PowerWithin Education One Stop Solution for Psychology Aspirants

CONTENT

PSYCHOLOGICAL THOUGHT IN SOME MAJOR EASTERN SYSTEMS: Bhagavad

Gita, Buddhism, Sufism and Integral Yoga. Academic psychology in India: Pre-independence
era; post-independence era; 1970s: The move to addressing social issues; 1980s:
Indigenization; 1990s: Paradigmatic concerns, disciplinary identity crisis; 2000s: Emergence
of Indian psychology in academia. Issues: The colonial encounter; Post colonialism and
psychology; Lack of distinct disciplinary identity.

WESTERN: Greek heritage, medieval period and modern period. Structuralism,

Functionalism, Psychoanalytical, Gestalt, Behaviorism, Humanistic-Existential,
Transpersonal, Cognitive revolution, Multiculturalism. Four founding paths of academic
psychology - Wundt, Freud, James, Dilthey. Issues: Crisis in psychology due to strict
adherence to experimental-analytical paradigm (logical empiricism). Indic influences on
modern psychology.

ESSENTIAL ASPECTS OF KNOWLEDGE PARADIGMS: Ontology, epistemology,

and methodology. Paradigms of Western Psychology: Positivism, Post-Positivism, Critical
perspective, Social Constructionism, Existential Phenomenology, and Co-operative Enquiry.
Paradigmatic Controversies. Significant Indian paradigms on psychological knowledge:
Yoga, Bhagavad Gita, Buddhism, Sufism, and Integral Yoga. Science and spirituality (avidya
and vidya). The primacy of self-knowledge in Indian psychology.

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Chapter
Unit 1: Emergence of Psychology
1

1. ACADEMIC PSYCHOLOGY IN INDIA

1990S (20TH CENTURY) laboratory, for demonstrative purpose,

PSYCHOLOGY IN INDIA: on the request of Sir Asutosh Mukherjee.
A. PRE-INDEPENDENCE The honour of having the second
Experimental Psychology Laboratory in
Asia (after Japan) may be attributed to the
Following the accession of India to the Department of Psychology, Calcutta
English empire after 1857 an education University.
system modeled on the lines of Oxford and
Eleven years later this laboratory was
Cambridge was introduced in India.
upgraded as the first psychology
Formal education in Psychology began in
th department, the Department of
the early part of the 20 century. Experimental [Link]
Owing its origin in the philosophical Nath Sengupta, who chaired this
discourse of the 18 century thinkers, it was department, had his education at Harvard
Wilhelm Wundt of the University of University with Hugo Munsterberg, a
Leipzig, who first realized the importance student of William Wundt. Laboratory
of studying mental states under certain research at Calcutta in the areas of depth
special experimental conditions. The perception, psychophysics, and
th
closing years of the 19 century thus attention inspired early work at other
witnessed the appearance of a new branch centers. Recognizing the scientific nature
of science, which came to be known as of research, psychology was included as
“Experimental Psychology”. Impressed a separate section in the Indian Science
by its promise and progress Sir Asutosh Congress in [Link] to this in India
Mukherjee, the well-known jurist and Psychology acquired the status of being a
renowned educationist, who was then the science along with biological sciences,
planning head of the University of Calcutta faster than the status it has got in the west.
decided to include “Experimental The Indian Psychological Association was
Psychology” in the Post Graduate Course founded in 1924 and the Indian Journal of
of studies of Calcutta University (Kolkata). Psychology, the first psychology journal in
Eminent philosopher Dr. Brojendra Nath India, appeared the very next year.
Seal, King George V Professor of Mental
Currently the department has attained the
and Moral Philosophy of the same
status of being the alma mater of
University drafted the syllabus in 1905
Psychology in India.
and established the first

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Before these experimental traditions could 1946 Psychology was started in university
consolidate, Sengupta left Calcutta. He of Patna under two separate wings
was succeeded by Girindra Shekhar Experimental Psychology and Department
Bose. Being a medical doctor and a of Applied Psychology.
psychiatrist who was in close contact with In 1956, The University Grants
Sigmund Freud, Bose showed much Commission was set-up; its responsibility
enthusiasm to promote psychoanalysis. In was to provide funds to various
1922 he founded the Indian universities to start Psychology
Psychoanalytic Society, which two years Departments. Due to this there were 32
later was affiliated with the departments in Psychology by 1960(this
International Psychoanalytic Society. has however increased now). Certain
Bose received his Ph.D. from Calcutta on centers also provided advanced studies in
the 'concept of repression', the first Ph.D. Psychology. Soon another changing trend
from any Indian University in psychology. was that psychology was being offered in
He established the Lumbini Park Mental colleges offering Engineering, Agriculture
Hospital in Calcutta in 1940, and in 1947 and in management colleges. A lot of
brought out a journal 'Samiksha'. The other centers such as NCERT, NIPCCD
Department started an Applied Psychology etc. started applied research in different
Wing in 1938, when Jung, Meyers, and fields of Psychology.
Spearman were invited to the Silver
Jubilee Session of the Indian Science Training for Clinical Psychologists was
Congress. provided in three major centres such as All
India Institute of Mental Health in
(In 1924 down south, Mr. Bangalore (now NIMHANS), Hospital for
[Link] was heading the Mental Disease, Ranchi and Mental
department in Mysore and he was trained Hospital in Calcutta. Around this time
in ‘Psychological Assessments’.) Clinical Psychologists also organized an
all India Association of their own, and its
B. POST-INDEPENDENCE first convention was held in October 1969,
at the All India Institute of Mental Health
Bangalore. The first time Education
The first generation of psychologists after Psychology was introduced at the MA
independence was people from the level as a paper was in 1961 in the
background of Philosophy. Separate University of Calcutta.
Psychology Departments were largely
The National Institute of Mental Health
started between 1940-1960.
and Neurosciences, Bangalore is an
Following the independence of India in institution of international repute for
1947, there were many efforts from the research in clinical psychology and
part of government to integrate social training clinical psychologists. The Central
science into science and technology Institute of Psychiatry, Ranchi is another
research as part of the nation building highly reputed institution carrying out
programme. India’s first Prime Minister research in clinical psychology.
Jawaharlal Nehru was a great promoter of
History of Clinical Psychology in
psychology, encouraging students to go
NIMHANS; the department was started in
abroad to obtain their degrees under
the year 1954 as the department of
eminent psychology professors. He also
Psychology and Human Relations. It is
invited and encouraged psychologists to
one of the oldest and largest departments
research on certain issues in India. in NIMHANS. It is involved in clinical
Other departments of Psychology were services, human resource Development
soon established in Mysore and Patna. In and research activities. The first training

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programme was started in 1955 as period evidenced this concern in the

Diploma in Medical Psychology and the rioting behavior of the masses. Realizing
first PhD was started in 1967. Most the urgent need of research in this area, the
students were/are trained in Behavior Ministry of Education procured the
Therapy, Rehabilitation, De-addiction, services of Gardner Murphy through
Adult and Child Psychiatry. UNESCO in 1950 to develop a research
The Indian Association of Clinical programme to investigate the causes of
Psychologists (IACP) was started in 1968. communal violence. Many Indian
psychologists collaborated on this project
The Indian Council of Social Science which culminated in the book edited by
Research (ICCSR) established in 1968 Murphy in 1953 entitled 'In the Minds of
monitored the status of research in Men'. They continued working in this area
Psychology in India. in later years also.
According to the Association of Indian Another area which emerged during this
Universities, 51 of the 101 recognized period but was not sustained in the later
universities were offering psychology by decades, is counseling and guidance. The
the end of 1975. By 1995 the number of guidance bureau at Patna inspired the
universities had risen to 219 and those establishment of similar bureaus in other
offering psychology at various levels had states. U.P Psychological Bureau was
risen to 70 (Prasadarao & Sudhir, 2001). among the first ones, established in 1947.
The period after the mid-1990s has seen an This Bureau under the leadership of Sohan
even sharper growth in the popularity of Lal, and thereafter of C.M. Bhatia and
psychology. Psychology has been S.N. Mehrotra adapted many intelligence
introduced in the curriculum of senior and aptitude tests in Hindi, and provided
secondary schools. counseling services to the public. The
Bihar Psychological Bureau under the
C. 1970S: THE MOVE TO guidance of Mohsin worked on similar
ADDRESSING SOCIAL ISSUES lines. In Bombay, Parsi Panchayat
Vocational Guidance Bureau provided
services to students, as well as to referred
Initiatives towards socially relevant cases. The Bureau also brought out the
research India's Independence from the Journal of Vocational and Educational
colonial rule in 1947 did bring changes in Guidance. This journal played an
the content and concerns of psychological important role in furthering the guidance
research. The National Government movement in this country. However, the
recognized the importance of social social and political conditions were just
science teaching and research in attaining not ripe for the expansion of this
the objectives of national reconstruction movement and not enough of a research
and social development. There was much base was built up to sustain this
hope and expectation about the role that movement.
the social sciences could play in this
endeavor. Psychologists began to realize A new development after Independence
was the growth of psychology outside
that they have a responsibility to engage
the university system. The Ahmedabad
in socially relevant research. As an
example, psychologists responded to the Textile Industries Research Association
human tragedy of the partition of India. As (ATIRA) was established in 1950, where
an aftermath thousand were killed in Kamla Chowdhury conducted large-scale
Hindu-Muslim riots, followed by a surveys to study motivational problems in
massive influx of refugees from across the the textile industries. Erikson and
border. Many psychological studies of that McClelland were frequent visitors to this

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Institute. In the clinical field, advanced research from industrial to organizational

training programmes were introduced at behavior, the interest grew in studying all
the All India Institute of Mental Health spheres of organized work activities.
(now known as the National Institute of Communal and caste conflicts being
Mental Health and Neuro-Sciences) in perennial problems in India, social
1955, followed by the Hospital for Mental prejudice, intergroup relations and
Diseases in Ranchi (1962). Indian armed socialization of the Indian child
forces also showed interest in using emerged as major research interest.
psychological tests in personnel selection. Rath and Sircar (1960), and Anant (1970)
For this, the Psychological Research studied caste stereotypes. Paranjpe's
Wing of the Defense Science (1970) book, “Caste Prejudice and the
Organization was set up in 1949. The Individual‟ was based on a survey of
aim of this Wing was not only to help in college students' prejudice against low
the election of army personnel but also to caste members. The studies of attitude
do research on the whole range of defense towards the Chinese (A. K. P. Sinha &
related problems, such as motivation and Upadhyaya, 1960) are oft-quoted studies
morale of the armed forces, leadership, of change in attitude as a result of
mental health, stress, rehabilitation of historical events (border dispute with
disabled war veterans and development of China which led to war). A. K. Singh
psychological tests. Later on this Wing (1981) examined development of religious
was elevated as the Defense Institute of identity and prejudice in children, and
Psychological Research, employing a large more recently, Deridder and Tripathi
number of psychologists. (1992) studied social consequences of
An applied field that began to grow after norm violation by different ethnic groups.
Independence was industrial psychology. The work in the field of socialization and
Rapid industrialization in the 1950s and child rearing practices in India has also
1960s created a need for better been substantial. Kakar (1978) examined
understanding of the labor-management socialization and child rearing in light of
relationship and organizational efficiency. the elaborate system of rituals and
Psychological research projects on job practices prevalent
attitude, work incentive, absenteeism, and
job satisfaction were quite popular till the
1970s. Ganguli's (1961) book, “Industrial D. 1990S: PARADIGMATIC
Productivity and Motivation”, is an CONCERNS, DISCIPLINARY
example of the concerns of that period. IDENTITY CRISIS
With the launching of many self-
employment schemes by the Central Durganand Sinha, who may be considered
Government in the 1960s, the research as one of the architects of modern Indian
focus shifted to developing training psychology has observed in his prolific
programmes for inculcating writings that early attempts at formulation of
entrepreneurship. McClelland's theory of Indian Psychology were rejected by
achievement motivation (1961) provided psychologists in India who were trained in
the basis for launching a unique the empirical tradition, because of such
experiment to impart training for notions like rebirth, transmigration of souls,
achievement at the Small Industries and supernatural powers. It was considered
Extension Training Institute, Hyderabad. as “glib talk”, “revivalism” and “uncritical
The findings of this innovative training worship of the past” and the term Indian 9
were not conclusive, and eventually Indian Psychology acquired a “pejorative
psychologists lost interest in such connotation”. So what is “spiritual
experimentation. 18 With the shift in psychology‟ for western

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academicians become “revivalism‟ for majority of chairmen in psychology

Indian academicians! Reasons for such departments had a philosophy
resistance and rejection of psychology background. In normal course this could
grounded in traditional ideas is have given a strong philosophical
primarily due to the negative attitude knowledge base to psychology, making it
that we have inherited from our colonial richer in terms of indigenous concepts and
past on the one hand and the influence theories. But this did not happen. In their
of the scientific worldview on the other enthusiasm to establish a new identity as
(Dalal, 2002; Paranjpe, 2002). It may be scientists, these faculty members with a
argued that a vast majority of Indian background in philosophy completely
psychologists have shied away from Indian dissociated themselves from their parent
psychological perspectives because of this discipline. They were more fascinated by
attitude and the religio-philosophical the idea of value-free and culturally-
context in which those perspectives are neutral experimental work. The areas they
embedded. But, paradoxically a majority showed interest in were memory,
of them share the same socio-cultural psychophysics, perception, learning,
context with the rest of the Indian pattern recognition, etc., which could be
population and are guided by the same studied without bringing in the cultural
religio-philosophical perspectives, which context. These faculty members from
have shaped the attitudes, emotions, philosophy had little training in research
motivations, morals, values, etc., of the methodology. Their major quest, therefore,
Indian masses in their day-to-day living! was to acquire methodological
As Kiran Kumar (2008) observed, this sophistication and mastery over statistical
situation has created some kind of a techniques. In the process they became
split in the personality – psychologist as ardent adherents of Western research
a professional vs. psychologist as a methods.
person – and it has contributed for lack of
creativity and originality in what one does,
and draining of personal resources and E. CRISIS OF IDENTITY
energy resulting in „burn out‟ among
many. A psychologist in his/her role as a In the 70s and 80s a number of review
scientist conducts the professional papers were published to take stock of the
activities with one set of assumptions and contributions made by Indian
beliefs and as a person lives and acts with psychologists, and of the emerging trends.
another set of assumptions and beliefs Interestingly, these appraisals of research
among fellow humans. publications brought home this realization
The fact that psychologists in India lived that psychology in India is mostly a poor
in two worlds did not change much after imitation of western research and does not
Independence, but rather became more lead to understanding Indian social reality.
pronounced. In most universities, A crisis was perceptible in the discipline in
psychology departments were established the mid-70s, as many felt that Indian
by splitting the departments of philosophy. psychology was going nowhere. The
As a result, a large number of philosophy following passages present a brief account
faculty moved to the newly formed of this crisis of direction and progress.
psychology departments; many who opted By the mid-1970s the enthusiasm with
for psychology were those who saw better which the Western-educated Indian
career opportunities in the new psychologists were conducting research
departments. This movement from was waning. Indian scholars were getting
philosophy to psychology was so restive, as Western psychology was failing
pervasive that by the end of the 1960s a to throw light on Indian social issues.

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Sixty years of Western psychology in India However, this crisis of the discipline’s
had not yielded any significant discoveries. identity was of concern for only a handful of
Nandy (1974) argued, "Indian psychologists. J.B.P. Sinha (1993) made a
psychology has become not merely distinction between the bulk and the front of
imitative and subservient but also dull psychological research. Not much has
and replicative" (p. 5). K.G. Agrawal changed in the mass produced bulk of the
(1973) called psychology in India as that research which 21 is still replicative and
of “adoptology‟. There was growing imitative. However, as a response to a long
disillusionment about the applicability of debate and changing global scenario, the
Western theories and their mindless testing front-runners have started taking indigenous
in India. The failure to resolve inner psychology more seriously.
conflicts of cherishing Indian cultural
values at the personal level and
maintaining high standards of objectivity F. 1980S: INDIGENIZATION
at the professional level was reflected in
Methodologically sophisticated but A journey toward indigenous psychology
socially irrelevant research. As a result, the core of indigenization is the belief that
Indian psychologists were increasingly all knowledge, including that of
marginalized in the society. A strong need psychology, is rooted in the prevalent
was felt to return to the cultural roots. D. world-view of a community and is
Sinha (1977) urged that the scientific conditioned by historical and sociocultural
understanding of Indian social reality factors. D. Sinha (1994) discussed in detail
should benefit from its vast treasure of the indigenization of psychology in India.
traditional psychological knowledge He refers to two facets of indigenization.
accumulated over centuries. He called for The first is purely the product of culture,
the development of an indigenous the concepts and categories which are
psychology with its own paradigms to 20 culture-bound. The second is the product
understands developmental problems of of the interaction of cultural 22 variables
the region. In short, psychology in India with concepts, theories and methods
was seeking its own identity. introduced from outside. J. B. P. Sinha
Indian psychologists were showing more (2002) has referred to these two as
interest in studying problems relevant to endogenous and exogenous indigenization.
the country using Indian concepts and He further expanded the domain by
theories. Neki (1973), for example, referring to two variants of each kind of
suggested a teacher-pupil model in clinical indigenization.
counseling to break cultural and social Taking lead from the above discussion, it
barriers. J.B.P. Sinha (1980) proposed a is argued in this paper that indigenous
new leadership style - nurturant task- research has moved along two different
master, which is more likely to succeed in streams. One considers indigenization as a
Indian work organizations. Kakar (1982, gradual process. A majority of
1991) studied the role of traditional psychologists in India are trained in
healers in maintaining mental health in Western models, and for them it is not
traditional societies. Ramchandra Rao feasible to make any sudden shift towards
(1983) and Palsane, Bhavasari, indigenously developed theories and
Goswami, and Evans (1986) developed a methods. It is but natural for them to
concept of stress based on ancient continue using concepts and tests
scriptures. Pande and Naidu (1992) borrowed from the West, albeit with
developed a measure to study the increasing sensitivity to the cultural
concept of detachment and its mental context. The same trend is observable in
health consequences.

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many other developing countries also conduct, but also to explore the methods
(Marriott, 1992) and means of transforming the person
The Canadian psychologist, John Adair, in pursuit of perfection in being,
saw indigenization as a gradual process, certainty in knowing and happiness in
and in collaboration with his Indian feeling. Indian psychology focuses on the
colleagues, developed a scale to measure inner-self which is accessible through
the degree of indigenization. Adair subjective methods of self-verification.
(1989) operationalized indigenization in The beginning of Indian psychology can
terms of - (1) cultural sensitivity of be traced in the writings of many eminent
research in designing a study and thinkers, like Vivekanand and Sri
discussing its findings, (2) citation from Aurobindo in the early part of the last
one’s own culture, (3) problem orientation, Century. The monumental work of
development of culture-based concepts, Jadunath Sinha (1934/1958; 1961) on
theories and methods, (5) culturally Indian psychology can be considered as a
anchored tests, and (6) cross-cultural landmark in formally establishing it as an
comparisons. independent discipline. The books of
Ramachandra Rao (Development of
Viewing retrospectively, this line of psychological thought in India, 1962)
thinking led to the development of three Ragunath Safaya (Indian Psychology,
streams of research: problem-oriented 1975) gave it further impetus in the early
research, cross-cultural psychology and years.
Indian psychology.
The scientific community is better
However, as noted by D. Sinha (1997), the prepared now than in the past to accept a
cross-cultural work only led to testing of psychology rooted in native wisdom and
Western theories on Indian samples. Very philosophical traditions. Psychologists in
rarely studies originated from the needs of India are increasingly aware of the wide
the Indian society or tested Indian concepts gap between their academic pursuits and
in other cultures. Indiscriminate search for the real-life problems of people. The
cultural differences and similarities made replicative nature of research endeavours,
such ventures superficial, without
antiquated and obsolete teaching
providing much understanding of the
programmes, and lack of applied
culture or the contemporary problems of
orientation have devoid the discipline of
Indian society. To a large extent cross-
any professional momentum. Indian
cultural psychology remained a psychologists want to break free from the
methodological enterprise and culture theoretical and methodological constraints
remained a peripheral concern (Misra & of the discipline to grapple with the real
Gergen, 1993). In recent years, cross- issues of development and to act as social
cultural psychology itself is going catalysts in the change process. Indian
through a crisis and the classical psychologists are also aware that if they
conception of culture, that was the basis fail to take up the challenge, they are
of most research in this area, is being likely to be completely marginalized.
seriously questioned (Miller, 1998).
Four factors have contributed to this
Indian psychology has developed around change of attitudes and perceptions of
the existential quest to overcome human Indian psychology.
suffering and in the process to raise the
person to higher levels of awareness and a. One is the failure of Western
achievement. Thus, Indian psychology psychology to deal with their own
endeavors not only to provide an societal problems. It has
understanding of the nature of a person, increasingly been realized that
the causes and consequences of his/her positivistic psychology only

