
example, a shy person is likely to choose studies make a strong case for genetic
quiet activities and less boisterous influence.
environments than an extroverted
individual. He or she may be more likely
to spend time at the library than at a dance
club.

TWIN STUDIES: diagnosis of a particular mental disorder. If

both twins have been diagnosed with this
A powerful method for estimating the disorder, they are said to be concordant.
influence of heredity on a particular trait is If only one has received this diagnosis, the
to compare the concordance rate for this twins are said to be discordant. Thus, if a
trait in pairs of monozygotic and dizygotic disorder has a genetic basis, the percentage
twins. Monozygotic twins (identical twins) of monozygotic twins who are concordant
have identical genotypes—that is, their for the diagnosis will be higher than the
chromosomes, and the genes they contain, percentage of dizygotic twins. For e.g., he
are identical. In contrast, the genetic concordance rate for schizophrenia in
similarity between dizygotic twins twins is at least four times higher for
(fraternal twins) is, on the average, 50 monozygotic twins than for dizygotic
percent. Investigators study records to twins, a finding that provides strong
identify pairs of twins in which at least one evidence that schizophrenia is a heritable
member has the trait—for example, a trait. Twin studies have found that many

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individual characteristics, including environmental factors will be associated

personality traits, prevalence of obesity, with the adoptive parents, the genetic
incidence of alcoholism, and a wide factors will be associated with the
variety of mental disorders, are influenced biological parents, and the prenatal
by genetic factors. environmental factors will be associated
with the biological mother.
ADOPTION STUDIES:
Adoption studies require that the
Another method for estimating the investigator know the identity of the
heritability of a particular behavioral trait parents of the people being studied and be
is to compare people who were adopted able to measure the behavioral trait in the
early in life with their biological and biological and adoptive parents. If the
adoptive parents. All behavioral traits are people being studied strongly resemble
affected to some degree by hereditary their biological parents, we conclude that
factors, environmental factors, and an the trait is probably influenced by genetic
interaction between hereditary and factors. To be certain, we will have to rule
environmental factors. Environmental out possible differences in the prenatal
factors are both social and biological in environment of the adopted children. If,
nature. For example, the mother’s health, instead, the people resemble their adoptive
nutrition, and drug-taking behavior during parents, we conclude that the trait is
pregnancy are prenatal environmental influenced by environmental factors. Of
factors, and the child’s diet, medical care, course, it is possible that both hereditary
and social environment (both inside and and environmental factors play a role, in
outside the home) are postnatal which case the people being studied will
environmental factors. If a child is adopted resemble both their biological and
soon after birth, most of the postnatal adoptive parents.

(EXTRA FOR REFERENCE)

TARGETED MUTATIONS: reaction. For example, the lack of a

particular enzyme interferes with learning.
A recently developed method has put a This result suggests that the enzyme is
powerful tool in the hands of partly responsible for changes in the
neuroscientists. Targeted mutations are structure of synapses required for learning
mutated genes produced in the laboratory to occur. In other cases, the target of the
and inserted into the chromosomes of mutation is a protein that itself serves
mice. These mutated genes (also called useful functions in the cell. For example, a
knockout genes) are defective—they fail particular type of opiate receptor is
to produce a functional protein. In many involved in the reinforcing and analgesic
cases, the target of the mutation is an effects of opiates.
enzyme that controls a particular chemical

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EXTRA FOR REFERENCES (IMPORTANT FOR NET-JRF)