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provides a fragmented and growth rather than as religious

superficial understanding of human traditions. Interest in the study of
feelings and behavior. The growing altered state phenomena since
problems of social and family 1960s and the founding of
violence, mental health, moral transpersonal psychology as a sub-
decay, etc., have brought out the discipline, encouraged
gross limitations of mainstream psychologists involved in them to
western psychology. examine the indigenous
Two, is the growing popularity of perspectives available in many
Yoga and other spiritual systems of religious traditions of the east. It
India in the West. In the past few was recognized clearly that modern
decades more and more persons psychology has nothing to offer
with spiritual training and regarding the 27
experiences from India have been spiritual/transcendental dimension of
visiting other countries and have human nature either to understand
acquired a large following. They others or for personal growth (Tart,
have been responsible for 1975). Unfortunately, most
disseminating the Indian spiritual academic psychologists in India
tradition. Among them, Maharishi have not appreciated this fact, and
Mahesh Yogi and Swami Rama are consider Indian psychology as part
some prominent gurus who have of the revivalist movement.
been able to draw the attention of Four, with India emerging as a
academic psychologists. Sri major economic power in the
Aurobindo’s Integral Yoga and world, there is a renewed interest
Integral Psychology attracted in Indian values, philosophies and
worldwide attention. Mahesh practices, as well as in the strength
Yogi’s Transcendental Meditation and resilience of Indian society.
went through rigorous The very Indian culture and
experimental testing at Harvard and philosophy which was debunked
many other universities. Swami for India’s poverty and
Rama offered himself to extensive backwardness by many western
medical testing at the Menninger Indologists (Max Muller, for
Foundation Laboratory, New York, example) is now seen behind
where he demonstrated many yogic India’s success stories. Indian
feats. These Indian masters were research is now taken more
able to demonstrate convincingly seriously by western psychologists,
the power of mind over body and and as a consequence (ironically),
have contributed significantly by Indian psychologists
towards evoking interest in the themselves. The newly emerging
Indian psychological perspectives. psychology is rooted in traditional
Indian thought and practices. As
Three, is the secular nature of stated in the Pondicherry
Indian psychology. It is a gradual Manifesto (2002), “Rich in
acknowledgement that Indian content, sophisticated in its
psychology of consciousness has methods and valuable in its applied
much to offer in terms of self- aspects, Indian psychology is
pregnant with possibilities for the
birth of new

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models in psychology that would have population, political manipulations and

relevance not only for India but also to lack of funds have gradually become non-
psychology in general.” performers. There is no premium placed
on excellence in teaching and research.
Adair, Pandey, Begam, Puhan, and
G. 2000S: EMERGENCE OF INDIAN Vora (1995) conducted a study on 64
PSYCHOLOGY IN ACADEMIA Indian psychologists through a mailed
questionnaire. The survey revealed three
Though psychology has traversed a long major impediments to research
distance in India, lack of direction has cast productivity: (a) lack of supportive
doubts about the application of psychology intellectual climate, (b) poor professional
in the context of a rapidly changing socio- support, and (c) inadequate research
economic scenario. Psychology in India funding.
has remained dissociated from its own vast It, however, throws no light on 'why is
storehouse of knowledge inherent in the psychology in India lagging behind other
Indian philosophical texts. These sisterly disciplines, such as sociology,
scriptures and texts provide immense anthropology and economics?' It brings
possibilities of developing psychological forth the second line of argument that
theories of self and human development. there are some inherent limitations in
psychology was imported lock-stock- psychology as a scientific discipline. Its
barrel from the West and was first excessive conformity to empiricist-
implanted in 1916 in Calcutta University. positivist methodologies and confining to
The Western model of research and micro-level problems have restricted the
teaching provided the basis on which scope of its psycho-social inquiry.
Indian research grew for a long period. For The third set of arguments focus on the
Indian psychologists trained in the western personal and professional background of
traditions, it has been a long journey to Indian psychologists. Psychologists in the
turn towards their own heritage and take first half of this Century were a product of
Indian concepts and theories germane to the colonial domination of the Indian
understanding Indian social reality. society, greatly influenced by Western
This chapter aims to examine the status of scholarly traditions. The first-generation
psychology in India as a scientific psychologists after India's Independence
discipline, identifying the factors were predominantly converts from the
responsible for its retarded growth. It philosophy background. This combined
also discusses the parallel movement now with their elitist-urban background; fewer
underway to rediscover the knowledge job openings and self-serving research
rooted in scriptures and folk practices, and orientation gave Indian psychologists an
explores its relevance in the present times. identity distinct from those who belonged
Three sets of arguments are put forward to other sister disciplines.
to explain the retarded growth of academic We need a psychology which is a positive
psychology in India. One, which is more discipline conducive to self-growth and
charitable, is the lack of a supportive social harmony. Indian psychology has
intellectual climate. In a country where a come a long way in the hundred years of
vast population lives in a condition of its existence. Today, there are large
subhuman poverty, and decisions about number of teaching and research
social developmental programmes are institutions offering wide range of courses
politically motivated, any scholarly pursuit in psychology. It is not known how many
is considered peripheral. The academic colleges and universities offer psychology
institutions plagued by a rising student courses and how many psychologists are

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professionally active. There are no data sophisticated mind-control techniques in

which official agencies, like the University this pursuit. In contemporary literature this
Grants Commission, Indian Council of broad field of inquiry is referred to as
Social Science Research, or Department of “Indian Psychology”.
Science and Technology can furnish. One Some of these common features which
estimate (A. K. Jain, 2005) suggests that give Indian Psychology a distinct identity
there are more than 15000 psychologists in are briefly discussed here.
India. In any case, India has the largest
number of psychologists outside the Indian psychology can be deemed as
Western block, and is considered a universal. It primarily deals with the
'publication giant' among all developing inner state of a person, taking
countries (Gilgin & Gilgin, 1987). This consciousness as the primary subject
rapid expansion of the discipline has matter of study. Consciousness as a state
aroused many hopes and expectations of being is not an object but is conceived
about its possible contribution to the as undifferentiated subjectivity without
success of nation-building projects. The any content. It can be studied only
problems of poverty, illiteracy, urban indirectly through its various
decay and disease control cannot be manifestations. Buddhism refers to a
handled on the basis of sound economic stream of consciousness as the basis of the
planning only, but also require changes in subjective feeling of continuity and
the attitudes and beliefs of people, and identity which affects our all perceptions,
their motivations for collective action. thoughts, actions and emotions.
In recent years there have been several Human consciousness is considered
good publications which enable a critical hierarchical, the highest state being of pure
evaluation of the development of consciousness, bliss and truth. Distortions
psychology in India. Some of these in consciousness are due to active
writings (Dalal, 1990, 1996, 2002; Misra interference of mind and body which
Gergen, 1993; D. Sinha, 1986, 1996; limits our awareness, obscures our
J.B.P. Sinha, 1993) have critically 4 knowledge and feelings and cause
evaluated the progress of psychology. The suffering. The goal of life is to attain this
five surveys of research in psychology
state of pure consciousness where the
(Mitra, 1972; Pareek, 1980, 1981; J.
knowledge is direct, immediate and
Pandey, 1988, 2001, 2004) cover
important research contributions since the intuitive, and not mediated by sensory
beginning of the last century. inputs. Yoga and meditation are the tools
to attain this transcendental state of pure
In the ancient Indian scriptures no rigid
consciousness.
distinction among religion, philosophy,
and psychology was maintained. The Indian psychology is spiritual in its
overriding consideration was to help orientation. Spiritual does not mean
individuals in their pursuit of self- otherworldly, nor does it mean being
realization and liberation from the religious or dogmatic. Spirituality hereby
miseries of life. In this world-view, the implies taking into consideration the
source of all suffering was presumed to whole range of human progression,
be within the person, and thus the without making a distinction between
emphasis was on exploring the 'world natural and supernatural.
within', to alleviate the suffering. The
goal was to seek enduring harmony of
spirit, mind and body for everlasting
happiness. The yoga system evolved very

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It connotes the faith in the existence of higher d. Indian psychology is based on

powers and the possibility of relating to them veridical methods. It should be clear
to seek the higher order truth of life. that as a human science of
Spirituality has opened up the possibilities of consciousness its methods ought to be
developing broader theories of human different from the methods of physical
existence to understand paranormal powers, sciences.
creativity and intuitive thinking, which many
people exhibit.

H. ISSUES: THE COLONIAL extent replaced the intellectual

ENCOUNTER; POST COLONIALISM traditions and indigenous systems that
AND PSYCHOLOGY; LACK OF had existed for thousands of years –
DISTINCT DISCIPLINARY IDENTITY systems that contained elaborate
theories about human nature, actions,
personality and their relationships with
Before independence, psychological
the world.
research in India was greatly influenced
For instance, mentally ill patients in
by the British universities. Most of the
India were historically treated using
Indian psychologists during this time
various approaches such as herbal or
were trained abroad and they followed the
ayurvedic medicines, yoga and music
western theories of psychology. This (PrasadaraoSudhir, 2001). But with the
psychology, transplanted to India as part advent of scientific (Western) psychology
of the total imperialist domination by the all these traditional and effective
West, came as a ready-made intellectual treatments were replaced with ‘scientific’
package in the first decade of the century techniques.
(Nandy, 1974). In doing so it almost
entirely challenged and to a greater
.
Expansion of psychology departments research had a telling effect on the research
within the university system continued in output of the 15 universities. As a result,
the 1970s. However, it became increasingly research in psychology started growing
difficult to conduct research in the outside the university system. Psychologists
university departments. In a bureaucratic having research inclinations preferred to
university set up, there was little join various research institutes. A.N.S.
organizational support for pursuing research Institute of Social Studies, Patna, Centre for
projects. Again, due to mass entry of the Study of Developing Societies, New
students in the higher education and chronic Delhi, and National Institute of Community
campus unrest for political reasons, the Development, Hyderabad are examples of
academic environment was on the decline. some prominent institutes which became
Heavy teaching, and no incentive for centres of research in psychology.

RAPID BUT UNPLANNED the general expansion of higher education

EXPANSION: In the fifties and sixties the and at times without any particular
growth of psychology in Indian universities academic considerations.
was phenomenal. In 1956 the University
Grants Commission (UGC) was constituted
and it provided funds to various universities
to start psychology departments. As a
result, the number of psychology
departments increased to 32 by the end of
1960s. This rapid expansion of psychology,
though impressive, was quite unplanned. In
the absence of any definite educational
policy of the government, these
departments were often created as a part of

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No serious thinking preceded in last one “Moksha Sanyasa Yoga” (Nirvana

establishing these departments in terms of and Renunciation).
their need-based specialization. Bhagavad Gita dates back to about 4000-
Nevertheless, in the course of their growth 5000 B.C. as part of mythology dictated
many departments developed a distinct by Sage Veda Vyasa and written by Lord
identity (R. E. Pandey, 1969). For Ganesha. What is more important and
example, departments became known for relevant is NOT WHAT IT IS BUT
their research in the areas of rural and WHAT TRANSPIRED in those 18
social psychology (Allahabad), test chapters of Bhagavad Gita; the process
construction (Mysore), and content of the dialogue; its usefulness
industrial psychology (Osmania), as a model of counseling and possible
measurement and guidance (Patna), or contemporary application value to current
verbal learning (Poona). Most departments day psychological therapies.
developed around one dominant scholar,
usually the person heading the department.
His interest and training were decisive PSYCHOLOGY & BHAGAVAD GITA
factors in the specialization of that Maharishi (1982) explains that the
department. Psychology during those days Bhagavad-Gita displays the practical
(this is more or less true even today) application of the knowledge and
developed around personalities, and when experience of bringing the individual into
those scholars departed, many centres contact with the field of cosmic
collapsed, or showed shifts in intelligence. The Bhagavad-Gita describes
specialization. what could be understood as a "Vedic
psychological session" of approximately
two hours, which is sufficient for Lord
2. PSYCHOLOGICAL Krishna to raise Arjun, who has sought his
THOUGHT IN SOME guidance, from a state of suffering to the
MAJOR EASTERN state of enlightenment. Lord Krishna is
SYSTEMS called "Lord" because he is understood in
the Vedic tradition to most fully embody
the totality of consciousness.
A. BHAGAVAD GITA The Bhagavad-Gita addresses the cause
and elimination of suffering, the levels of
ABOUT BHAGAVAD GITA the mind, the mechanics of experiencing
Bhagavad Gita is part of the great epic transcendental consciousness, and the
Mahabharata, a widely popular development of higher states of
mythological story in Hindu philosophy; consciousness, or enlightenment, in which
part of Bhishma Parva, Gita is almost in its life is lived at the highest level of bliss,
entirety the dialogue between two effectiveness, and universality.
individuals, Lord Krishna (considered as For a student of psychology Bhagavad
incarnation of Bhagawan Vishnu, Gita offers a valuable case study for
Narayana) and Arjuna (The Pandava lessons in psychotherapy – resolution of
prince, Nara) in the battle field (war conflict and successful resumption of
between the Pandavas and the Kauravas, action from a state of acute anxiety and
the cousins, for control of the kingdom of guilt laden depression that precipitated
Hasthinapura) of Kurukshetra. It has 18 inaction. The therapy process involved in
yogas (chapters), with about 701 slokas Bhagavad Gita in which Lord Krishna
(short poems), the first one being “Arjuna helped the grief-stricken Arjuna through
Vishada Yoga” (Sorrow of Arjuna) and the dialogue and discussion.

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Counseling/psychotherapy is essential and The one concept in Bhagavad Gita that

an integral component of psychiatric received exceptional respect and applause
interventions in the management of a from several great scholars is the
patient with psychological distress. The emphasis on KARMA (ACTION).
psychotherapeutic models available are Intelligent action (Gnana Karma)
developed and imported from the western without performance anxiety and without
literature. The applicability and usefulness the greed for the fruits of the work
of these models in the Indian context was (Nishkama Karma) and never to have the
discussed with some skepticism keeping in choice of nonperformance of duty
mind the varying cultural, religious, (Akarma) emerges as a key point in the
spiritual, societal attitudes (broadly teaching of Bhagavad Gita.
described as eastern/oriental culture) by
psychiatrists in the past. The Guru-Chela WHAT IS THE IMPORTANCE AND
concept, as a model in psychotherapy, RELEVANCE OF BHAGAVAD GITA
popularized by Dr. Neki gets widely IN OUR PRESENT LIFE?
debated in the Indian context. Eminent
Indian psychiatrists and psychologists Upon deeper analysis, we can break the
discussed and proposed Bhagavad Gita as scene (Lord Krishna and Arjuna on the
a source and model to develop Chariot in the middle of the battleground)
psychotherapeutic concepts suitable to into 6 main components with certain
Indian context. psychological implications as explained in
The very first word in Bhagavad Gita is the highly acclaimed Kathopanishad,
“Dharma” and the last word is which are as follows:
“Mama”. “Mama Dharma” – My
duties, responsibilities, rights, ethics, THE CHARIOT– The chariot represents
morals, attitude, action, activities and so our physical body (Tanu).
on. Some commentators recommend Gita
as an elaborate detailing of MAMA KRISHNA AS THE CHARIOTEER–
DHARMA. Lord Krishna represents our higher
cognitive abilities, especially in the face of
The first chapter, Arjuna Vishada Yoga, adversity i.e. the intellect (Buddhi).
narrates the expression of Arjuna's
sorrow, anxiety, fear and guilt leading to a ARJUNA– Arjuna represents the self.
state of inaction after seeing his kith and
kin (Gurus, cousins, uncles, nephews, HORSES– The horses represent our
friends…) lined up in the enemy camp in senses and limbs (Indriyagalu) by virtue of
the battle field-Fighting this war, to win which we perceive and move ahead in our
the kingdom, means killing all these lives. These have no restraint and without
people whom Arjuna respected and loved; a rein/lagaam can wander off in any
a sin of commission from any angle. direction.
Overwhelmed by the acute state of sadness
and guilt, Arjuna drops his weapons THE REIN of the horses- The reins in
(Gandiva) and turns to Lord Krishna, his the hands of Lord Krishna controlling the
charioteer, for help and guidance. horses represents our mind (Manaus).

Sishyasthe Aham Sadhi Mam THE BATTLEGROUND– the

Tvam Prapannam battleground represents our life (Jeevana).
 Our life is a continuing and continual
(I am your disciple; Guide me, And process of daily battles fought-won and
Help Me) lost!

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In our daily lives, our senses and limbs yoga, adoration and seeking of the
(Indriyagalu) are exposed to a variety of supreme Self as the Divine Being, and
objects and experiences and impact our here the insistence is on devotion; but the
mind (Manaus) in various ways. So how is knowledge is not subordinated, only
it that our mind functions well enough to raised, vitalized and fulfilled, and still the
always make the best decision for us? sacrifice of works continues; the double
path becomes the triune way of
In the modern society battle field is the knowledge, works and devotion. The Gita
symbol of challenges of our life. We all is not a book of practical ethics, but of the
have mountains of desires, dreams, duties spiritual life which permits us to transcend
and ambitions, obligations to family, the clash of all dharmas that the human
society and self. Each of us has our own mind can conceive, and to discover a new
society, family and culture in which we dharma, the law of divine action, divyam
embedded and through which our self, karma, by the attainment of divine
behavior, personality and behavior are freedom in which the nature of the
conditioned. Our life is the perfect individual transcends its limitations, the
example of a battle between good and evil. limitations of the nature subject to three
Many types of question are come to our gunas — tamas, rajas, and sattva, —
mind such as; who we are? What is the and attains to the divine nature
purpose and meaning of our life? What (sādharmyam).
happen to us when we die? It is the
existential question that is not directly PURUSHA & PRAKRITI: The
come on the surface but run like a river intellectual exposition of the Sankhya
beneath our busy life. Many time we come begins with the statement of two ultimate
across a situation where we are afraid to do principles of existence, — Purusha, the
the right thing because of social pressure inactive being, and Prakriti, the active
and conformity. We face conflict with a force of action. Purusha is a pure
choice regarding what we want to do over conscious Being, immobile, immutable
what we should do. Bhagavad Gita is a and self-luminous. Prakriti is Energy and
story that tells us about the importance of its process. The human soul evolves
doing the right thing, of conquering our through at least three levels of Prakriti, its
own darkness, regardless of the cost or three gunas:TAMAS, RAJAS, SATTVA.
struggle. The first level is the tāmasic or the
darkened state of inertia and utter
SRI AUROBINDO’s TAKE ON GITA resistance to change. Here, the law of the
masses, the rules of the herd like a
The argument of the Gita resolves itself subconscious beast or a half-conscious
into three great steps by which action rises man, drive him. Next comes the rājasic or
out of the human into the divine plane. The the egoic stage of kinesis and dynamic
first step is Karma yoga, the selfless movement. Finally, there is the third or
sacrifice of works, and here the Gita's sāttvic stage wherein the individual learns
insistence is on action. The second is to subordinate his ego and take from life
Jnanayoga, the self-realization and only what is rightfully his.
knowledge of the true nature of the self
and the world; and here the insistence is on
knowledge; but the sacrifice of works
continues and the path of Works becomes
one with but does not disappear into the
path of Knowledge. The last step is Bhakti

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B. SUFISM was brought to Europe and America by the

great Indian Sufi master, Hazrat Inayat
Khan, in the 1910s and 1920s from the
Islam: A brief introduction Chisti tradition, bringing the message of
Islam is one of the largest and fastest ‘love, harmony, and beauty’ to the West.
growing world religions. It began with the Islam spread to India as Arabs began
prophetic vision of Mohammad settling on the Indian west coast of Kerala
approximately 1,400 years ago in the as early as the eighth century, which is
Arabian Peninsula and spread at an much earlier than the time of the invasion
astonishing rate throughout the Old World. of India from the north by Mahmud
Islam teaches that there’s only one God/ Ghazni in 1001 CE. The development of
Ultimate Reality (Allah) and nothing is Sufism in India has a highly distinctive
ultimately real but God. God is neither feature, in that Islamic mysticism has
born nor gives birth, that is, it is not a been influenced by Indian mysticism
sentient being. throughout the centuries.
Islam literally means ‘peaceful
surrender’ in Arabic. This refers to the
process of yielding of human will to the
SUFI PHILOSOPHY
Divine Will, and ultimately the According to Sufi philosophy, Reality is
reconciliation and the unification of the the universal will, the true knowledge,
two. The agency of human Will is called eternal light and supreme beauty, whose
the nafs (self) which is the principle of nature is self-manifestation, reflected in
embodiment of spirit and the immediate the mirror of the universe; The world in
experience of the ordinary human being in comparison with the reality is a mere
the world; the nafs is of this material illusion, or non-reality or not-being.
world. Nafs-al-ammarah (the commanding Among Sufis, as well as in the Indian
self) is the human agency of organization, schools of philosophy, some believed in
control, volition and action in the world. the oneness of the existence. To them,
multiplicity indicated a mode of unity. The
phenomenal world is an outward
SUFISM IN INDIA manifestation of the one-real. The Real's
Sufism is the esoteric or inner dimension essence is above human knowledge.
of Islam, and not a branch of exoteric From the point of view of its attributes, it
Islam. Scholars trace the root of the term is a substance with two accidents, one as
Sufi to suf, a woolen garment worn by creator and the other as creature; one
some early Sufis. Some argue that the visible and the other invisible. In its
term is related to the Arabic word ‘saafi’, essence, it is attribute less, nameless,
meaning purity. Origins of indescribable, incomprehensible, but when
Sufism go back to the 8th century CE, covered with Avidya or descent from it
when the first known Sufis lived. Sufi absoluteness, names and attributes are
orders began to be established by 12th formed. The sum of these names and
and13th centuries, and historically attributes is the phenomenal world, which
developed more or less as a matter of represents reality under the form of
geographic location as Islam spread externality.
throughout the world. Man is the microcosm in whom divine
The Naqshabandi is a major Sufi order, attributes are manifested in most imperfect
which became popular in Central Asia, diminutive form. God is eternal beauty and
Kurdistan and the Indian subcontinent. the nature of beauty is self-manifestation
The Chisti order was founded in India and desire to be loved. Thus, the Sufis
by Khawja Mu’in al-Din Hassan Chisti
(1142–1236 CE), whose shrine is visited
by millions of people every year. Sufism

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base their doctrine on the principles of they claimed that the realization of their
love and prefer the Course of love or the knowledge leads to the goal.
Indian Bhakti to other means of reaching The system has two aspects:
God. They consider love to be the essence (1) Knowledge and (2) Practice.
of all religions and the cause of creation
and its Continuation. God is unknowable, According to the Sufis, the object of man's
but may be thought through some concrete creation is the acquisition of the
comparison. Phenomenal diversity is the knowledge of God. Knowledge of God
reflection of the supreme beauty. The includes the knowledge of the Creator and
attributes are identical with him in fact, the creation comprising the universe and
though distinct in our thought. In His the individuals and so on. The knowledge
absolute beauty, He is called Jamal and in of the soul and the things of the world is
His phenomenal Husn. an essential step towards the knowledge of
God.
Man possesses three natures, viz.
The Object Of man's creation, according
Sensual, which corresponds to the Indian to Sufism, is the acquisition Of knowledge
Tamas. Of God. The Sufis believe that the true
Intellectual, somewhat like the Indian knowledge of God can be gained only in
Rajas. intuition. The Sufis believe that the heart
Spiritual or the Indian Sat. of man is a mirror in which he can see the
vision of God. But the heart mirror is
He becomes virtuous or wicked according polluted with the dust of worldly desires.
to the predominance of one of the three To see the vision of Reality it is essential
said qualities. His mind must receive that it should be cleansed of completely.
gradual training for which a guide is The worldly desires are identified with
absolutely necessary. The selection and nafs. It is not easy to kill the nays even for
following of a spiritual guide is the most a moment. The theorists of the system
important duty of a Sufi. A bad or have evolved a method of practice to kill it
imperfect guide may lead him to evil or and to lead the novice to the realization of
leave him imperfect and bewildered. He knowledge of God.
must use all his intellectual ability and
human endeavor to find out the true guide The practice is two-fold: Firstly, to
and once obtained, he must obey his practice detachment from the
direction. worldliness and secondly to develop love
of God through Muraqaba (Meditation)
In all brevity, the essence of Sufi thought and Muhasaba (Self-examination) etc.
is that the life is full of miseries and that The practice is metaphorically called Safr
man can get salvation from the miseries (Journey) to God and the stages of
only by renouncing the worldly spiritual attainment on it are described as
possessions. Different doctrines were
Muqamat (gyations). The Salik
propounded at different times to achieve
(Practicant) realizes spiritual moods called
renunciation.
Hal (States) at some of the stations and at
Ibn Arabi believed that God and his the end.
existence are one: According to him, the
apparent separation is due to ignorance. PRINCIPAL TEACHINGS OF
Thus, there is considerable variety in their SUFISM
conceptions of knowledge, God, self and Absolute Being (God) is also Absolute
the world. However, each sect of the Sufis Beauty.
declared their respective system and their
doctrines to be the true knowledge and

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Since beauty tends towards manifestation, on solid moral and ethical principles,
Absolute Being developed the phenomenal Mysticism cannot flourish. In Arabic,
[Link] should practice virtues like Shariah means "road:' it is a clear
poverty, austerity, humility, fortitude and track, a well-traveled route that anyone
discipline. Ile should devote himself to the can follow. Second is the Tariqah,
ways of inwardness like withdrawal, which refers to the practice of Sufism.
silence, solitariness, and self-examination.
He should also keep in mind a constant
awareness of God with faith, awe and TARIQA, which literally means a path,
desire. These virtues, inwardness and like a trail in the forest or in the desert,
awareness will bring a sense of direct which is not pre-established and requires
communication with God. It would be the expert knowledge of a guide to
better if such slogans are raised which traverse. When one enters the tarigha, he
work as remainders of the mystic belief or she is initiated into a Sufi order with a
and aim and as aids to concentration on the help of a teacher (sheikh) who has
quest for unification. experience and knowledge of the path.
Man should follow these directions with Just as the Shariah refers to the
sufficient perseverance as they will external dimension of religion, the
advance through the standard mystic Tariqah refers to the inner practices
stages of concentration, apprehension of of Sufism. The guide you need in order
everything, sudden and unpredictable to find your way is the Sheikh, or Sufi
illumination, blissful ecstasy, sense of Teacher. The Shariah makes the outer
union with the deity, sense of nothingness
day-to-day life clean and attractive. The
and sense of the nothingness beyond
nothingness. Tariqah is designed to make the inner
life clean and pure. Each of these
supports the other.
THE FOUR STAGES OF
SUFISM HAQIQAH, or Truth: Haqiqah refers
According to Ibn Al-Arabi, the great to the inner meaning of the practices
Andalusian Sufi master, Islam consists of and guidance found in the Shariah and
four dimensions / stages, of practice and Tariqah. It is the direct experience of
understanding in Sufism, Shariah the mystical states of Sufism, direct
(religious Law), Tariqah (the mystical experience of the presence of God
path), Haqiqah (Truth), and Marifah within. Without this experience,
(Gnosis). Each is built upon the stages that seekers follow blindly, attempting to
go before. imitate those who know, those who
SHARIAH, which is the basic foundation have attained the station of Haqiqah.
for the next three stages. The Shariah The attainment of Haqiqah confirms
consists of teachings of Islam, basically and solidifies the practice of the first
the morality and ethics found in all two stages. Before Haqiqah all practice
religions. It provides guidance to us for is imitation. Without the deep inner
living properly in this world. Trying to understanding that comes from
follow Sufism without following the experience, one follows mechanically
Shariah is like trying to build a house on a the teachings and practices of others.
foundation of sand. Without an ordered
life built

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MARIFAH, OR GNOSIS: Gnosis is yours." The advanced Sufis at this level

superior wisdom or knowledge of Spiritual realize that all things are from God, that
Truth. This is a deep level of inner they are really only caretakers and that
knowing, beyond Haqiqah. More than they "possess" nothing. Those who realize
momentary Spiritual experience, Marifah Truth have gone beyond attachment to
refers to an ongoing state of attunement possessions and beyond attachment to
with God and with Truth. It is the externals in general, including fame and
knowledge of Reality, attained by a very position. At the level of Gnosis (Marifah),
few. This is the station of the Messengers, there is "no me and no you," At this final
the prophets, and the great sages and saints. level, the individual has realized that all is
God, that nothing and no one is separate
The great Sufi sage Ibn 'Arabi explained
from God.
these four levels as follows: At the level of
the law (Shariah) there is "yours and mine." What is lawful at one level may not be
That is, the law guarantees individual rights lawful at another level of understanding.
and ethical relations between people. At the For example, the outer practice of fasting
level of the Sufi path (Tariqah), "mine is is required by religious law, but according
yours and yours is mine." The dervishes are to the Sufi path, one of the essential
expected to treat one another as brothers reasons for fasting is to develop self-
and sisters-to open their homes, their hearts, discipline and to control the insatiable ego.
and their purses to one another. At the level If a person is proud of fasting, the fast is
of Truth (Haqiqah),there is "no mine and no still technically lawful, but in terms of the
Sufi path, the fast is a failure.

TYPES OF SELF IN SUFISM

The The commanding self seeks to dominate and to control each individual. At
Commanding this level there is unbridled selfishness and no sense of morality or
Self compassion.

Descriptions of this level are similar to descriptions of the id in

psychoanalytic theory; it is closely linked to lust and aggression. These
have been called the swine and the dogs of the self - the sensual traits are
like swine, the ferocious ones like fierce dogs or wolves. This is the realm
of physical and egoistic desires.

Regretful Self At this level, wants and desires still dominate, but now the person repents
from time to time and tries to follow higher [Link] this second level,
people do not yet have the ability to change their way of life in a
significant way. However, as they see their faults more clearly, their regret
and desire for change grow. At this level, people are like addicts who are
beginning to understand the pain they have caused themselves and others.

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Inspired Self At the next level, the seeker begins to take genuine pleasure in prayer,
meditation, and other spiritual activities. Only now does the individual
taste the joys of spiritual experience. Now the seeker is truly motivated by
ideals such as compassion, service, and moral values. This is the beginning
of the real practice of Sufism. Before this stage, the best anyone can
accomplish is superficial outer understanding and mechanical outer
worship.

Though one is not free from desires and ego, this new level of motivation
and spiritual experience significantly reduces the power of these forces for
the first time. What is essential here is to live in terms of higher values.
Unless these new motivations become part of a way of life, they will
wither and die away. Behaviors common to the inspired self-include
gentleness, compassion, creative acts, and moral action. Overall, a person
who is at the stage of the inspired self seems to be emotionally mature,
respectable, and respected.

Contented Self The seeker is now at peace. The struggles of the earlier stages are basically
begins to let go, allowing the individual to come more closely in contact
with the Divine.

This level of self predisposes one to be liberal, grateful, trusting, and

adoring. If one accepts difficulties with the same overall sense of security
with which one accepts benefits, it may be said that one has attained the
level of the contented self. Developmentally, this level marks a period of
transition. The self can now begin to "disintegrate" and let go of all
previous concern with self-boundaries and then begin to "reintegrate" as an
aspect of the universal self.

Pleased Self At this stage the individual is not only content with his or her lot, but
pleased with even the difficulties and trials of life, realizing that these
difficulties come from God. The state of the pleased self is very different
from the way we usually experience the world, focused on seeking
pleasure and avoiding pain.

Self-pleasing Those who have reached the next stage realize that all power to act comes
to God from God, that they can do nothing by themselves. They no longer fear
anythingor ask for [Link] Sufi sage Ibn 'Arabi described this level
as the inner marriage or self and soul. The self-pleasing to God has
achieved genuine inner unity and wholeness.

Pure / Serene / Those few who attain the final level have transcended the self entirely.
Secure Self There is no ego or no separate self is left, only union with God. At this
stage, the individual has truly realized the truth, "There is no god but God."
The Sufi now knows that there is nothing but God, that only the Divine
exists, and that any sense of individuality or separateness is an illusion.

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When an individual is ready and with These stages constitute the ascetic and ethical
God’s grace, the journey of spiritual discipline of Sufi. These stages are by one's
transformation begins and the nafs own efforts. Each of the stages is the result of
continues to transform first into the the stage preceding it. The path of Sufi is not
‘regretful self’, before turning into the finished until he travels all the stages. In each
‘inspired self’, and finally the stage he is to make himself perfect before
‘serene/secure self’. The process of advancing to the next. After completing all
spiritual transformation involves seven the stages, the seeker becomes Gnostic, A'rif
classical (main) stages. Repentence: It means, the sins are
abandoned and it is resolved never to return
MAIN STAGES OF SUFISM to them. A novice should think of his sins
with deep regret. Others should repent for
Islam has prescribed certain practices for
forgetting God. They should forget their sins
Muslims for attaining perfection in life.
These practices are Kalimah, Salat, Sawm, because the thought of the sins comes
Haj and Zakal. In addition to these, there between them and God.
are certain duties for a disciplined life. The
ritual practices in Islam are endless. The Abstinence: It means one should refrain
rituals of Sha'riat are not difficult to himself from indulgence. In Sufi sense, it may
follow. But there is another method which be of three types:(a) Abstaining from acts
is called Ma'rifat. It is called the path of which are doubtful (b) Abstaining from
Sufis. Ma'rifat is concerned mainly with whatever one's consciousness does not allow
immediate experience. This path is
(c) Abstaining from anything which diverts
described as a journey by Sufis. It has
attention from God.
seven stages which are called Maqamat.
The path is known as "Path" of Tariqat.
Renunciation: It means that one should give
There are differences in Sufis in regard to
up voluntarily those things which give
"Stages" but the main stages are as
physical enjoyment. It has itself three stages.
follows: -
(a) Renouncing something which may bring
name and fame. Investigating what to be
given up and what not to be given up. (c)
There are differences in Sufis in regard to
Not possessing nor wishing to possess any
"Stages" but the main stages are as
worldly thing.
follows: -
Repentence (Tawbah)
Poverty: It means to be stripped of every
Abstinence (Wisr) wish that can turn one's thought from God. It
Renunciation (Zuhd) may be of three types: (a) Neither to possess
Poverty (Faqr) nor seek anything (b) Not to possess anything
Patience (Sabr) but not to decline if offered (c) Not to possess
Trust (Tawakkul) anything but to seek the help of friends in
Satisfaction (Ridza) extreme need.

Patience: It means to keep mental

equilibrium in adversity in distress and in
trials from God. It may be of three types. (a)
Patience in God. (b) Patience in and for God.
(c) Patience in, for and with God. The

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first type is of one who can endure understanding of who we are as human
distress at one time but loses beings and what the purpose of our
patience at another time. The embodied existence here on earth is. It
second type is of one who is not reveals to us the principal aspects of our
moved and who does not complain nature and a way to transform our selves
of his bad circumstances, the third to become true instruments of
manifestation of Divine love, Divine
type is of one whose equilibrium of
consciousness and Divine action.
mind is not lost in any adversity.
Trust in God: It means complete The term ‘psycho-spiritual
transformation’ highlights the importance
dependence on God in all affairs. It
of the psychological dimension in the
is of two types: (a) Renunciation of
overall process of spiritual transformation. It
every personal initiative such as refers to transformation of consciousness by
seeking food, taking medicine, etc. means of psychological insight. Insight into
Admission of some personal our emotional nature may help purify our
initiative such as working for the emotions and emotional attachments.
purpose of subsistence etc.
Three principal aspects of the human
Satisfaction: In this stage the Sufi being and their relationship comprise the
does everything to please God. The triadic foundation of Sufi psychology: the
end Of the Sufi path is Fana nafs (self), ghalb (heart) and ruh (soul).
followed by Baqa. Fana means The spiritual destiny of each human being
passing away Of the individual depends on whether the soul, or nafs,
self. Fana is a state of losing or becomes the eventual winner of the inner
forgetting self- consciousness in a battle (jihad) between the tendencies
state of ecstasy. In the highest stage exercised by the nafs and the higher
of Fana, even the consciousness of qualities of the soul. If the nafs
attaining Fana disappears. This dominates, the heart becomes darkened
stage is known as Fana al-Fana and weakened and ineffective. If the
which makes the beginning of the forces of the soul take over the heart, it
final stage. Baqa means passing becomes transparent and illumined.
from the phenomenal self to the
real self.

ESSENTIALS OF SUFI NAFS

PSYCHOLOGY: NAFS, HEART Nafs is simply the equivalent of the
AND SOUL English word ‘self’. It has often been
translated as ‘ego’ or ‘lower self’ both of
Sufism offers a comprehensive approach which are somewhat inaccurate.
to sacred psychology with the ultimate
aim of self-knowledge and self- The nafs often craves worldly objects and
acceptance. The collective experience and ignores the wisdom of the heart which is
knowledge from Sufi practice makes the medium of transmission of the
available to us today a thorough knowledge of the soul. The nafs needs
spiritual guidance to awaken to its spiritual
potential from the state of sleep-like
ignorance (gheflat).

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POINTS TO REMEMBER: C. INTEGRAL YOGA

As the principle of embodiment, the
human self is the crown of the
INTEGRAL PSYCHOLOGY:
evolutionary process, presiding over the
animal self, vegetable self and the mineral A psychological framework for
self. Nafsal-ammarah undergoes a gradual understanding the total human being is
process of transformation known as fana, called integral psychology. It is a
paradigm of psychology that emerges from
which means ego-annihilation or loss of
a consciousness perspective.
self-centered personality characteristics.
The term saṁskāra refers to mental Integral psychology is concerned with the
impressions that are acquired through the study of the human psyche in its potential
mind and the senses associated with nafs fullness. Accordingly, integral psychology
is inspired by and founded upon four
and embodied existence. These
general postulates essential to an integral
impressions create numerous veils of
world view: non-duality,
illusion that keep human beings in the state
multidimensionality, holism, and
of gheflat or sleep-like ignorance and evolution. - Sri Aurobindo was a yogi and
unconsciousness. a mystic. He has said that the materials of
In Sufi practice the goal is to open the his spiritual philosophy were provided by
seeker’s heart, which is the gateway to the experiences obtained by practice of
soul. The open heart first helps to yoga. According to Sri Aurobindo, yoga
transcend and then transform the nafs. has the same relation with the inner
being and nature of man as science has
with the forces of external nature like
steam or electricity. Yoga, he says, is
scientific in that its methods are
observation of and experiment with the

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states, forces, functions of our subjective, integral yoga is the transformation of

that is, inner being and nature. Yoga is the entire being. Because of this, the
both science and art. It is a science because various elements of one's make-up -
it knows by experience what man is Physical, Vital, Mental, Psychic, and
inwardly and it is an art because it can Spiritual, and the means of their
apply that knowledge to change man's transformation, are described in great
inner being and nature. Yoga is known as detail by Śrī Aurobindo, who in this way
a means of attaining spiritual liberation, formulates an entire integral psychology.
mukti or moksha. Maharishi Aurobindo says the meaning of
the word Yoga is to join our eternal
consciousness with our true self – the
INTEGRAL YOGA
divine within ourselves. He writes, all life
Śrī Aurobindo is the founder of the is Yoga, while Yoga as a sadhana is a
system “Samagra Yoga” (Integral Yoga) methodized effort towards self-perfection,
Integral yoga, also called supramental which brings to expression the latent,
yoga, is the yoga-based philosophy and hidden potentialities of being.
practice of Sri Aurobindo and The Mother
(Mirra Alfassa).
CENTRAL PURPOSE OF THE
INTEGRAL YOGA
ABOUT SRI AUROBINDO Transformation of our superficial, narrow
He was born on 15th August 1872 at and fragmentary human way of thinking,
Calcutta. For the primary education he was seeing, feeling and being into a deep and
taken along with his elder brothers to wide spiritual consciousness and an
England. He returned to India in 1893 and integrated inner and outer existence and of
joined the Baroda College as Professor of our ordinary human living into the divine
French and English. In 1906 hebecame the way of life.
Principal ofthe Calcutta College and
decided to work for the political and
spiritual freedom of India. The pioneering SÂDHANÂ OF THE INTEGRAL
work that he did was evidently a part of his YOGA
larger work for the entire humanity and for The Sâdhanâ [practice] of the Integral
the whole earth. In 1908 he was charged Yoga does not proceed through any set
for sedition and kept in Alipur Jail. During mental teaching or prescribed forms of
the period he had numerous Yogic meditation, mantras or others, but by
experiences and realized the assurance of aspiration, by a self-concentration
the liberation of the country. inwards or upwards, by a self-opening
to an Influence, to the Divine Power
He authored various texts on Yoga and above us and its workings, to the Divine
Spirituality. Some of them are The Life Presence in the heart and by the
Divine, The Synthesis of Yoga, The Ideal rejection of all that is foreign to these
of Human Unity, The Human Cycle, things. It is only by faith, aspiration and
Essays on Gita, The Supramental surrender that this self-opening can come.
Manifestation upon Earth and The Savitri. It is a synthesis of the various branches of
Most yoga only develops a single aspect of Yoga. It is a scientific system for the
the being, and has as their aim a state of harmonious development of every aspect
liberation or transcendence. But the aim of of the individual.
It is a synthesis of all the following yoga:

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Hatha Yoga Path to physical Includes asanas (postures), pranayama (breath control),
practice of mudras, bandhas, kriyas, yogic diet, and deep relaxation.
Yoga. These practices help to purify and strengthen the body
and mind.
Raja Yoga Path of Balancing and controlling the mind utilizing the eight
concentration & limbs of Yoga delineated in the Yoga Sutras of
meditation. Patanjali. This leads ultimately to the state of samadhi,
or super-consciousness.
Bhakti Yoga Path of Through prayer, kirtan, puja, and practices that help
devotion. transcend the limited personality or ego, one attains
union with the Divine.
Karma Path of selfless By engaging in one’s duties without attachment to the
Yoga service. fruits (or results) of the action, one becomes a pure
channel of love and service.
Jnana Yoga Path of wisdom. With study, self-analysis, and awareness, one ceases to
identify with the body and mind, and realizes the
Oneness. The path of wisdom takes an analytical
approach to the question: “Who am I?”
Japa Yoga Path of Mantra The concentrated repetition of a mantra (a sound
Repetition. vibration representing an aspect of the Divine) leads to
an awareness of and attunement to this cosmic vibration.