SPEECH PRODUCTION studies by Opitz and Friederici (2003,

Both perceptions of current events and 2007) found that Broca’s area was
memories of events that occurred in the activated when people were taught an
past involve brain mechanisms in the artificial grammar, which supports the
posterior part of the cerebral hemispheres conclusion that this region is involved in
(the occipital, temporal, and parietal learning grammatical rules—especially
lobes). Thus, this region is largely complex ones.
responsible for our having something to Patients mispronounce words, often
say. Damage to a region of the inferior left altering the sequence of sounds. For
frontal lobe (Broca’s area) disrupts the example, lipstick might be pronounced
ability to speak: “likstip.” People with Broca’s aphasia
recognize that their pronunciation is
erroneous, and they usually try to correct
It causes Broca’s aphasia. This disorder is it.
characterized by slow, laborious, and
nonfluent speech. When trying to talk with Prosody includes changes in intonation,
patients who have Broca’s aphasia, most rhythm, and stress that add meaning,
people find it hard to resist supplying the especially emotional meaning, to the
words the patients are obviously groping sentences that we speak. The neural
for. People with Broca’s aphasia find it mechanisms that control the prosodic
easier to say some types of words than elements of speech appear to be in the
others. They have great difficulty saying right hemisphere.
the little words with grammatical meaning, Stuttering is not a result of abnormalities
such as a, the, some, in, or about. These in the neural circuits that contain the motor
words are called function words, because programs for speech. For example,
they have important grammatical stuttering is reduced or eliminated when a
functions. The words that they do manage person reads aloud with another speaker,
to say are almost entirely content words— sings, or reads in cadence with a rhythmic
words that convey meaning, including stimulus. The problem appears to lie more
nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, such in the neural mechanisms that are involved
as apple, house, throw, or heavy. in planning and initiation of speech.
Functional imaging indicates deficient
auditory feedback produced by the
One of the usual symptoms of Broca’s stutterer’s own voice. Delayed auditory
aphasia is agrammatism; a difficulty in feedback, which impairs the speech of
comprehending or properly employing most fluent speakers, often facilitates the
grammatical devices, such as verb endings speech of stutterers.
and word order. Functional-imaging

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SPEECH COMPREHENSION: important in the comprehension of words

Comprehension of speech obviously and the production of meaningful speech.
begins in the auditory system, which WERNICKLE’S APHASIA:
detects and analyzes sounds. But The primary characteristics of Wernicke’s
recognizing words is one thing; aphasia are poor speech comprehension
comprehending them— understanding and production of meaningless speech.
their meaning—is another. Recognizing a Unlike Broca’s aphasia, Wernicke’s
spoken word is a complex perceptual task aphasia is fluent and unlabored; the person
that relies on memories of sequences of does not strain to articulate words and does
sounds. not appear to be searching for them. The
Wernicke’s area is a region on the left patient maintains a melodic line, with the
temporal lobe of humans, which is voice rising and falling normally.

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When you listen to the speech of a person unaware of their deficit. That is, they do
with Wernicke’s aphasia, it appears to be not appear to recognize that their speech is
grammatical. faulty, nor do they recognize that they
The abilities that are disrupted include cannot understand the speech of others.
recognition of spoken words, Damage restricted to Wernicke’s area
comprehension of the meaning of words, causes pure word deafness—loss of the
and the ability to convert thoughts into ability to understand speech but intact
words. Let us consider each of these speech production, reading, and writing.
abilities in turn. The left hemisphere is involved in analysis
However, the person uses few content of rapid changes in sounds, which is
words, and the words that he or she strings consistent with its role in the analysis of
together just do not make sense. In the speech sounds, which are characterized by
extreme, speech deteriorates into a such changes. Wernicke’s aphasia, caused
meaningless jumble, illustrated by the by damage to Wernicke’s area and the
following quotation: posterior language area, consists of poor
speech comprehension, poor repetition,
and production of fluent, meaningless
Examiner: What kind of work did you do speech. Transcortical sensory aphasia,
before you came into the hospital? caused by damage to the posterior speech
Patient: Never, now mista oyge I wanna area, consists of poor speech
tell you this happened when happened comprehension and production, but the
when he rent. His—his kell come down patients can repeat what they hear. Thus,
here and is—he got ren something. It the symptoms of Wernicke’s aphasia
happened. In these ropier were with him consist of those of transcortical sensory
for hi—is friend—like was. And it just aphasia plus those of pure word deafness.
happened so I don’t know; he did not bring (WA = TSA + PWD.) Feedback from
around anything. mirror neurons that are activated when
people hear the speech of other people
A remarkable fact about people with
may facilitate speech recognition
Wernicke’s aphasia is that they often seem
.

***

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