THE YOGA OF SELF-PERFECTION: leads to realization of Cosmic

PRACTICING INTEGRAL YOGA Self. We realize the one Self,
Brahman, Divine, first above the
The major topic in Sri Aurobindo's body, life, mind and not only
Integral Yoga is - Triple transformation within the heart supporting them. It
which describes the process through which manifests as a Transcending Light,
reality is transformed into the divinity. Knowledge, Power, Purity, Peace,
Ananda of which we become
TRIPLE TRANSFORMATION
aware and which descends into the
PSYCHIC TRANSFORMATION: You being and progressively replaces
can transform your consciousness by the the ordinary consciousness itself
opening of the psychic being within the by its own movements. The final
heart. With the Divine supporting this result of this recurring ascent-
psychic being takes charge of the sadhana descent-assimilation process is
and turns the whole being to the Truth, the known as Liberation of the Soul.
Divine, with results in the mind, the vital
The limitations of the present
and the physical consciousness.
being can be overcome by the
Triple transformation, the
SPIRITUAL TRANSFORMATION: This
process in which the lower
nature is transformed into the
divine nature.

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PSYCHICISATION (PRONOUNCE: (FOR REFERENCE / EXTRA

SI-KA-SI-ZATION). READING)
Psychicisation is a turn inward, so that
one realizes the psychic being, the THREE TYPES OF BEING
psychic personality or Divine Soul, in Sri Aurobindo discerns three types of
the core of one's being. The Divine Soul being, namely the Outer being, the Inner
serves as a spiritual Guide in the yoga, and being, and the Psychic Being.
enables one to transform the outer being.

SPIRITUALISATION 1. THE OUTER BEING

As a result of the Psychicisation, light,
peace, and power descend into the body, The Outer Being includes the physical,
transforming all of its parts, physical, vital, vital and mental levels of being, which
and mental. This is the Spiritual characterizes our everyday
transformation, or Spiritualisation. It is consciousness and experience. It
equivalent to "enlightenment", as found in includes several levels of the
Vedanta and Buddhism. subconscient: a mental subconscient, a
vital subconscient, and a physical
INTERMEDIATE ZONE subconscient, down to the material
Aurobindo asserted that spiritual aspirants Inconscient. Integral Yoga involves
may pass through an intermediate zone going beyond this surface
where experiences of force, inspiration, consciousness to the larger life of the
illumination, light, joy, expansion, power, Inner Being, which is more open to
and freedom from normal limits are spiritual realization.
possible. These can become associated
with personal aspirations, ambitions, 2. THE INNER OR SUBLIMINAL
notions of spiritual fulfilment and yogic BEING
siddhi, and even be falsely interpreted as
full spiritual realization. One can pass The Inner Being, or Subliminal,
through this zone, and the associated includes the inner realms or aspects of
spiritual dangers, without harm by the physical, vital and mental being.
perceiving its real nature, and seeing They have a larger, subtler, freer
through the misleading [Link] consciousness than that of the everyday
who go astray in it may end in a spiritual consciousness. Its realization is
disaster, or may remain stuck there and essential for any higher spiritual
adopt some half-truth as the whole truth. realization. The Inner Being is also
transitional between the surface or
SUPRAMENTALISATION Outer Being and the Psychic or Inmost
Supramentalisation is the realization of Being. By doing yoga practice
the Super mind, or Supramental (sadhana), the inner consciousness is
consciousness, and the resulting being opened, and life turns away from
transformation of the entire being. the outward to the inward. The inner
Psychicisation and spiritualization serve as consciousness becomes more real than
necessary prerequisites for the
Supramentalisation of the entire being.
the outer consciousness, and becomes a
peace, happiness and closeness to the
The supramental transformation is the final Divine.
stage in the integral yoga, enabling the birth
of a new individual, fully formed by the
supramental power.

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3. THE PSYCHIC BEING ABOUT SIDDHARTHA

The Psychic Being is Sri Aurobindo's The historical facts of his life are
term for the Personal Evolving Soul, roughly these: He was born around 563
the principle of Divine spirit in every B.C. in what is now Nepal. near the
individual. The Psychic is the Indian border. His full name was
"Innermost Being", the permanent Siddhartha Gautama of the Sakyas.
being in us that stands behind and Siddhartha was his given name,
supports the physical, vital and mental Gautama his surname, and Sakya the
principles. It "uses mind, life and body name of the clan to which his family
as its instruments," undergoing their belonged. His father was a king, but as
fate yet also transcending them. there were then many kingdoms in the
subcontinent of India, it would be more
accurate to think of him as a feudal lord.
BUDDHISM By the standards of the day his
upbringing was luxurious. "l wore
Buddhism begins with a man. In his garments of silk and my attendants held
later years, when' India was a fire with a white umbrella over me My unguents
his message and kings themselves were always from Banaras." He appears
were bowing before him, people came to have been exceptionally handsome,
to him to ask who or what he was? for there are numerous references to
Buddha’s answer provided an identity "the perfection of his visible body. At
for his entire message. sixteen he married a neighboring
"Are you a god?" they asked. "An princess, Yasodharå, who bore a son
angel?" "NO." "A saint?" "Then what whom they called Rahula.
are you?" Buddha answered. "I am
awake." His answer became his title,
for this is what Buddha means. The ABOUT BUDDHA’S DEATH:
Sanskrit root budh denotes both to After an arduous meal at the age of 80
wake up and to know. Buddha, then, and around the year 43 B.C., the Buddha
means the "Enlightened One," or the died from dysentery after eating a meal
"Awakened One." While the rest of the
of dried boar's flesh in the home Of
world was wrapped in the womb of sleep,
Cunda the smith. Even on his death bed
dreaming a dream known as the waking
state of human life one of their numbers his mind moved toward others. In the
roused him. Buddhism begins with a midst of his pain, it occurred to him that
man who shook off the doze, the dream- Cunda might feel responsible for his
like vagaries of ordinary awareness. It death. "is request, therefore was that
begins with a man who woke up. Cunda be informed that of all the meal
he had eaten during his long life only
two stood out as having blessed him
exceptionally. One was the meal whose
strength hadenabled him to reach
enlightenment under the Bo Tree and
the Other One that was opening to him
the final gates to nirvana.

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The term dukkha as the First Noble

 THE FOUR NOBLE Truth, which represents the Buddha's
TRUTHS view of life and the world, has a
deeper philosophical meaning and
The Four Noble Truths are:
connotes enormouslywider senses.
Dukkha Fortunately the Buddha's teachings do
Dukkha-Samudaya, the arising or not end with suffering; rather, they go
origin of dukkha, on to tell us what we can do about it
Dukkha-Nirodha, the cessation of and how to end it.
dukkha,
SAMUDAYA: THE SECOND
Dukkha-Magga, the way leading to
NOBLE TRUTH
the cessation of dukkha.
 Origin of suffering (Samudāya)
DUKKHA: THE FIRST NOBLE Our day-to-day troubles may seem to
TRUTH have easily identifiable causes: thirst,
pain from an injury, sadness from the
The First Noble Truth (Dukkha-
loss of a loved one. In the second of
ariyasacca) is generally translated by
his Noble Truths, though, the Buddha
almost all scholars as 'The Noble
claimed to have found the cause of all
Truth of Suffering', and it is
suffering - and it is much more deeply
interpreted to mean that life according
rooted than our immediate [Link]
to Buddhism is nothing but suffering
Buddha taught that the root of all
and pain. First of all, Buddhism is
suffering is desire, tanhā. This comes
neither pessimistic nor optimistic, but
in three forms, which he described as
realistic. If anything at all, it is
the Three Roots of Evil, or the Three
realistic, for it takes a realistic view of
Fires, or the Three Poisons. These are
life and of the world. It looks at things
the three ultimate causes of suffering:
objectively (yathabhutam). It does nor
Greed and desire, represented in art by
falsely lull you into living in a fool's
a rooster Ignorance or delusion,
paradise, not does it frighten and
represented by a pig. Hatred and
agonized you with all kinds of
destructive urges, represented by a
imaginary fears and sins. It tells you
snake. (Tanhā is a term in Pali, the
exactly and objectively what you are
language of the Buddhist scriptures
and what the world around you is, and
that specifically means craving or
shows you the way to perfect freedom,
misplaced desire. Buddhists recognize
peace, tranquility and happiness.
that there can be positive desires, such
as desire for enlightenment and good
wishes for others. A neutral term for
such desires is chanda.)

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 NIRODHA: THE THIRD The eight stages are not to be taken in

order, but rather support and reinforce
NOBLE TRUTH
each other:
Cessation of suffering (Nirodha)
The Buddha taught that the way Right Understanding - Sammā
to extinguish desire, which causes ditthi
suffering, is to liberate oneself
from attachment. This is the third Accepting Buddhist teachings.
Noble Truth - the possibility of (The Buddha never intended his
liberation. followers to believe his teachings
blindly, but to practice them and
Nirvana means extinguishing. judge for themselves whether they
Attaining nirvana - reaching were true.)
enlightenment - means
extinguishing the three fires of Right Intention - Sammā
greed, delusion and hatred. san̄kappa
Someone who reaches nirvana
does not immediately disappear to A commitment to cultivate the
a heavenly realm. Nirvana is right attitudes.
better understood as a state of
mind that humans can reach. It is Right Speech - Sammā vācā
a state of profound spiritual joy,
without negative emotions and Speaking truthfully, avoiding
fears. Someone who has attained slander, gossip and abusive speech.
enlightenment is filled with
compassion for all living things. Right Action - Sammā kammanta

 MAGGA: THE FOURTH Behaving peacefully and

NOBLE TRUTH harmoniously; refraining from
stealing, killing and overindulgence
Path to the cessation of suffering in sensual pleasure.
(Magga). The final Noble Truth is
the Buddha's prescription for the Right Livelihood - Sammā ājīva
end of suffering. This is a set of
principles called the Eightfold Avoiding making a living in ways
Path. that cause harm, such as exploiting
people or killing animals, or
THE EIGHTFOLD PATH IS trading in intoxicants or weapons.
ALSO CALLED THE MIDDLE
WAY: It avoids both indulgence Right Effort - Sammā vāyāma
and severe asceticism, neither of
which the Buddha had found Cultivating positive states of mind;
helpful in his search for freeing one- self from evil and
enlightenment. unwholesome states and preventing
them arising in future.

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Right Mindfulness - Sammā sati The eight stages can be grouped into
Wisdom (right understanding and
Developing awareness of the body, intention), Ethical Conduct (right
sensations, feelings and states of mind. speech, action and livelihood) and
Meditation (right effort, mindfulness
Right Concentration - Sammā Samadhi and concentration).

Developing the mental focus necessary for The Buddha described the Eightfold Path
this awareness. as a means to enlightenment, like a raft for
crossing a river. Once one has reached the
opposite shore, one no longer needs the
raft and can leave it behind.

PRE-SCIENTIFIC PSYCHOLOGY ERA

(It means: Methodologically poor, Untestable (e.g. concept of denial) and Limited impact on
scientific psychology)

(Greek Heritage, for e.g.)

Greek Heritage | The Basics

The ancient Greek philosophers gave us the basic categories of philosophy, beginning with
metaphysics. Metaphysics is the part of philosophy that asks questions such as "What is the
world made of?" and "What is the ultimate substance of all reality?" In fact, the ancient
Greeks were among the first to suggest that there is a "true" reality (noumenon) under the
"apparent" reality (phenomenon), an "unseen real" beneath the "unreal seen." The question
is, what is this true reality? Is it matter and energy, i.e. something physical? This is called
materialism. Or something more spiritual or mental, such as ideas or ideals? This is called
idealism.

Materialism and idealism constitute the two extreme answers. Later, we will explore some
other possibilities. A second aspect of philosophy is epistemology. Epistemology is the
philosophy of knowledge: How do we know what is true or false, what is real or not? Can
we know anything for certain, or is it ultimately hopeless?

Again, the Greeks outlined two opposing approaches to the problem of knowledge. One is
called empiricism, which says that all knowledge comes through the senses. The other is
rcalled rationalism, which says that knowledge is a matter of reason, thought.

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Socrates He, only, orated his teachings, Plato recorded his teachings in
(469-399 BCE) writing,

Socrates work has been continued by Plato and was presented in

Plato’s published books.

In Book VII of The Republic, Plato wrote the “Allegory of the

Cave.” This allegory represents the inherent capacity to learn through
the concept of being, not becoming. Plato’s allegory is written as a
philosophical exchange between Socrates and his student. Socrates
illustrates a cave wherein a line of prisoners with no possible range of
movement face a cave wall.

Plato Socrates and his student Plato believed that the mind was
(428-348 BCE): separate from the body, that it continued to exist after death, and that
ideas were innate.

PLATO:
Plato was an early proponent of individual differences. He
recognized that we as individuals naturally differ in general aptitude,
intelligence, and talent. He set forth a classification system to
qualitatively rate people as being individuals of gold, silver, brass, or
iron. In his work, The Republic, Plato describes a model for the
perfect society in which a small collection of people with superior
intellect, or the Guardians, governed under a philosopher king. Other
members of this utopian society were given jobs based on their own
personal strengths.
Those who expressed great courage were posted as warriors, those
who were endowed with a great appreciation of beauty and harmony
would serve as artists and poets, and people who displayed little
talent or ability would be delegated to the roles of servants and
slaves.

PLATO’S MIND BRAIN DUALISM:

Plato might be given recognition as an early psychologist for his
descriptions of the psyche. Plato stated that the psyche is an active
entity which drives us and shapes our actions. Our most important
task as human beings is the nurturing of our psyche by striving for
good and gaining knowledge. For Plato, true knowledge is not gained
through the senses, but rather through cognizance of the world of
forms.

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Plato’s position on the soul and his theory of the world of forms
was an early view of mind brain dualism. The soul is in an
intermediate position between the world of forms, and the physical
world to which to body belongs. The body and soul, for Plato
existed as two separate entities.

Important Terms associated with Plato:

- The allegory of the cave

- World of Forms
- Forms

Aristotle Aristotle suggested that the soul is not separable from the body and
(384-322 BCE): that knowledge (ideas) grow from experience.

Aristotle {timeline} (384-322 BCE) was born in Macedonia. At 17

years old he left for Athens to study under Plato for 22 years. He
mentored Alexander the Great.
Aristotle founded his own school, the Lyceum in Athens (335 BCE).
Unlike Plato, Aristotle did not completely agree that mental
representations make us less aware of reality. In fact, he places
them at the center of the cognitive psychology and developed the
first theory in [Link] refers to mental images as
Phantasmata, and claims that they are necessary not just for
recalling but even for thinking. In De Sensu et Sensili, translated as
on sense and sensible, Aristotle distinguishes animals from plants
based on the fact that they have perception. Perception according to
Aristotle is the purpose of the soul.

SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

Aristotle’s theory of sensation and perception was that there are
special sensible and common sensible. Special sensible’s are single
pieces of information such as color determined by only one of our
five senses. Common sensible’s can be perceived by more than once
sense such as
movement. Common sense was what Aristotle argued, the five senses
working together to form perceptions of something such as an apple.
Aristotle felt the most basic sense was the sense of touch which
developed to allow us to feel pleasure and pain.

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MEMORY
In addition to how we sense objects, Aristotle covers how we
imagine objects or recall them. Recollection or memory is when the
senses are triggered that eventually causes a representation of the
object being sensed in the mind. Furthermore, Aristotle introduced
the idea that memory requires a process of recalling the image in the
mind. He says that the extent that we recall an image depends on how
we represent the object in our mind as well as how we associate it.

INTELLIGENCE
He believed that there are different types of intelligence or what he
called “practical wisdom”. He believed that there were different
ways to exercise these wisdoms including understanding
(knowing), action (doing), and production (making).
The different types of wisdoms paralleled Aristotle’s grouping of
works of which were his theoretical works, his practical works,
and his productive works. In relation to psychology today, Robert
Sternberg (2003) created the Triarchic Theories of Intelligence which
mirror Aristotle’s concepts of intelligence.

Hippocrates (450- Considered by many to be the “father of medicine”. He developed

380 BCE) the Theory of four Humors. One of the works he is credited with,
“On the Sacred Disease,” is considered an important piece of work
to the history of psychology, (Watson, 1968).
Hippocrates who determined that the disease, epilepsy, was not “the
intervention of a spirit who possessed the body of the sufferer,”
but was a disease that had a nature and a cause like any other
diseases, and could be treated as such.
Hippocrates determined that all mental disorders belonged to one of
three categories; mania, melancholia, and phrenitis. Hippocrates
went on to express that he believed that this epilepsy was caused in
the brain and more specifically was related to a “humoral
congestion.”
Theory of Four Humors aka (Theory of Disease)
Blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile are what, according to
Hippocrates theory, determine whether a person is healthy or has
disease. When the four humors are in a state of balance, then a
person is healthy but if there is any change in the amount of even one
of the humors, then a person is considered to have a disease.
The idea of therapy for curing disease, according to Hippocrates,
dealt with the idea of “cure by opposites”. If one of the humors is in
excess, then you cure the afflicted person by reducing the amount of
that humor.
Hippocrates believed that the brain was the center for all intelligence
and activity and because of this, any mental illness that was

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discovered was due to brain pathology.

He also believed that because so much of conscious life is connected
to the brain, including emotions, all of our suffering comes from the
brain when it is not healthy. If the brain is too hot, cold, moist, or dry
then it is considered to be unhealthy and as a result disease occurs.
He explains that the brain can be affected by phlegm and bile, most
fevers are the thought to be caused by an imbalance with bile, too
much bile can also cause overheating leading to fear, too much
phlegm causes the body to be too cold, which can lead to feelings of
anxiety and grief and can also result in memory loss.

Juan Huarte de San He lived and worked as a physician during the Spanish Renaissance
Juan (1529-88) era (Chilsom, 1910.)
Examen de Ingenious par alas Ciencias, or The Trial of Men’s
Wits, is a source of information about Huarte’s ideas on psychology.
Huarte’s writing was the first attempt at connecting psychology
and physiology. The Trial of Men’s Wits is considered the precursor
to educational psychology, behaviorism, neuropsychology and
psychiatry.

Rene Descartes René Descartes {timeline} is an extremely important figure to the

(1596-1650) history of psychology; he is frequently referred to as the “Father of
Modern Philosophy”.

MIND-BODY DUALISM
Descartes, like Plato, believed in soul (mind) body separation but
speculated on how the immaterial mind and the physical body
communicated. His definition of the mind was that it is “a thinking,
non-extended thing while the body is an extended, non-thinking
thing”. With these two ideas he concluded that the mind is distinct
from the body and can exist without it. This belief of the mind and
body being two separate things is referred to as “mind-body
dualism”.

Continental rationalism, mainly represented by René Descartes,

insisted on the primacy of so-called innate ideas placed in the human
mind at birth by God. These include mathematical principles, simple
ideas, and the idea of God.

Francis Bacon Bacon was one of the founders of modern science, especially the
(1561-1626) experimental method.

John Locke Locke held that the mind is a tabula rasa or blank sheet at birth and
(1632-1704) experience writes on it.

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He theorized that the acquisition of human knowledge is a twofold

process. The first is sensory experience, in which we learn about the
world through our five senses. The second is reflection, in which we
use our minds and emotions to build those sensory experiences into
more complex ideas. As an example, one can experience an apple
through sight and taste, and afterward, one can reflect that it is a good
thing to eat, and conclude that mankind would benefit if we
cultivated apples through farming.

TABULA RASA:
Theory that individuals are born without built-in mental content and
that therefore all knowledge comes from experience or perception.

Epistemological proponents of tabula rasa disagree with the doctrine

of innatism (represented by: Rene Descartes) which holds that the
mind is born already in possession of certain knowledge.
Christian Wolff He first popularized the term psychology to designate the study of
(1679–1754) mind. Wolff divided the discipline between empirical and rational
(Empirical vs. psychology.
Rational The data of mind that resulted from observing ourselves and others
Psychology) constituted empirical psychology; rational psychology referred to the
interpretation of the data of empirical psychology through the use of
reason and logic.
These psychologies were characterized as using knowledge acquired
through experience (empirical psychology) or using knowledge that
the mind possesses independent of experience (rational psychology)
(Murray, 1988).
Immanuel Kant He denied the validity of any rational psychology because, he argued,
(1724–1804) rational mental processes must be activated by mental content
derived from experience; therefore, the study of mind must be
confined to questions appropriate to an empirical psychology (Leary,
1978). An empirical psychology of mental content could not, Kant
contended, become a proper natural science because mental events
cannot be quantified (i.e., measured or weighed), and thus its data are
neither capable of being described mathematically nor subject to
experimental manipulation.
Finally, Kant asserted, the method of observing the mind -
introspection - distorts the events observed by observing them.
However, Kant suggested, psychology might improve its status as an
empirical science by adopting the methods of anthropology to
observe the activities of human beings in realistic settings.
EXTRA REFERENCES FOR TIMELINE
(NOT IMPORTANT FOR EXAM but FOR PROVIDING MEANING TO THE
TIMELINE)
Jakob Friederich Fries (1773–1843) raised the status of introspection by arguing that it
was not inherently more problematic than observing external phenomena; if introspection

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was unreliable, at least it was not any more so than any other kind of observation.
At the same time, Johann Friederich Herbart (1776–1841) offered a system of psychology
that was both empirical and mathematical. If psychology needed to be mathematical to be a
true science, Herbart proposed that numbers could be assigned to mental events of different
intensities and a mathematical description of the relationship among them could be
formulated. Herbart could assign numbers to describe experiences of different intensities,
but he could not actually measure the subjective intensities in accord with an objective
standard.

Eduard Friederich Beneke (1798–1854) argued that it was premature to apply mathematics
to relationships among mental events absent more accurate empirical observations and
reliable means of measurement; psychology could hope to become an experimental
discipline by testing “empirical results and theoretical hypotheses under controlled
conditions and with the systematic variation of variables”.

Scientific Psychology

Structuralism Wilhelm Wundt–the father of psychology, set up the first psychology

(1870s-1900) lab in 1879.
Wundt’s research in his laboratory in Leipzig focused on the nature
of consciousness itself. Wundt and his students believed that it was
possible to analyze the basic elements of the mind and to classify our
conscious experiences scientifically. Wundt began the field known as
structuralism, a school of psychology whose goal was to identify the
basic elements or “structures” of psychological experience. Its goal
was to create a “periodic table” of the “elements of sensations,”

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similar to the periodic table of elements that had recently been

created in chemistry. Structuralists used the method of introspection
to attempt to create a map of the elements of consciousness.
Introspection involves asking research participants to describe
exactly what they experience as they work on mental tasks, such as
viewing colors, reading a page in a book, or performing a math
problem. A participant who is reading a book might report, for
instance, that he saw some black and colored straight and curved
marks on a white background. In other studies the structuralists used
newly invented reaction time instruments to systematically assess not
only what the participants were thinking but how long it took them to
do so. Wundt discovered that it took people longer to report what
sound they had just heard than to simply respond that they had heard
the sound. These studies marked the first time researchers realized
that there is a difference between the sensation of a stimulus and the
perception of that stimulus, and the idea of using reaction times to
study mental events has now become a mainstay of cognitive
psychology.

Perhaps the best known of the structuralists was Edward Bradford

Titchener (1867–1927). Titchener was a student of Wundt who
came to the United States in the late 1800s and founded a laboratory
at Cornell University. In his research using introspection, Titchener
and his students claimed to have identified more than 40,000
sensations, including those relating to vision, hearing, and taste.

An important aspect of the structuralist approach was that it was

rigorous and scientific. The research marked the beginning of
psychology as a science, because it demonstrated that mental events
could be quantified. But the structuralists also discovered the
limitations of introspection. Even highly trained research participants
were often unable to report on their subjective experiences. When the
participants were asked to do simple math problems, they could
easily do them, but they could not easily answer how they did them.
Thus the structuralists were the first to realize the importance of
unconscious processes—that many important aspects of human
psychology occur outside our conscious awareness, and that
psychologists cannot expect research participants to be able to
accurately report on all of their experiences.

Edward Titchener– student of Wundt, introduced experimental

psychology to the USA.

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Functionalism In contrast to Wundt, who attempted to understand the nature of

(1880s-current) consciousness, the goal of William James and the other members of the
school of functionalism was to understand why animals and
humans have developed the particular psychological aspects that they
currently possess (Hunt, 1993).

James and the other members of the functionalist school were

influenced by Charles Darwin’s (1809–1882) theory of natural
selection, which proposed that the physical characteristics of animals
and humans evolved because they were useful, or functional. The
functionalists believed that Darwin’s theory applied to psychological
characteristics too. Just as some animals have developed strong
muscles to allow them to run fast, the human brain, so functionalists
thought, must have adapted to serve a particular function in human
experience. Although functionalism no longer exists as a school of
psychology, its basic principles have been absorbed into psychology
and continue to influence it in many ways. The work of the
functionalists has developed into the field of evolutionary
psychology, a branch of psychology that applies the Darwinian
theory of natural selection to human and animal behavior.
Evolutionary psychology accepts the functionalists’ basic
assumption, namely that many human psychological systems,
including memory, emotion, and personality, serve key adaptive
functions.
Behaviorism By 1920, Structuralism and Functionalism were replaced by
(1915–current) Behaviorism, Gestalt Psychology & Psychoanalysis. Both
structuralism and functionalism were essentially studies of the mind.
The psychologists associated with the school of behaviorism, on the
other hand, were reacting in part to the difficulties psychologists
encountered when they tried to use introspection to understand
behavior. Behaviorism is a school of psychology that is based on the
premise that it is not possible to objectively study the mind, and
therefore that psychologists should limit their attention to the study
of behavior itself. Behaviorists believe that the human mind is a
“black box” into which stimuli are sent and from which responses are
received. They argue that there is no point in trying to determine
what happens in the box because we can successfully predict
behavior without knowing what happens inside the mind.
Furthermore, behaviorists believe that it is possible to develop laws
of learning that can explain all behaviors. The first behaviorist was
the American psychologist John B. Watson (1878–1958). Watson
was influenced in large part by the work of the Russian physiologist
Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936), who had discovered that dogs would
salivate at the sound of a tone that had previously been associated
with the presentation of food. Watson and the other behaviorists
began to use these ideas to explain how events that people and other
organisms experienced in their environment (stimuli) could produce
specific behaviors (responses). For instance, in Pavlov’s research the
stimulus (either the food or, after learning, the tone) would produce

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the response of salivation in the dogs.

In his research Watson found that systematically exposing a child to

fearful stimuli in the presence of objects that did not themselves elicit
fear could lead the child to respond with a fearful behavior to the
presence of the stimulus (Watson & Rayner, 1920; Beck, Levinson,
Irons, 2009). [11] In the best known of his studies, an 8-month-old
boy named Little Albert was used as the subject. Here is a summary
of the findings:

The boy was placed in the middle of a room; a white laboratory rat
was placed near him and he was allowed to play with it. The child
showed no fear of the rat. In later trials, the researchers made a loud
sound behind Albert’s back by striking a steel bar with a hammer
whenever the baby touched the rat. The child cried when he heard
the noise. After several such pairings of the two stimuli, the child was
again shown the rat. Now, however, he cried and tried to move away
from the rat.

In line with the behaviorist approach, the boy had learned to

associate the white rat with the loud noise, resulting in crying. The
most famous behaviorist was Burrhus Frederick (B. F.) Skinner
(1904– 1990), who expanded the principles of behaviorism and also
brought them to the attention of the public at large. Skinner used the
ideas of stimulus and response, along with the application of rewards
or reinforcements, to train pigeons and other animals. And he used
the general principles of behaviorism to develop theories about how
best to teach children and how to create societies that were peaceful
and productive. Skinner even developed a method for studying
thoughts and feelings using the behaviorist approach.

The behaviorists made substantial contributions to psychology by

identifying the principles of learning. Although the behaviorists were
incorrect in their beliefs that it was not possible to measure thoughts
and feelings, their ideas provided new ideas that helped further our
understanding regarding the nature-nurture debate as well as the
question of free will. The ideas of behaviorism are fundamental to
psychology and have been developed to help us better understand the
role of prior experiences in a variety of areas of psychology.

The methods and subject matter of physiology, especially sensory physiology, helped to
provide the scientific basis for psychology.

SENSORY PHYSIOLOGY
Johannes Müller (1801–1858), the “Father of Physiology,” produced the classic
systematic handbook (Handbuch der Physiologie des Menschen, 1833–1840) that set forth

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what was then known about human physiology and offered observations and hypotheses for
further research. Among the formulations that Müller provided in the Handbuch was the law
of specific nerve energies, which stated that the mind is not directly aware of objects as such
but can only be aware of the stimulation in the brain conveyed by sensory nerves.

The following Approaches would be understood using the following Case. The Case would
be discussed from the lens of each therapy, thus mentioned.
Case I:
(The Case study has been taken from Brief Interventions and Brief Therapies for
Substance Abuse. Treatment Improvement Protocol (TIP) Series, No.
34. Center for Substance Abuse Treatment.)

Sandra is a 38-year-old African-American woman who has abused a number of substances,

including cocaine, heroin, alcohol, and marijuana over the past 15 years. She left high school
and was a prostitute for 5 years. Later she found a job as a sales clerk at a home furnishings
store. Sandra had two children in her early twenties, a daughter who is now 15, and a son,
aged 18. Because of her substance abuse problems, they live with other relatives who agreed
to raise them. Sandra has been in treatment repeatedly and has remained substance free for
the last 5 years, with several minor relapses. She has been married for 2 years, to Steve, a
carpenter; he is substance free and supports her attempts to stay away from substances.

Last month she became symptomatic with AIDS. She has been HIV-positive for 5 years but
had not developed any illnesses related to the disease. Sandra has practiced safe sex with her
husband who knew of her HIV status. Recently, after learning from the physician at her
clinic about her HIV symptoms, she began to "shoot up," which led her back into treatment.
Out of fear, she came to the treatment center and asked to see a counselor at the clinic one
day after work. She is worried about her marriage and that her husband will be devastated by
this news. She is afraid she is no longer strong enough to stay away from drugs since
discovering the onset of AIDS. She is also concerned about her children and her job.
Uncertain of how she will keep on living, she is also terrified of dying.

Gestalt Psychology Gestalt-German word meaning “form” or “configuration”.

Although Max Wertheimer could be considered as the founding

father of the Berlin school, his younger colleagues, Kurt Koffka and
Wolfgang Köhler were just as important in its further development.
Gestalt Psychologist’s primary interest was perception they believed
that perceptual experiences depend on the patterns formed by
stimulus and on the organization of experience.
It is a school of psychology founded in the 20th century that provided
the foundation for the modern study of perception. Gestalt theory
emphasizes that the whole of anything is greater than its parts. That
is, the attributes of the whole are not deducible from analysis of the
parts in isolation.
Gestalt Psychology is focused on the experience of contact that
occurs in the here and now.

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School of thought that emphasized the total experience of the

individual and not just parts of the mind or behavior.

GESTALT PRINCIPLES
According to the gestalt psychologists, the way we form our
perceptions are guided by certain principles or laws. These principles
or laws determine what we see or make of things or situation.

Law of Proximity: Elements that are closer together will be

perceived as coherent object.

Law of Similarity: Elements that look similar will be perceived as

part of the same form. There seems to be a triangle in the square. We
link similar elements together.

Law of Closure: We tend to fill the gaps or “close” the figures we

perceive. We enclose a space by completing a contour and ignoring
gaps in the figure.

Law of Good Continuation: Individuals have the tendency to

continue contours whenever the elements of the pattern establish an
implied direction. People tend to draw a good continuous line.

Law of Good Pragnanz: The stimulus will be organized into as

good as figure as possible. In this example, good refers to symmetry,
simplicity, and regularity. The figure is perceived as a square
overlapping a triangle, not a combination of several complicated
shapes. Based on our experiences with perception, we “expect”
certain patterns and therefore perceive that expected pattern
{The German word “Prägnanz” is derived from the verb “prägen,” -
to mint a coin. Hence, by describing the principle of Prägnanz as the
tendency towards the formation of Gestalten which are as regular,
simple, symmetric (“ausgezeichnet”, according to Wertheimer’s
term). “Prägnanz” has often been translated as “goodness”}.

Law of Figure/Ground: We tend to pay attention and perceive

things in the foreground first. A stimulus will be perceived as
separate from its ground.
The idea of insight learning was first developed by Wolfgang Kohler
in which he describes experiments with apes where the apes could
use boxes and sticks as tools to solve problems.

INSIGHT LEARNING:In each of these problems, the important

aspect of learning was not reinforcement, but the coordination of

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thinking to create new organization (of material. Kohler referred to

this behavior as insight or discovery learning. Kohler proposed the
view that insight follows from the characteristics of objects under
consideration. His theory suggested that learning could occur when
an individual perceives the relationships of the elements before him
and reorganizes these elements and comes to a greater
understanding or insight. Learning could occur without
reinforcement, and once it occurs, no review, training, or
investigation is necessary.

RELEVANCE OF GESTALT IN LEARNING:

Gestalt is a theory of learning that focuses on the mind’s perspective.
It is useful as a behavioral tool as it enables the teacher to channel the
pupil’s energy into thinking of an item or subject as parts of a whole,
e.g. a car, being metal, paint, wheels etc. By thinking of components
and breaking down a situation it enables for a more psychological
process to take place and over time will broaden a pupil’s mind into
thinking of the sum of the whole rather than just a complete thing of
situation.

GESTALT THERAPY (BY FRITZ PERLS)

Fritz Perls coined the term 'Gestalt therapy' to identify the form of
psychotherapy that he developed with his wife, Laura Perls, in the
1940s and 1950s.
Gestalt theory holds that the analysis of parts can never provide an
understanding of the whole. In a therapeutic setting, this approach
opposes the notion that human beings can be understood entirely
through a rational, mechanistic, scientific process. The proponents of
Gestalt therapy insist that the experiential world of a client can be
understood only through that individual's direct experience and
description. Gestalt therapists seek to help their clients gain
awareness of themselves and the world. Discomfort arises from
leaving elements and experiences of the psyche incomplete--
primarily past relationships and intrapsychic conflicts that are
unresolved, which Perls calls "unfinished business" (Perls, 1969).
According to Gestalt theory

The organism should be seen as a whole (physical behavior is an

 important component, as is a client's mental and emotional life).
Being in the "here and now" (i.e., being aware of present
experience) is of primary [Link] is more important than
why (i.e., causes are not as important as results).The individual's
inner experience is central.

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For Gestalt therapists the "power is in the present" (Polster and

Polster, 1973). This means that the "now" is the only place where
awareness, responsibility, and change can occur. Therefore, the
process of therapy is to help the client make contact with the
present moment.

Rather than seeking detailed intellectual analysis, the Gestalt

therapist looks to create a "safe emergency" in the therapeutic
encounter. Perls' invocation to "lose your mind and come to your
senses" implies that a feeling-level, "here and now" experience is the
optimal condition for therapeutic work. This may be accomplished in
a fairly short amount of time by explicitly asking clients to pay
attention (e.g., "What are you aware of now? How does your fear feel
to you?"). The therapist may point out how the client could be
avoiding the present moment through inauthentic "games" or ways of
relating such as "talking about" feelings rather than experiencing
them directly. Clients may be asked to exaggerate certain expressions
(e.g., pounding a fist) or role-play certain internal dialogs (e.g.,
through an empty chair technique). These may all serve the goal of
helping clients move into the immediacy of their experience rather
than remaining distant from it through intellectualization or
substance abuse.

The term contact in Gestalt refers to meeting oneself and what is

other than oneself. Without appropriate contact and contact
boundaries there is no real meeting of the world. Instead, one remains
either engulfed by the world on one hand or, on the other hand,
distant from the world and people.

RESPONSE TO THE CASE STUDY:

The Gestalt therapist begins with Sandra's current experience of the
world, starting with awareness and attention. The therapist may
simply help her become aware of basic sights, sounds, somatic
reactions, feelings, and thoughts as well as what her attention drifts
to. The immediate contact between therapist and client is a
component of the "now" where these sensations are explored
directly. The therapist might notice and ask about her style of eye
contact, or her fidgeting body, or stream of thoughts (e.g., "What is it
like to make eye contact now? What is the sensation in your body at
this moment?").

Sandra may also identify certain issues such as substance abuse,

relationship difficulties, and the threat of death from AIDS that seem
to dominate her life. The therapist might invite her to name and
explore the sensation that the thought of death, for example, brings;
perhaps this involves a sense of a void, or feeling cold and dark, or a
feeling of engulfment. She then may be asked to become these
sensations--for example, the therapist may ask her to be "the void"
and encourage her to speak as if she were that void. This may then
open possibilities for a dialog with the void through acting out the

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opposite polarity: separateness and choice. This might involve using

an empty chair technique in which the client would literally move
into the chair of the "void," speak as if she were that, and then move
into an opposite chair and respond in a dialog. A therapist could also
explore her introjection through questions such as, "How is this void
different or the same as from the feeling of alcohol or in relationships
with your children or husband?" She might also use this same
technique to dialog with family members, or certain aspects of
herself. Sandra seems to have a great deal of "unfinished business"
that involves unexpressed feelings (e.g., anger, longing, hurt).
Experimentation with these sensations may begin to free her to
express and meet these feelings more directly. All of this work
encourages Sandra's experimentation with new ways of relating both
during and outside of the session in order to move into the "here and
now" and work toward the resolution of "unfinished business."

Psychoanalysis A theory of personality and method of psychotherapy originated by

Sigmund Freud.

Concept of unconsciousness, thoughts, attitudes, impulses etc that we

are unaware of.

Repressed Unconscious wishes and desires expressed in Dreams,

slips of tongue & physical mannerism.

Method of Free Association.

THE PRE-OEDIPAL STAGE

Freud claimed that all human beings are born with certain instincts,
i.e. with a natural tendency to satisfy their biologically determined
needs for food, shelter and warmth. The satisfaction of these needs is
both practical and a source of pleasure which Freud refers to as
"sexual". Thus, when the infant, sucking at its mother's breast
discovers the pleasure inherent in this activity, the first glimmers of
sexuality are awakened. The child discovers an erotogenic zone
which may be reactivated later in life through thumb sucking or
kissing. Through this intimate interaction with
the mother, upon whom the child is dependent, a sexual drive
emerges. As this drive is separated out from its original function as a
purely biological instinct, it achieves a relative autonomy. During the
early stages of childhood development, other erotogenic zones
emerge. The oral stage, associated with the drive to "incorporate"
objects through the
mouth, is followed by the anal stage during which the anus becomes
an erotogenic zone as the child takes pleasure in defecation. This
pleasure is characterized by Freud as "sadistic" because the child is

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understood to be taking delight in expulsion and destruction. The

anal stage is also associated with the desire for retention and
possessive control (as in "granting or withholding" the faeces). The
next stage the child enters is the phallic stage when the sexual drive
is focused on the genitals. (Freud refers to this stage as "phallic"
rather than "genital" because, he claims, only the male organ is
recognized as significant.)

What is happening in this process -- though the stages overlap, and

should not be seen as a strict sequence -- is a gradual organization of
the libidinal drives, but one still centered on the child's own body.
The drives themselves are extremely flexible, in no sense fixed like
biological instinct: their objects are contingent and replaceable, and
one sexual drive can substitute for another. What we can imagine in
the early years of the child's life, then, is not a unified subject
confronting and desiring astable object, but a complex, shifting field
of force in which the subject (the child itself) is caught up and
dispersed, in which it has as yet no center of identity and in which the
boundaries between itself and the external world are indeterminate.
Within this field of libidinal force, objects and part-objects emerge
and disappear again, shift places kaleidoscopically, and prominent
among such objects is the child's body as the play of drives laps
across it. One can speak of this as an 'auto eroticism', within which
Freud sometimes includes the whole of infantile sexuality: the child
takes erotic delight in its own body, but without as yet being able to
view its body as a complete object. Auto-eroticism must thus be
distinguished from what Freud will call 'narcissism', a state in which
one's body or ego as a whole is 'cathected', or taken as an object of
desire.
The child in this state is described by Freud as "anarchic, sadistic,
aggressive, self-involved and remorselessly pleasure-seeking" -
wholly within the grip of the pleasure principle. It is also ungendered.
That is to say, even though it is riddled with sexual drives, it draws
no distinction between the gender categories masculine and feminine.

THE OEDIPUS COMPLEX: GENDERING THE SUBJECT

At the center of Freud's theory of childhood development is the
Oedipus Complex. According to Freud, a boy's close relation to his
mother, as the primary love-object, leads to a desire for complete
union with her. A girl, on the other hand, who is similarly attached to
the mother and thus caught up in a "homosexual" desire, directs her
libido (love, sexual energy broadly construed) toward her father (for
reasons which we'll consider shortly). This produces a triadic
relationship regardless of one's sex, with the parent of the same sex
cast in the role of a rival for the affections of the parent of the
opposite sex. The boy will eventually abandon his incestuous desire
for his mother out of fear of being castrated by his father. (This fear
arises when the boy comes to realize that females are "castrated" and

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imagines that this may be his fate if he does not subordinate his
desire for the mother.) Thus, the boy represses his incestuous desire,
adjusts to the reality principle, and waits for the day when he will be
the patriarch. In this way the boy identifies with his father and the
symbolic role of manhood.
The girl's route through the Oedipal stage is far more problematic in
Freud's view. "Realizing" that she is castrated and thus inferior, the
girl turns away from her similarly castrated mother and attempts to
"seduce" her father. When this fails, she returns to the mother and
identifies with her feminine role. However, she still envies the penis
that she will never have; so she unconsciously substitutes a desire to
have her father's baby. (How she goes about giving up this desire is
not made clear. Since she is already "castrated", fear of castration
will not do the job.) Needless to say, Freud's theory shows little
insight into femininity and the experience of women.
His claim that female sexuality is a "dark continent" says as much.

THE UNCONSCIOUS
As we say, the unconscious is that part of the mind that lies outside
the somewhat vague and porous boundaries of consciousness, and is
constructed in part by the repression of that which is too painful to
remain in consciousness. (Not everything in the unconscious is
repressed. However, repression is the ego's primary defense against
disruption.) Freud distinguishes repression from sublimation - the
rechanneling of drives that cannot be given an acceptable outlet. The
unconscious also contains what Freud calls laws of transformation.
These are the principles that govern the process of repression and
sublimation. In general, we can say that the unconscious serves the
theoretical function of making the relation between childhood
experience and adult behavior intelligible.

EGO, ID AND SUPER-EGO

According to Freud, the ego is an aspect of the subject that emerges
from the id - the biological, inherited, unconscious source of sexual
drives, instincts, and irrational impulses. The ego develops out of the
id's interaction with the external world. It is produced from the non-
biological (social and familial) forces brought to bear on one's
biological development and functions as an intermediary between the
demands of the id and the external world. Thus, the ego can be
thought of as a variable aspect of the subject constructed as a system
of beliefs that organize one's dealings with the internal and external
demands of life according to certain laws referred to by Freud as
secondary process. It reconciles the biological, instinctual demands
and drives (both unifying and destructive in nature) of the id
(governed by primary process) with the socially determined
constraints of the super-ego (internalized rules placing limits on the
subject's satisfactions and pleasures) and the demands of reality. The
healthy, mature ego translates the demands of both the id and the

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super-ego into terms which allow admission of them without

destruction. Thus, constructive acceptance and transformation of the
demands made by both the id and the superego are techniques of the
ego and essential elements of mental health.
Psychoanalytic therapy involves reliving repressed fantasies and
fears both in feeling and in thought. This process involves a
transference, i.e. a projection of the attitudes and emotions, originally
directed towards the parents, onto the analyst. This is necessary for
successful treatment. Access to these repressed fears is gained often
through dream interpretation, where the manifest content in dreams is
understood as a symbolic expression of the hidden or latent content.
(Internal censorship demands that the wish be transformed, leading to
a disguised or symbolic representation.)

The sources of dream content results from –

- lost memories
- linguistic symbols
- repressed experiences
- "archaic" material inherited but not directly experienced.
Dreams are "guardians of sleep", i.e. wish fulfillments that arise in
response to inner conflicts and tensions whose function is to allow
the subject to continue sleeping. Dream-Work is the production of
dreams during sleep -- the translation of demands arising from the
unconscious into symbolic objects of the preconscious and eventually
the conscious mind of the subject. Dream Interpretation is the
decoding of the symbols (manifest content) and the recovery of their
latent content, i.e. the
unconscious and, hence, hidden tensions and conflicts that give rise
to the dreams in the first place.

LIMITATION OF PSYCHOANALYSIS:
1. Freud's hypotheses are neither verifiable nor falsifiable. It is not
clear what would count as evidence sufficient to confirm or refute
theoretical claims.
2. The theory is based on an inadequate conceptualization of the
experience of women.
3. The theory overemphasizes the role of sexuality in human
psychological development and experience.

Humanistic- PHILOSOPHICAL ROOTS:

Existential
Existential psychology is based on existential philosophy. Its
philosophical roots can be traced to the works of Søren Kierkegaard
(1813-1855), Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900), Karl Jaspers (1883-

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1969), Edmund Husserl (1859-1938), and Martin Heidegger (1889-

1976).

PSYCHOLOGICAL ROOTS:
Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective which rose to
prominence in the mid-20th century, drawing on the work of early
pioneers like Carl Rogers and the philosophies of existentialism and
phenomenology. It adopts a holistic approach to human existence
through investigations of meaning, values, freedom, tragedy,
personal responsibility, human potential, spirituality, and self-
actualization.

HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY:

Humanistic psychology, often referred to as the "third force" besides

behaviorism and psychoanalysis, is concerned with human potential and
the individual's unique personal experience. Humanistic psychologists
generally do not deny the importance of many principles of behaviorism
and psychoanalysis. They value the awareness of antecedents to
behavior as well as the importance of childhood experiences and
unconscious psychological processes. Humanistic psychologists would
argue, however, that humans are more than the collection of behaviors
or objects of unconscious forces. Therefore, humanistic psychology
often is described as holistic in the sense that it tends to be inclusive and
accepting of various theoretical traditions and therapeutic practices. The
emphasis for many humanistic therapists is the primacy of establishing a
therapeutic relationship that is collaborative, accepting, authentic, and
honors the unique world in which the client lives. The humanistic
approach is also holistic in that it assumes an interrelatedness between
the client's psychological, biological, social, and spiritual dimensions.
Humanistic psychology assumes that people have an innate capacity
toward self-understanding and psychological health.

Some of the key proponents of this approach include Abraham

Maslow, who popularized the concept of "self-actualization," Carl
Rogers, who formulated person-centered therapy, and Fritz
Perls, whose Gestalt therapy focused on the wholeness of an
individual's experience at any given moment. Some of the essential
characteristics of humanistic therapy are

Empathic understanding of the client's frame of reference and

 subjective experience
Respect for the client's cultural values and freedom to
 exercise choice
Exploration of problems through an authentic and
collaborative approach to helping the client develop insight,

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courage, and responsibility

Exploration of goals and expectations, including articulation
of what the client wants to accomplish and hopes to gain from
 treatment
Clarification of the helping role by defining the therapist's
 role but respecting the self determination of the client
Assessment and enhancement of client motivation both
 collaboratively and authentically
Negotiation of a contract by formally or informally asking,
 "Where do we go from here?"
Demonstration of authenticity by setting a tone of genuine,
authentic encounter

HUMANISTIC APPROACH TO THE CASE STUDY:

A client-centered therapist would engage in reflective listening,

accepting the client and her past, and clarifying her current situation
and feelings. As Sandra developed trust in the therapist, he would
begin to emphasize her positive characteristics and her potential to
make meaningful choices to become the person she wants to (and
can) become. Another goal of therapy would be to help her develop
sufficient insight so that she can make choices that reflect more
closely the values and principles to which she aspires. For example,
she may want to tell her husband about her symptoms and try to
strengthen her marriage.

If Sandra began to feel guilt about her past as a prostitute, the

therapist would demonstrate appreciation of her struggle to accept
that aspect of herself, highlighting the fact that she did eventually
choose to leave it. He may note that she did the best she could at that
time and underscore her current commitment to choose a better life.
Sandra would be supported and accepted, not criticized. She would
be encouraged to express her fear of death and the effect this fear has
on her. This might be the first time in her life that someone has been
unconditionally accepting of her or focused on her strengths rather
than her failings. She apparently has the ability to solve problems,
which is reflected by her return to therapy and her insight about
needing help. By being understood and accepted, her self-esteem and
sense of hope would increase and her shame would decrease. She
would feel supported in making critical choices in her life and more
confident to resume her recovery.

EXISTENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY:

The existential approach to therapy emphasizes the following six

propositions:

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All persons have the capacity for [Link] free beings,

everyone must accept the responsibility that comes with freedom.
Each person has a unique identity that can only be known through
relationships with [Link] person must continually recreate
himself. The meaning of life and of existence is never fixed; rather,
it constantly [Link] is part of the human [Link]
is a basic human condition that gives significance to life.

The core question addressed in existential therapy is "How do I

exist?" in the face of uncertainty, conflict, or death. An individual
achieves authenticity through courage and is thus able to define and
discover his own meaning in the present and the future. There are
important choices to be made (e.g., to have true freedom and to take
responsibility for one's life, one must face uncertainty and give up a
false sense of security).

A core characteristic of the existential view is that an individual is a

"being in the world" who has biological, social, and psychological
needs. Being in the world involves the physical world, the world of
relationships with others, and one's own relationship to self (May and
Yalom, 1995, p. 265). The "authentic" individual values
symbolization, imagination, and judgment and is able to use these
tools to continually create personal meaning.

Existential therapy focuses on specific concerns rooted in the

individual's existence. The contemporary existential psychotherapist,
Irvin Yalom, identifies these concerns as death, isolation, freedom,
and emptiness. Existential therapy focuses on the anxiety that occurs
when a client confronts the conflict inherent in life. The role of the
therapist is to help the client focus on personal responsibility for
making decisions, and the therapist may integrate some humanistic
approaches and techniques. Yalom, for example, perceives the
therapist as a "fellow traveler" through life, and he uses empathy and
support to elicit insight and choices. He strongly believes that
because people exist in the presence of others, the relational context
of group therapy is an effective approach (Yalom, 1980).

EXISTENTIAL APPROACH TO THE CASE STUDY:

An existential therapist may help Sandra understand that her

diagnosis of AIDS forces her to confront the possibility of death and,
consequently, face the responsibilities thrust upon her by life. The
therapist could accomplish this by helping her understand that her
life (like everyone else's) is finite. Therefore, she is challenged to
forge meaning from her life and make difficult decisions about her
relationships and ways of dealing (or not dealing) with choices about

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substance abuse. The focus in her therapy would be on choosing the

life she wants to live. The therapist would assist her in dealing
constructively with anxiety so that she can find meaning in the rest of
her life. This could be accomplished by engaging her in the struggle
to assume authorship of her choices. She may be encouraged to "play
out" scenarios of choices she faces and acknowledge the
accompanying fears and anxieties. She might be asked, "What keeps
you from sharing your fears with your husband, and accepting the
possibility of his support?" or "Imagine yourself expressing your love
for your children and regret for the mistakes you have made." Thus,
the therapist would help her understand that making difficult choices
in the face of death is actually a way to find integrity, wholeness, and
meaning.

The teachings of the existential therapist, Yalom, can be a useful

resource in dealing with issues related to death, since he has worked
with terminally ill cancer patients for many years, helping them to
use their crisis and their danger as an opportunity for change (Yalom,
1998). Yalom explains that although death is a primary source of
anxiety for a client, incorporating death into life can enrich life and
allow one to live more purposefully.

Transpersonal: Transpersonal psychology emerged as a "fourth force" in

psychology in the late 1960s and has strong roots in humanistic and
existential psychologies, Jungian analysis, the East-West dialog, and
ancient wisdom traditions. Transpersonal therapy may be thought of
as a bridge between psychological and spiritual practice.

A transpersonal approach emphasizes development of the individual

beyond, but including, the ego. It acknowledges the human spiritual
quest and recognizes the human striving for unity, ultimate truth, and
profound freedom. It cultivates intuitive ways of knowing that
complement rational and sensory modes. This approach also
recognizes the potential for growth inherent in "peak" experiences
and other shifts in consciousness. Although grounded in
psychological theory, transpersonal practitioners also tend to
incorporate perspectives from ancient wisdom traditions.

The practice of transpersonal therapy is defined more by its

orientation and scope rather than by a particular set of techniques or
methods (Boorstein, 1980). Wittine suggests five postulates for a
transpersonal psychotherapy (Wittine, 1989):

Transpersonal psychotherapy is an approach to healing and growth

that recognizes the centrality of the self in the therapeutic process.
Transpersonal psychotherapy values wholeness of being and self-
realization on all levels of the spectrum of identity (i.e., egoic,
existential, transpersonal).

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Transpersonal psychotherapy is a process of awakening from a

limited personal identity to expanded universal knowledge of self.
Transpersonal psychotherapy makes use of the healing restorative
nature of subjective awareness and intuition in the process of
awakening. In transpersonal psychotherapy, the therapeutic
relationship is a vehicle for the process of awakening in both client
and therapist.

Integrating insights and practices in everyday life is the goal of every

therapy. Bringing the transpersonal dimension to the forefront may
involve the following:
Exploration of "inner voices" including those of a higher self that
 provides guidance for growth of the individual (Rowan, 1993)
 Refinement of intuition or nonrational knowing
Practice of creativity in "formal" (art) or informal
 (personal relationships) encounters
Meditation
Loving service
Cultivation of mindfulness
Use of dreams and imagery

These techniques may be taught and supported explicitly in the

therapy session. At times, a therapist may directly cultivate shifts in
consciousness (e.g., through meditation [Weil, 1972], or imaginal
work [Johnson, 1987]), providing immediate insight and inspiration
that may not be available through more conventional means (Hart,
1998). This may provide clients with a skill they can practice on their
own; initiating such activity represents a potential for brief
intervention.
Transpersonal therapy recognizes the need for basic psychological
development to be integrated with spiritual growth (Nelson, 1994).
Without such integration there is danger of "spiritual bypassing,"
where issues of basic psychological functioning are avoided in the
name of spiritual development. In other words, the basic
psychological work should be undertaken first.

RESPONSE TO THE CASE STUDY:

As the existentialists remind us, there is nothing like death to rivet

our attention. A glimpse of death--for example, seeing the aftermath
of a serious car crash--reminds the witness of how valuable life is,
bringing up other issues as well. Sandra is now confronted with death
due to AIDS. This opportunity to face death and life squarely
provides a chance to reconsider and reprioritize her life. In fact, it
could be argued that the best catalyst to brief therapy may be a death

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sentence precisely because it has the potential to wake up an

individual. In many respects, helping the client wake from habitual,
mechanical routines that are often based on ego protection and move
toward an appreciation that the individual is not bound to or defined
by a limited ego, is the goal of transpersonal therapy. This can be
seen as a transformation of identity.

Many inspiring instances of people facing death, including death

through AIDS, have shown that emergent spirituality can change the
quality and direction of existence very quickly. For treatment, the
basic sharing of these experiences with a group of others in a similar
predicament often quickly moves the client beyond isolation and a
sense of self-separateness to connect intimately with others who
understand her situation. This community may not only bring
comfort and support but also a deep sense of communion with
humanity. In this instance, breaking through the shell of isolation
may enable Sandra to begin to make new connections with her family
and with herself. A sense of interconnection, a central postulate and
experience in the wisdom traditions, may replace her perceived
isolation.

Sandra may use this opportunity of facing possible death to begin to

encounter and let go of such feelings as guilt, shame, disappointment,
and anger that have kept her life less satisfying than it could be.
Accessing the imaginal through art or dreams, for example, can
provide a clear and symbolic expression of unresolved issues. The
use of rituals or rites-of-passage inspired by the wisdom traditions
can provide some catalyst for shifting her consciousness through
forgiveness and release.

The therapist may engage in a wide variety of methods (e.g.,

imagery, art, or dream work, meditation, rituals), but the heart of the
work is in the simple and humane spirituality that is embodied by the
therapist's loving presence along with the therapist's openness to
explore the full range of human experience directly. For Sandra, this
experience may be seen as an opportunity for practicing love and
forgiveness, moving out from behind rigid self-separateness, facing
fears, and transforming her self-definition.

Cognitive Science is always influenced by the technology that surrounds it, and
revolution: psychology is no exception. Thus it is no surprise that beginning in
the 1960s, growing numbers of psychologists began to think about
the brain and about human behavior in terms of the computer, which
was being developed and becoming publicly available at that time.

Cognitive psychology is a field of psychology that studies mental

processes, including perception, thinking, memory, and judgment.
These actions correspond well to the processes that computers
perform. Although cognitive psychology began in earnest in the

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1960s, earlier psychologists had also taken a cognitive orientation.

Some of the important contributors to cognitive psychology include
the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909), who
studied the ability of people to remember lists of words under
different conditions, and the English psychologist Sir Frederic
Bartlett (1886–1969), who studied the cognitive and social processes
of remembering. Bartlett created short stories that were in some ways
logical but also contained some very unusual and unexpected events.
Bartlett discovered that people found it very difficult to recall the
stories exactly, even after being allowed to study them repeatedly,
and he hypothesized that the stories were difficult to remember
because they did not fit the participants’ expectations about how
stories should go. The idea that our memory is influenced by what we
already know was also a major idea behind the cognitive-
developmental stage model of Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget
(1896–1980). Other important cognitive psychologists include
Donald E. Broadbent (1926–1993), Daniel Kahneman (1934–),
George Miller (1920–), Eleanor Rosch (1938–), and Amos
Tversky (1937–1996).

Cognitive psychology remains enormously influential today, and it

has guided research in such varied fields as language, problem
solving, memory, intelligence, education, human development, social
psychology, and psychotherapy. The cognitive revolution has been
given even more life over the past decade as the result of recent
advances in our ability to see the brain in action using neuroimaging
techniques. Neuroimaging is the use of various techniques to provide
pictures of the structure and function of the living brain.

COGNITIVE REVOLUTION:
The cognitive revolution in psychology was a counter-revolution.
The first revolution occurred much earlier when a group of
experimental psychologists, influenced by Pavlov and other
physiologists, proposed to redefine psychology as the science of
behavior. Since the beginning of experimental psychology in the
nineteenth century, there had been interest in the study of higher
mental processes. Cognitive Revolution, as now it is termed, during
the time (in the late 1950s) was a discontinuous process that rejected
Behaviorism and accepted the model of Mind based on the computer.
This marked the beginning of the counter-revolution called Cognitive
revolution, and the view of mental processes that it spawned is called
‘cognitive Psychology’.

The reference to the discontinuous process here means (in a way) the
minds that were independently working without knowing that they

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were building towards Cognitive Psychology. During this time,

experimental psychologists were rethinking the definition of
psychology, other important developments were occurring elsewhere.
Norbert Wiener’s cybernetics was gaining popularity, Marvin
Minsky and John McCarthy were inventing artificial intelligence, and
Alan Newell and Herb Simon were using computers to simulate
cognitive processes. Finally, Chomsky was single-handedly
redefining linguistics.

COMMUNICATIONS RESEARCH AND THE

INFORMATION PROCESSING:
Approach during World War II, new concepts and theories were
developed about signal processing and communication, and these
ideas had a profound impact on psychologists active during the war
years. One important work was Shannon’s 1948 paper
aboutInformation Theory.
It proposed that information was communicated by sending a signal
through a sequence of stages or transformations. This suggested
thathuman perception and memory might be conceptualized in a
similar way: sensory information enters the receptors, and then is fed
into perceptual analyzers, whose outputs in turn are input to memory
systems. This was the start of the ‘information processing’
approach—the idea that cognition could be under-stood as a flow of
information within the organism, an idea that continues to dominate
cognitive psychology. Perhaps the first major theoretical effort in
information processing psychology was Donald
Broadbent’sPerception and Communication (Broadbent1958).
According to Broadbent’s model, information output from the
perceptual system encountered a filter, which passed only
information to which people were attending. Although this notion of
an all-or-none filter would prove too strong (Treisman, 1960) it
offered a mechanistic account of selective attention, a concept that
had been banished during behaviorism. Information that passed
Broadbent’s filter then moved on to a ‘limited capacity decision
channel,’ a system that has some of the properties of short-term
memory, and from there on to long-term memory. This last part of
Broadbent’s model—the transfer of information from short- to long-
term memory—became the salient point of the dual-memory models
developed in [Link] aspect of Information theory that
attracted psychologist’s interest was a quantitative measure of
information in terms of ‘bits’.

THE COMPUTER MODELING APPROACH

Technical developments during World War II also led to the
development of digital computers. Questions soon arose about the
comparability of computer and human intelligence (Turing 1950). By
1957, Alan Newell, J. C. Shaw, and Herb Simon had designed a
computer program that could solve difficult logic problems, a

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domain previously thought to be the unique province of humans.

This work would also help establish the field of artificial intelligence.

THE GENERATIVE LINGUISTICS APPROACH

A third external influence that leads to the rise of modern cognitive
psychology was the development of generative grammar in
linguistics by Noam Chomsky.

THE APPROACH INTRINSIC TO PSYCHOLOGY:

At least one source of modern cognitive psychology came from
within the field. This approach had its roots in Gestalt psychology,
and maintained its focus on the higher mental processes. A signal
event in this tradition was the 1956 book ‘A Study of Thinking’, by
Bruner, Goodnow, and Austin (Bruner et al. 1956). The work
investigated how people learn new concepts and categories, and it
emphasized strategies of learning rather than just associative
relations. The proposals fit perfectly with the information-processing
approach—indeed, they were information processing proposals—and
offered still another reason to break from behaviorism. This likened
mind to a computer, and emphasized the representations and
processes needed to give rise to activities ranging from pattern
recognition, attention, categorization, memory, reasoning, decision
making, problem solving, and language.

THE NEW PSYCHOLINGUISTICS

Beginning in the early 1960s there was great interest in determining
the psychological reality of Chomsky’s theories of language (these
theories had been formulated with ideal listeners and speakers in
mind). Some of these linguistically inspired experiments presented
sentences in perception and memory paradigms, and showed that
sentences deemed more syntactically complex by transformational
grammar were harder to perceive or store (Miller 1962). Subtler
experiments tried to show that syntactic units, like phrases,
functioned as units in perception, STM, and LTM (Fodor et al.
(1974) is the classic review). While many of these results are no
longer seen as critical, this research effort created a new subfield of
cognitive psychology, a psycholinguistics that demanded
sophistication in modern linguistic theory. As psychologists became
aware of related developments in linguistics and artificial
intelligence, so researchers in the latter disciplines become aware of
pertinent work in psychology. Thus, evolved the interdisciplinary
movement called ‘cognitive science’. In addition to psychology, AI,
and linguistics, the fields of cultural anthropology and philosophy of
mind also became involved. The movement eventuated in numerous
interdisciplinary collaborations (e.g., Rumelhart et al. 1986), as well
as in individual psychologists

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becoming more interdisciplinary.

Multiculturalism Diversity is the central concern of almost all social, political

and cultural theorists. The common argument of them is that
thinking, perception, action and adjudication differs from culture to
culture and society to society.
Cultural diversity creates a climate in which different culture can
engage in a mutually beneficial dialogue. Different artistic,
literary, musical, moral and other traditions interrogate, challenge
and probe each other, borrow and experiment with each other’s
idea and often throw up wholly new ideas and sensibilities that none
of them could have generated of their own.
Cultural Pluralism, Cultural Diversity and Multiculturalism are the
terms very commonly used to describe societies of different cultures,
religions, languages and races. In our day to day life these words are
used interchangeably. The presence of many and different
communities are common in these terms plural, diverse and
multiculturalism.
The term ‘multiculturalism’ has become very popular in the last few
decades and, as often happens to popular words, it has ended up
expressing quite different meanings. In fact, multicultural discussions
refer to a wide variety of situations – integration policies and welfare
state regimes, the legal and political accommodation of cultural
diversity, the management of immigration and national borders, the
recognition and respect of cultural/religious difference,
living with ‘difference’ in daily contexts, the ideological
representation of identities, cultures and ‘the good society’, to name
only a few. These also involve different disciplines – philosophy,
sociology, anthropology, social psychology, political science,
pedagogy, and cultural and post-colonial studies – with their own
distinct questions, perspectives and tool-kits.

Multiculturalism is a body of thought in political philosophy about

the proper way to respond to cultural diversity.
Multiculturalism refers to situations in which people who hold
‘different’ habits, customs, traditions, languages and/or religions live
alongside each other in the same social space, willing to maintain
relevant aspects of their own difference and to have it publicly
recognized. Usually the term involves a positive evaluation of
cultural diversity and the institutional commitment to its
preservation. Multiculturalism is closely associated with ‘identity
politics’, ‘the politics of difference’ and ‘the politics of recognition’,
all of which consider proper recognition of cultural diversity a
necessary step towards revaluing disrespected identities
and changing dominant pat-terns of representation and
communication that marginalize certain groups (Song, 2010).

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MULTICULTURALISM IN INDIA
The management of cultural diversity within state has become an
increasingly prominent issue in recent times not only in developed
countries but also in developing countries like India. Diversity has
become the defining characteristic of our social and cultural worlds.
We are now constantly confronted with a multitude of ways in which
we can define ourselves, and categorize others. In fact, in itself India
isa multi-ethnic andmulti lingual society. The 2001census of India
reports 122 languages and 234 mother tongues.

Most of the major religions of the world such as Hinduism and

Buddhism, originated in this land while others, such as Christianity
and Islam, though came from outside has remained and grown in it
for a thousand years and more. This great profusion of linguistic,
religious and other customs and usages was associated with a
multitude of castes, communities and tribes each of which was bearer
of a particular sub-culture or even sub-sub-culture which is
transmitted from generation to generation

(ONLY FOR REFERENCE)

MULTICULTURALISM IN COUNSELING:
Psychology is at a "pivotal period" in which the rules are being
changed in ways that we are only beginning to appreciate (Mahoney
& Pattetson, 1992). One clear indication that multiculturalism is
introducing a permanent paradigm shift and not merely a passing fad
in counselling is the strength of the multicultural controversies in the
field of counselling. By "paradigm shift" I refer to changes in the
underlying assumptions about psychology moving from a
monocultural to a multicultural basis with profound implications for
how psychology is applied in direct service. All change is painful and
the moreprofound the change the more the pain. As the counselling
profession responds to the requests and demands of many culturally
different special interest groups, the rules have begun to change,
causing controversy and confusion. Even when we recognize that the
old rules are not working, it is not easy to replace them with new
culturally different rules. The old rules of psychology focused on
dissonance reduction. The new rules focus on tolerance of ambiguity.

Smith, Harre, and VanLangenhove (1995) contrast the new with the
old paradigms. The new paradigms emphasize the following
qualities: (a) under-standing and description more than just
measuring, (b) predicting consequences more than causation, (c)
social significance more than statistical significance, (d) language
and discourse more than numerical reductionism, (e) holistic

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perspectives more than atomistic trivia, (f) complex interacting

particulars more than simplistic universals, and (g) subjectively
derived meaning more than objectively imposed meaning.

MULTICULTURALISM IN MENTAL HEALTH SERVICES

[Link]
[Link]

WHEN TO USE BRIEF HUMANISTIC

AND EXISTENTIAL THERAPIES
These approaches can be useful at all
stages of recovery in creating a foundation
of respect for clients and mutual
acceptance of the significance of their
experiences. There are, however, some
therapeutic moments that lend themselves
more readily to one or more specific
approaches. The details of the specific
approaches are laid out later in this
chapter. Client-centered therapy, for
example, can be used immediately to
establish rapport and to clarify issues
throughout the session. Existential therapy
may be used most effectively when a client
is able to access emotional experiences or
when obstacles must be overcome to
facilitate a client's entry into or
continuation of recovery (e.g., to get
someone who insists on remaining helpless
to accept responsibility). Narrative therapy
may be used to help the client
conceptualize treatment as an opportunity
to assume authorship and begin a "new
chapter" in life. Gestalt approaches can
also be used throughout therapy to
facilitate a genuine encounter with the
therapist and the client's own experience.
Transpersonal therapy can enhance
spiritual development by focusing on the

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intangible aspects of human experience MEASUREMENT AND

and awareness of unrealized spiritual PSYCHOPHYSICS
capacity. These approaches increase self- Time was also Wundt’s royal road towards
awareness, which promotes self-esteem a scientific model of the human mind. He
and allows for more client responsibility, relied on the skills of clock makers to
thus giving the client a sense of control construct the delicate instruments his
and the opportunity to make choices. All methods demanded. Matthäus Hipp’s
of these approaches can be used to support chronoscope (1840) for example, an
the goals of therapy for substance abuse instrument that often featured in
disorders. photographs of Wundt’s laboratory, was
theoretically capable of recording intervals
of 1/1000th of a second. The Leipzig
FOUR FOUNDING PATHS OF group used the chronoscope to measure
ACADEMIC PSYCHOLOGY: ‘reaction time’, the time it took for a
subject to respond to a stimulus.
WUNDT
INTROSPECTION
Wilhelm Wundt (1832 –1920), the
physiologist, psychologist, and Wundt went on to develop another
philosopher, is generally acknowledged as procedure: introspection. This technique
the founder of experimental psychology, involved the perception of asensory event
having established the first laboratory and then reporting on the
specifically devoted to a systematic phenomenological experience of theevent.
program of research in psychology. The This proceduresounds simple. However in
tributes of his contemporizes, his honors practiceit was extremely tricky to get right.
and obituaries indicate that Wundt was Firstly, of course, there were large
held in high esteem at that time. variations in reaction times between
subjects. Perceiving a sensory event and
Wundt’s innovation was the attempt to then reporting on the phenomenological
project the experimental rigor of experience of the event were not
physiology into the domain of inner straightforward matters. Experimental
experience by supplementing these subjects had to be knowledgeable about
experiments with a purely psychological the purpose of the experiment and adopt
set of procedures. These procedures the right ‘mental set’ to perceive stimuli
constituted Wundt’s well-known method correctly. They effectively had to know
of ‘Selbstbeobachtung’, i.e., how to produce the kind of data Wundt
“introspection” or, better, “self- wanted. As both experimenter and subject
observation.” had to be experts on experimental
Wundt studied with Helmholtz and protocol, their roles were therefore
Bunsen, both famous. Many of Wundt’s interchangeable. As a result, only a few
students became prominent too: experimenter-subjects needed to be trained
G. Stanley Hall in the art of introspection, because the aim
Cattell was to discover the workings of the
Kraepelin generalized human mind that everyone
Munsterberg was assumed to share. According to
Kulpe Wundt, introspection was not about
Titchener ruminating on one’s own feelings or
emotions, in the manner of a poet or
philosopher. On the contrary, introspection
was a highly controlled process — a
systematic method used to study the mind
by breaking up

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conscious awareness into basic structures systems: the higher system was governed
of thoughts, images and sensations. by the laws of apperception; the lower
In practice, introspective reports tended to system by the laws of association. The
consist of simple judgments of the size, higher processes presupposed the lower
intensity and duration of physical stimuli, ones but they were not determined by
occasionally supplemented by judgments them. A complete psychology must
of the simultaneity and succession of therefore embrace both quantitative and
stimuli. Wundt’s ambition to construct a qualitative methods.
theory of the human mind began with this
simple technique of ‘mental chronometry’. DEVELOPMENTS IN THE USA
While Wundt embarked on what would
PERCEPTION AND APPERCEPTION eventually become ten volumes of
Wundt knew that experimental methods ‘Völkerpsychologie’, his students returned
were only useful for investigating the most home to launch scientific psychology in
elementary psychological processes. In his America. The first American experimental
theory, he distinguished between psychology research laboratory was
perceptions on the one hand, and what he established by G. Stanley Hall at Johns
called apperception on the other. Stimuli Hopkins University in 1883. Four years
outside awareness are merely perceived, he later, James McKeen Cattell founded one
said, whereas stimuli receiving attention at the University of Pennsylvania. They
are apperceived. Apperception was closely followed Wundt’s practice of
therefore affected by ‘higher level’ stocking their laboratories with
psychological processes such as motives, impressive-looking ‘brass instruments’.
innate tendencies, memory andso on. By 1913 there were ten times as many
Higher mental processes such as emotion psychological laboratories in the USA as
and language were not readily amenable to there were across the whole of Europe.
experimental investigation and could not
be reliably studied using introspection and FREUD
mental chronometry.
Psychodynamic psychology is an approach
CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY to understanding human behavior that
focuses on the role of unconscious
Given the problems of investigating thoughts, feelings, and memories. Freud
apperception, Wundt argued that there developed his theories about behavior
must therefore be an alternative to through extensive analysis of the patients
experimental psychology - a way to that he treated in his private clinical
investigate social, cultural and historical practice. Freud believed that many of the
phenomena beyond the confines of the problems that his patients experienced,
laboratory. This would be a kind of including anxiety, depression, and sexual
social psychology based on the historical dysfunction, were the result of the effects
analysis of human cultural products, of painful childhood experiences that the
especially language, myth and person could no longer remember. Freud’s
customs. Experimental psychology ideas were extended by other
rightlystudied the lower perceptual psychologists whom he influenced,
processes of sensation and perception. But including Carl Jung (1875–1961), Alfred
cultural psychology — or what Adler (1870–1937), Karen Horney (1855–
Wundt called ‘völkerpsychologie’ — 1952), and Erik Erikson (1902–1994).
examined the higher processes of These and others who follow the
thinking, emotion and other products of psychodynamic approach believe that it is
collective activity. Two different laws, possible to help the patient if the
Wundt explained, governed the two unconscious drives can be remembered,

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particularly through a deep and thorough from the anxiety of seeing

exploration of the person’s early sexual ourselves as deficient. This is a
experiences and current sexual desires. common defense mechanism
These explorations are revealed through because of the importance placed
talk therapy and dream analysis, in a on giving good reasons for things.
process called psychoanalysis. However, this is not rational, it is
The first of the modern personality rationalizing. Being rational means
theories was developed by Sigmund Freud being objective. In rationalization,
and is known as psychoanalytictheory. The our mind protects us with a reason
psychiatric practice of this theory is called that only sounds good; it is not
psychoanalysis. Freud’s ideas were
objective, it just seems to be.
plentiful, profound, and often
controversial. His theory about personality
has had tremendous influence on societies PROJECTION: In this case,
around the world through many different when we have some thoughts or
disciplines. Not only psychology has been feelings that we consider to be
influenced and in formed by the ideas of wrong or upsetting, we project
Freud, but also literature, art, philosophy, them onto other people instead of
cultural studies, film theory, and many on our-selves. If I believe that a
other academic subjects. Freud’s theory certain attitude or feeling that I
represents one of the major intellectual have is terribly wrong, I will claim
ideas of the modern world. that others have it. A person who
wants to use illegal drugs but who
DEFENSE MECHANISM: believes that it would make him a
Psychoanalytic theory suggests that there horrible person might expect
are other ways in which our unconscious everyone else to want to use illegal
protects us besides by repression. These drugs. This defense mechanism
protective devices of the unconscious are deflects the anxiety away from us
known as defense mechanisms. and onto others. Many of the
predictions that a person makes
RATIONALIZATION: Sometimes our about someone else are, in fact,
unconscious makes up a good-sounding true about the person making the
reason to explain something we don’t like. prediction. Be careful what you say
If we fail a test, we blame it on others. If about others, it might be true about
our favorite candidate doesn’t win the you! If a man says that he believes
election, we say that it’s for the best people lie on their resumes,
anyway. If we don’t complete an perhaps it’s an indication that he
assignment, we think the teacher was has an inclination to lie on his
unfair to have given the assignment. “Sour resume. Is he simply being
grapes” is another example—if we don’t objective? Or is he saying people
get something we want, we find something lie because his unconscious knows
wrong with it and convince ourselves he would act that way? That would
we’re better off without it. Rationalizing be projection.
protects us
SUBLIMATION: We sublimate if
we redirect or re-channel our
undesirable emotions and thoughts

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into a socially acceptable activity. protests too much. If a man

If I am full of rage and horrible believes that being gay is a horrible
thoughts, I might vigorously wash thing yet feels attracted to other
my car. Many people sublimate by men, he might express a deep
pouring their emotions into works hatred of gays and attempt to harm
of art. The famous painter Vincent them. In reaction formation, a
van Gogh is the example that is person’s unconscious takes on the
most often given. His mental and beliefs that are opposite of the true
emotional distress seems evident in desires, those repressed in the
the vivid colors, thick paint, and unconscious. This protects the
forceful brushstrokes of his conscious part of the mind from
paintings. We can imagine van what the unconscious considers to
Gogh’s moods merely by looking be awful.
at his paintings. Many famous
com-posers and poets also are good DISPLACEMENT: Freud
examples of this defense suggested this defense mechanism
mechanism. Their mental anguish to explain how a per-son’s
is redirected into wonderful works unconscious wishes could appear
of art. There is a long list of in dreams but in disguise. A
composers and poets who suffered woman who is angry with her
from depression and bipolar brother Tom might dream that she
disorder. That is a tragedy, but one harms a noisy tomcat. Her
that provided us with a world of conscious will not be aware of the
music and literature. Through connection between the names. Her
sublimation, unpleasant mental anger is displaced onto a symbol of
energy is redirected into acceptable her brother. This defense
work. mechanism is often used to explain
behaviors outside of dreams; for
REACTION FORMATION: instance, when a person’s
Sometimes people’s mental and displeasure is directed toward
emotional energy is so threatening some object other than the source
that they adopt the reverse—the of the displeasure (for example, if
opposite—of what they really an employee displaces his anger
want. A person who believes that toward his boss onto his wife, a
drinking alcohol is a terrible sin yet subordinate, or his dog).
who has a desire to drink alcohol
might be protected by reaction DENIAL: This defense
formation. In this case, the per- mechanism is a primitive form of
son’s unconscious adopts a hatred repression. In this instance, a
of alcohol. The person might join person simply denies things that
groups that protest alcohol use and produce anxiety. The term is often
might attempt to pass laws against used today in referring to people
drinking alcohol. She becomes who have obvious problems with
vociferous, wildly critical of alcohol, drugs, or relationships but
alcohol. We might say, refuse to accept that those
paraphrasing Shakespeare, that she problems exist.

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REGRESSION: Under conditions of

severe trauma or stress, a person might
revert to developmentally earlier forms of
behavior and thinking. This is known as
regression. A person who is under
significant stress, for example, might begin
sucking his or her thumb. Freudian theory
argues that regression provides a person
with feelings of security and calm when
under threatening conditions. Defense
mechanisms protect us from anxiety and
threats. In that sense, they are useful and
good. However, they can go too far and
take us into abnormality. When defense
mechanisms become extreme, they cause
more problems than they solve. A person THE ID: Latin for the term “it,” this
might then develop symptoms of mental division of the mind includes our basic
disturbance. Freud proposed a clinical instincts, inborn dispositions, and
therapy to deal with those instances, as animalistic urges. Freud said that the id
noted above, a therapy known as is totally unconscious, that we are
psychoanalysis. unaware of its workings. The id is not
rational; it imagines, dreams, and
invents things to get us what we want.
PERSONALITY STRUCTURES Freud said that the id operates
Freud suggested an analogy about the according to the pleasure principle—it
mind. He said that the mind is like an aims toward pleasurable things and
iceberg in the ocean, floating 10% above away from painful things. The id aims
the water and 90% below. The to satisfy our biological urges and
unconscious, Freud proposed, makes up drives. It includes feelings of hunger,
the vast majority of our mind. In Freud’s
thirst, sex, and other natural body
view, only about 10% of our behaviors are
caused by conscious awareness—about desires aimed at deriving pleasure.
90% are produced by unconscious factors.
According to psychoanalytic theory, most THE EGO: Greek and Latin for “I,”
of what controls our behaviors, thoughts, this personality structure
and feelings is unknown to our aware
minds. Normally, the unconscious guides
us. Freud said that the mind could be
divided into three abstract categories.
These are the id, the ego, and the superego.
Although these are known as structures, do
not take the term literally.

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begins developing in childhood and superego is satisfied in making the person

can be interpreted as the “self.” The feel proud and not overwhelmed by guilt.
ego is partly conscious and partly If the id is too strong, a person will be
unconscious. The ego operates rude, overbearing, selfish, and animalistic.
according to the reality principle; that If the superego is too strong, a person is
is, it attempts to help the id get what it constantly worried, nervous, and full of
guilt and anxiety and is always repressing
wants by judging the difference
the id’s desires. An overly strong id makes
between real and imaginary. If a one a psychopath, lacking a conscience, or
person is hungry, the id might begin to an ogre, selfishly meeting one’s needs
imagine food and even dream about without concern for others. An overly
food. (The id is not rational.) The ego, strong superego, on the other hand, makes
however, will try to determine how to one a worrier, a neurotic, so overwhelmed
get some real food. The ego helps a by guilt that it is difficult to get
person satisfy needs through reality. satisfaction. Sometimes it is said that the
ego is the mediator between the id and the
THE SUPEREGO: This term means superego, but this is not what Freud said.
“above the ego,” and includes the The ego does not help to find compromise;
the ego helps the id to satisfy its desires by
moral ideas that a person learns within
focusing on what is real.
the family and society. The superego
gives people feelings of pride when
they do something correct (the ego THE PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES
ideal) and feelings of guilt when they Freud’s psychosexual stages are as
do something, they consider to be follows:
morally wrong (the conscience). The ORAL: The first stage in Freud’s theory
superego, like the ego, is partly covers babies up to about the age of one
conscious and partly unconscious. The and a half years. The driving force
superego is a child’s moral barometer, during this stage is interest and pleasure
and it creates feelings of pride and in activities involving the mouth (hence
guilt according to the beliefs that have the term oral), such as sucking and
been learned within the family and the biting. Adult oral personality traits that
culture. derive from the oral stage include
Freud theorized that healthy personality anything to do with the mouth, such as
development requires a balance between smoking, overeating, or biting the nails,
the id and the superego. These two and anything that is babylike, such as
divisions of the mind are naturally at being naïve (“swallowing” anything you
conflict with one another: The id attempts are told) or being dependent on others.
to satisfy animal, biological urges, while
the super ego preaches patience and ANAL: This stage centers on toilet
restraint. The struggle between these two training, beginning around the age of
is an example of intrapsychic conflict— 18 months or two years and extending
conflict within the mind. According to up to preschool, about age three. The
psychoanalytic theory, defense term anal, of course, refers to the
mechanisms are automatic (unconscious) anus, the rear end (the opposite end of
reactions to the fear that the id’s desires oral), and one of the jokes in
will overwhelm the ego. Freud believed psychology is that you can’t spell
that a healthy personality was one in which
analysis without anal.
the id’s demands are met but also the

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This joke makes light of the fact that seen when preschool girls develop a
Freud believed this stage to be crucial deep fondness for horses, unicorns,
in planting the seeds for a number of and other strong, masculine things or
adult personality traits. In the anal long, pointed objects. Freud proposed
stage the child is being toilet trained an unconscious drama during this stage
and is learning to hold in and to let out that he called his most important idea.
at appropriate times. Therefore, Freud It is called the Oedipus complex
proposed that personality traits related (some-times referred to as the Oedipal
to either holding in or letting out were conflict). This unconscious process is
formed during the anal stage. The named after the Greek story of
following traits are known as anal- Oedipus, the man who was raised by
retentive (finding pleasure from foster parents and grew up to
holding in): neatness, orderliness, unwittingly kill his biological father
punctuality, cleanliness, compulsive- and marry his biological mother. Freud
ness, perfectionism, and stinginess. said that a similar drama occurs in the
The following are called anal- unconscious minds of preschool boys,
expulsive (finding pleasure from who favor their mothers and fear their
letting out): being undisciplined, fathers (castration anxiety). The child
messy, disorderly, late, impulsive, and resents the father for getting all of the
overly generous. mother’s attentions. Many
psychoanalysts suggest a similar
3. PHALLIC: This stage occurs conflict for preschool girls, referred to
approximately during the preschool as the Electra complex; it is essentially
years. The term phallic means any the reverse of the situation for boys:
representation of the penis, which, love and desire for father, resentment
according to Freud, is the main for mother. According to
occupation of the unconscious during psychoanalytic theory, these
the childhood years of about three to complexes become so severe and
six among both boys and girls. It is at anxiety-producing that the child’s
this time, theoretically, that children unconscious must resolve them using a
become aware of whether or not they defense mechanism. The solution is for
have a penis, and Freud believed that the child to begin to identify with the
this causes a bit of anxiety in the same-sexed parent. The child begins to
unconscious parts of their minds. Boys, internalize the personality of the same-
Freud reasoned, become protective of sexed parent, thereby relieving the
their penis and fear having it taken anxiety and vicariously winning the
away. This is known as castration love of the opposite-sexed parent. For
anxiety and might be manifested in a a little boy, being like daddy means no
young boy’s fear of knives, scissors, or longer having to fear and resent him,
being bitten by dogs. Girls, Freud and it also means getting mommy’s
thought, feel resentful that they do not love through daddy. For a little girl, it
have a penis and hence seek phallic means winning daddy’s love by being
things and activities that will provide like mommy. This process is called
them with feelings of power and identification with the aggressor;
possession. This is known as penis sometimes simply known as
envy and might be identification. The result is that

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children begin to internalize the values,

morals (the superego), traits, attitudes,
and behaviors of their parents. In fact,
in 1925, Freud concluded that he had
been wrong about penis envy in young
girls and theorized that the oedipal
struggle for girls, as well as for boys,
centered on love for the mother. As
you can imagine, this remains a
controversial idea among
psychoanalysts.

LATENCY: After resolving the JAMES

Oedipal conflict through identification William James (1842–1910), an American
(at about the age of six), children enter psychologist and philosopher who is
a stage during which sexual urges are referred to as the "Father of American
dormant or resting. The term latent psychology." He founded a psychology
means that something is present or has laboratory at Harvard University. James
potential without being active or wrote and published extensively, and he
evident. During this stage, sexual urges was the first to offer a course in
are taking a recess; they are at a psychology in the United States. As a
minimum. From about the ages of 6 to leading thinker during the latter half of the
12, boys typically stick together and nineteenth century, his theories were
influential in both psychology and
say that they do not like girls, or they
philosophy.
act squeamish around girls. Similarly,
girls during this stage are highly Pragmatism and functionalism are two
critical of boys, are shy around them, philosophies. William James used to
and avoid them. Apparently, the further his understanding of the world
around him. James posited the pragmatic
demands of the previous stage and the
theory of truth, and he used this
Oedipal drama were so overwhelming philosophy to define and re-define,
that the unconscious needs a bit of a filtering answers to his questions through
rest. this theory. As a philosopher and
psychologist, all his findings, theories, and
GENITAL: This final of the inquiries were viewed through the lens of
psychosexual stages arises during his pragmatic theory of truth.
adolescence when teenagers begin To James, the truth was subjective, and he
again to show sexual interests. This delved into all mental pursuits with an
stage leads to adult affection and love. open mind. He was named the 14th most
If all has gone well in the previous eminent psychologist of the 20th century.
stages, Freud theorized, interest during
WILLIAM JAMES' PRINCIPLES OF
adolescence is on heterosexual
PSYCHOLOGY
relationships. This is a time of
exploring pleasure through more In 1890, James wrote published his book
about psychology, "The Principles of
mature love and affection.
Psychology.

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"The Principles of Psychology took twelve PRAGMATISM AND

years to write, and the result consists of FUNCTIONALISM
two volumes. During the last half of the
nineteenth-century psychology was Pragmatism is a philosophy, and to
beginning to gain respectable ground in William James, it was a philosophy of
the United States and this book by William truth. James was a pragmatist, and he
James helped to strengthen its hold. understood truth through the lens of
The book, The Principles of Psychology pragmatism. Pragmatism means practical,
was a comprehensive work covering the and William James believed only the
entire field of psychology as it was practical, those things that are beneficial
understood up until publication. Many and help to move us in the right direction,
individuals who work in the field of are worthwhile. Pragmatism as a
psychology today still find many of the philosophy of truth was something James
concepts and theories in this book to be believed in, to him the truth was arbitrary;
informative and interesting. Modern it depends on belief.
psychology has come a long way since the The pragmatist approach was the approach
year 1890 and the publication of James' James took whenever he was validating a
book, but his brilliance is still respected theory of his own or others. The
and discussed today. pragmatist movement, as a philosophical
Four main concepts are put forth by James movement, was one James fell in with
in this book; stream of consciousness, early in his career. It was an easy fit for
emotion, habit, and will. Along with these James, he was a pragmatist at heart, and he
four main concepts, James discusses scrutinized all the experience and
theories and hypothesizes about centers in information he accumulated, searching all
the brain receiving specific input from the the while for pragmatic answers to his
physical senses. The concept of instinct is inquiries.
covered comparatively, and the evolution William James founded the school of
of brain function, particularly the cerebrum Functionalism. This school of thought in
is also discussed. psychology was developed in direct
The topic of experimental psychology is response to the school of structuralism and
covered, and his experience with illusions the work of Wilhelm Wundt. Wundt
both visual and auditory are explained. criticized functionalism as nothing more
The illusion is explained as a physiological than literature, and James criticized
response; pathways in the brain are formed structuralism as "all school and no
through repeated behaviors and use, this thought." When the criticisms faded,
leads to illusion when similar stimuli occur functionalism went on to influence the
and are guided through the same pathways. major schools of thought still in use today,
James goes on to explain that the mind such as the cognitive-behavioral and
becomes accustomed to recognizing behavioral schools.
something that is repeated and when Functionalism focused on the human
stimuli are similar an assumption is made, propensity for individualism and this
this assumption is the "illusion." heavily influenced how education was
The four main concepts of habit, stream of structured. James was influenced by his
consciousness, emotion, and will make up early physiology education and the work
the bulk of the work. Each of these of Charles Darwin. Functionalism was
concepts is complete with explanations built around a more systematic approach
and in some cases, empirical knowledge to understanding mental processes.
from James himself. These four concepts William James developed functionalism to
are a bit out sync with modern psychology, search for consciousness and behavior.
but they still have their merit.

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DILTHEY
shooting a man is a physical event.
Wilhelm Dilthey (1833–1911) was a However, understanding the event in
German Philosopher, best known for the human terms involves more than tracing
way he distinguished between the the path of the bullet and showing how the
natural and human sciences. Whereas bullet caused the man's death. We need to
the main task of the natural sciences is to know why she shot the man, not just how
arrive at law-based causal explanations, she did so.
the core task of the human sciences is the Dilthey defended his use of the term
understanding of the organizational Geisteswissenschaft (literally, "science of
structures of human and historical life. the mind" or "spiritual knowledge") by
He promoted psychology as a “human pointing out that other terms such as
science” (Geisteswissenschaft). His human "social science" and "cultural sciences" are
scientific psychology took as its subject equally one-sided and that the human
matter experience in its totality. mind or spirit is the central phenomenon
Appropriate methods included description from which all others are derived and
and analysis, with the goal of analyzable.
understanding. For Dilthey, the mind was Dilthey wanted psychology to remember
the medium through which meaning that its primary subject matter was the
was formed; thus, the content, rather subjective or psychological world itself,
than the structure, of the mind was of not just the physical properties that made
most interest to him. Understanding the this world possible. Dilthey suggested that
meaning of human historical events if we want to find out ‘why’, priority must
requires being able to organize them in be given to the psychological world – the
their proper contexts and to articulate the ways that people make sense of their
structural uniformities that can be found in experience and the meanings they attach to
this way. Dilthey’s reflections on the them. In other words, to understand why I
human sciences, historical am running, you will first need to
contextualization and hermeneutics understand my experience of the current
influenced many subsequent thinkers such situation and the meanings I assign to it,
as Husserl, Heidegger, Cassirer, Gadamer because only in this way can you find out
and Ricoeu. my motives and reasons for acting. This
Dilthey offered clear advice to psychology. task demands a social scientific approach.
First, he acknowledged that humans and So, what should psychology do? If the
human events both possess important psychological world was its proper subject
physical properties. As an example, your matter, then surely psychology was a
brain is a physical object and its physical humanitarian discipline? For this reason,
properties are going to be pretty important Dilthey felt a social scientific approach
if you want to think. I’m sure you’d was preferable. But the psychological
realized that (see ‘Aside’). This simple world can only exist through the physical
observation nonetheless creates a serious world. If I don’t have a physical body I
complication for psychology, because it can’t see or hear, for example. Psychology
means that our status as physical and couldn’t ignore this either. It needed to
material ‘objects’ has a massive effect on study the physical world as well and the
our capacity to be psychological. In other natural scientific model dominated in this
words, in order to fully grasp the domain.
psychological world, the discipline of A lifelong concern was to establish a
psychology must also engage with aspects proper theoretical and methodological
of the physical world. He wrote,explaining foundation for the "human sciences" (e.g.
human actions are fundamentally different history, law, literary criticism), distinct
from explaining physical events. A woman

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from, but equally "scientific" as, the "ideal types") and conflicting ways of
"natural sciences" (e.g. physics, conceiving of humanity's relation to
chemistry). He suggested that all human Nature, In Naturalism, represented by
experience divides naturally into two parts: Epicureans of all times and places, humans
that of the surrounding natural world, in see themselves as determined by nature, In
which "objective necessity" rules, and that the Idealism of Freedom (or Subjective
of inner experience, characterized by Idealism), represented by Friedrich
"sovereignty of the will, responsibility for Schiller and Immanuel Kant, humans are
actions, a capacity to subject everything to conscious of their separation from nature
thinking and to resist everything within the by their free will in Objective Idealism,
fortress of freedom of his/her own person". represented by G. W. F. Hegel, Baruch
Spinoza, and Giordano Bruno, humans are
This double-edged nature of psychology conscious of their harmony with nature.
was (and remains) both a challenge and an This approach influenced Karl Jaspers'
opportunity. Psychology had the chance to Psychology of Worldviews as well as
bridge the divide between the natural and Rudolf Steiner's Philosophy of Freedom.
social sciences and it could do so by
retaining a foot in both camps (Danziger, Issues: Crisis in psychology due to strict
1990). Nomothetic and idiographic adherence to experimental analytical
knowledge, quantitative and qualitative paradigm (logical empiricism). Indic
methods, could all be embraced. It needed influences on modern psychology.
to study its subject matter from both
All this part is covered in Identity crisis of
perspectives. Wilhelm Wundt tried to
the Discipline (in the above sections after
support this vision (as did other early
‘Academic Psychology in India’ content)
psychologists), but it was not a vision that
psychology would ultimately sustain.
In his work Ideas Concerning a Essential aspects of knowledge
Descriptive and Analytic Psychology, he paradigms: Ontology,
introduced a distinction between epistemology, and methodology
explanatory psychology and descriptive
psychology. In his terminology,
explanatory psychology is the study of ONTOLOGY
psychological phenomena from a third-
person point of view, which involves their Ontology is the study of ‘being’ and is
subordination to a system of causality, concerned with ‘what is’, i.e., the nature of
while descriptive psychology is a existence and structure of reality as such
discipline that attempts to explicate how (Crotty, 1998) or what it is possible to
different mental processes converge in the know about the world (Snape & Spencer,
"structural nexus of consciousness." 2003). The SAGE Online Dictionary of
Social Research Methods (2006) defines
In his later work (1910), he used the
ontology as “a concept concerned with the
alternative term structural psychology for
existence of, and relationship between,
descriptive psychology.
different aspects of society such as social
actors, cultural norms and social
WELTANSCHAUUNGEN OR structures… Ontological issues are
WORLD VIEWS concerned with questions pertaining to the
In 1911, Dilthey developed a typology of kinds of things that exist within society”.
the three basic Weltanschauung, or World- For Richards, (2003), ontology is the
Views, which he considered to be "typical" assumptions we make about the kind and
(comparable to Max Weber's notion of nature of reality and what exists. Snape
and Spencer (2003) also define ontology
as the nature of the world and what we can
know about it.

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EPISTEMOLOGY It involves knowledge and, necessarily, it

Epistemology in general is the embodies a certain understanding of what
assumptions we make about the kind or the that knowledge entails. He further explains
nature of knowledge (Richards, 2003) or that epistemology deals with the ‘nature’
how it is possible to find out about the of knowledge, its possibility (what
world (Snape & Spencer, 200). For Crotty knowledge is possible and can be
(1998), epistemology is a way of looking attempted and what is not), its scope and
at the world and making sense of it. legitimacy.

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If knowledge, on one hand, is viewed as

hard, objective and tangible, this
demands of the researcher an observer
role together with an allegiance to the
methods of natural science such as
testing, measuring, etc.

If knowledge, on the other hand, is

mainly concerned with the human world
viewed as personal, subjective and unique,
of meanings and interpretations and the
then this imposes on the researcher a
epistemological stance is mainly
rejection of the methods used by natural
constructionist in nature, thus, it is
science and a greater involvement with
logically sequenced that interpretivism is
their subjects.
the theoretical perspective underpinning
THE THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE this study.

The theoretical perspective is defined as METHODOLOGY

“the theoretical stance informing the Methodology is “the strategy, plan of
methodology and thus providing a context action, process or design lying behind the
for the process and grounding its logic and choice and use of particular methods and
criteria.” (Crotty, 2003:7). For e.g., Let’s linking the choice and use of the methods
say the ontology of any given study is to the desired outcomes.” Crotty, (2003:3).

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It aims to describe, evaluate and justify the

use of particular methods.

METHOD VS METHODOLOGY
Methods are ‘the techniques or procedures
used to gather and collect data related to
some research question or hypothesis’.
(Crotty, 2003: 3).
For e.g., in a Research, a Case Study
Methodology was used to design the given
research. Therefore, the use of two
methods – Interview Method and Reaction
Papers Method, is justified.

This became a prime or only model for

Paradigms of Western inquiry and [Link] basic belief
Psychology: Positivism, Post- system of positivism is rooted in a realist
Positivism,Critical perspective, ontology, i.e. the belief that there exists a
reality ‘out there’, driven by immutable
Social Constructionism, natural laws. Once committed to a realist
Existential Phenomenology, ontology, the positivist is constrained to
and Co-operative Enquiry practice an objectivist epistemology. The
positivists make use of manipulative or
experimental methodology that allows the
control and make use of manipulative or
POSITIVISM experimental methodology that allows the
The word ‘Positivism’ was coined by control and manipulation of variables to
the French philosopher Auguste observe a cause-and-effect relationship.
Comte. For Comte, positivism was the Therefore, the goal of inquiry is to form
modern scientific outlook that was in cause-and-effect relationship and thus
the process of replacing previously values, beliefs, emotions, or anything
dominant supernatural ways of “subjective” is prevented.
thinking about the world. However, a Hence, the basic belief system of logical
more comprehensive version of positivism is-
positivism for 20th century social Ontology: REALISM
science was, ‘Logical Positivism’ or Epistemology: DUALIST &
‘Logical Empiricism’ OBJECTIVIST

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
Hence, the basic belief system of logical Etic/Emic dilemma: Inability of
 general data to individual cases
positivism is- 

Received view of natural science
Ontology: REALISM followed blindly by positivists
Epistemology: DUALIST &
OBJECTIVIST Human science should study web of meanings
Methodology: EXPERIMENTAL & that people live in.
MANIPULATIVE
POST-POSITIVISM
DISENCHANTMENT WITH CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE
POSITIVISM
 It believes that nature cannot be seen as it
Shattering of the ‘objectivist’ ideal of
positivism  “really is” or how it “really works” except


Pluralization of life worlds through a value window. Thus, findings
Research conducted in the real world are value mediated. Reality is assumed to

Knowledge needs to be ‘locally’, be constantly evolving over time & is
‘temporally’ & ‘situationally’ relevant ‘apprehend able’. The reality is constantly

“Sensitizing Concepts” required to
approach social contexts  shaped by social, political, cultural,

Recognition of central role of language & economic, gender, and ethnic forces.

discourse
 This critical form of research is a meta-
Concern with process &individual rather
than statistics & variables process of investigation, which questions

Human face’ is lost in statistical currently held values and assumptions and

manipulations challenges conventional social structures.
Knowledge production is relative to It invites both researchers and participants
frames of reference

Truth is not absolute and is decided by to discard what they term ‘false
human judgment consciousness’ in order to develop new
ways of understanding as a guide to
POSITIVISM: Context stripping, effective action, confronting unjust social
Exclusion of meaning, Theory ladenness systems.


Crisis of representation 

Exclusion of ‘discovery’ 

 dimension in positivism

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In a Marxist sense, the critical inquiry EXISTENTIAL

perspective is not content to interpret the PHENOMENOLOGY
world but also seeks to change it.
The aim of ‘critical’ paradigm is to smash Phenomenology holds that any attempt to
myth & empower people to change society understand social reality has to be grounded
and thus Advocacy and Activism becomes in people’s experiences of that social reality.
its key concepts. At methodological level, Hence, phenomenology insists that we must
critical theorists (ideologists) seem more lay aside our prevailing understanding of
consistent. The aim of the inquiry is to phenomena and revisit our immediate
transform the world by raising the experience of them in order that new
consciousness of participants so that they meanings may emerge. Current
are energized and facilitated towards understandings have to be ‘bracketed’ to the
transformation. This is achieved by taking best of our ability to allow phenomena to
a DIALOGIC approach that seeks to ‘speak for themselves’, unadulterated by our
eliminate false consciousness. In a way preconceptions. The result will be new
they critique conditions and imply a plan meaning, fuller meaning or renewed
of change and provide vision of future to meaning. Attempts are made to avoid ways
facilitate transformation. The believed in which the prejudices of researchers bias
criterion for progress is that the data. The key is gaining the subjective
“emancipation” should occur. The experience of the subject, sometimes by
dialogue between the researcher and the trying to put oneself in the place of the
participant must be dialectical in nature to subject. Hence, phenomenology becomes an
transform ignorance. exploration, via personal experience, of
prevailing cultural understandings. Value is
ascribed not only to the interpretations of
Ontology: HISTORICAL REALISM researchers, but also to the subjects of the
Epistemology: TRANSACTIONAL & research themselves.
SUBJECTIVIST
Methodology: DIALOGIC &
DIALECTICAL

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM

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Like Nietzsche, the French philosopher

Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980) emphasized
choice and freedom in human existence;
we choose what we become through our
actions which in turn, determines our
possibilities for the future (Sartre, 1946).
Sartre (1943) also contends that as humans
we have no fixed essence but only and
primarily our existence; we exist first and
in the process of our existence have to
create ourselves. However, in order to
escape from the anxiety of this uncertainty
of our nature we act at being something
definite and ‘fixed’ (essentially a nothing
pretending to be a something) through our
BACKGROUND: mauvaise foi – ‘bad faith’ (or self -
The German philosopher Friedrich deception) (Sartre,1943).The philosophy
Nietzsche (1844-1900) emphasized the of Phenomenology, founded by the
sense of individuality and isolation to German philosopher Edmund Husserl
human existence by arguing that we have (1859-1938) refers to the study of
to identify our own meanings and direction phenomena (the appearance of things) as
without reference to God as our ‘guiding- they present to our consciousness
light’ (Nietzsche, 1882). Thus, an (Spinelli, 1989). Thus, the ‘reality’ that
engagement with the struggles and each of us experiences is the result of an
imperfections of life directly facilitates the inseparable interaction between the raw
process of establishing our own values and matter of the physical world (e.g. things,
sense of self-empowerment (Deurzen- people, places etc.) and our consciousness
Smith, 1997). Here, Nietzsche introduced of it. This interactive process is known as
the key existential themes of choice, ‘intentionality’, i.e. that our consciousness
freedom, responsibility and courage is always of something and involves an
(Deurzen-Smith, 1995). The German interpretative act from which our sense of
philosopher Martin Heidegger (1889- reality is experienced and shaped (Spinelli,
1976) (most often regarded as the founder 1996). As such, our ‘reality’ is a
of Existentialism) interpreted the term phenomenal one open to a multiplicity of
‘Dasein’ (roughly translated as ‘Being-in- interpretations and meanings (Spinelli,
the-world’) to capture that the essence of 1989). From this perspective, there is no
human being is always in the world and ‘objective’ and ‘true’ reality – we can only
always with others. In turn, this demands ever have an interpreted reality and one
‘Authenticity’, i.e. a full recognition of our which is entirely ours’ alone (Spinelli,
ultimate ‘being-towards-death’ and other 1996). Further still, this openness to our
‘being’ limitations whilst being true to our interpretations of experience directly
own sense of values and sense of direction invokes meaninglessness, i.e. that there is
(Heidegger, 1927). By contrast, no ultimate ‘truth’ or meaning to our
‘Inauthenticity’ is seen as a defense against experiences (and therefore to life itself)
the anxiety of this realization and is other than what/how we interpret it; it is
marked by a resignation to convention, our construction based upon our personal
conformity and duty, i.e. by doing what values and beliefs.
people imagine is expected of them
Existential-phenomenological
(Deurzen-Smith, 1988).
psychotherapy is therefore a philosophical
approach to therapy (rather than a

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technique per se). It concerns itself with Epoch – refers to a ‘bracketing (or
how the ‘givens’ of human existence setting aside) of our initial
(death, anxiety, meaninglessness, isolation, assumptions, biases and prejudices
choice, freedom and responsibility) are within the therapeutic encounter in
negotiated (or not) through the order to fully engage with the
interpretations and meanings given to client and their material in a spirit
experience – to self, others and the world
of relative naivete.
and how in turn, this shapes our sense of
reality. As such, it regards that all peoples’ Description – to facilitate a
forms of human dilemma, tragedy and detailed description of the client’s
suffering (from the normative to the events, experiences and beliefs so
extraordinary) are fundamentally problems that meanings within meanings
about their ‘Being-in-the-world’. Thus, all may be identified and the implicit
clients’ difficulties are seen to reflect their made explicit;
attempts to avoid, resist or deny the angst Horizontalization – each
and uncertainty that authentic living descriptive element of an event or
demands (Spinelli, 1989). experience is regarded as having
The basic framework through which the equal value/significance so that an
existential-phenomenological approach initial hierarchy of assumptions is
aims to understand and clarify clients’ avoided as the client’s story
difficulties is through reference to the four unfolds (Spinelli, 1989).
realms of existence. These are as follows:
The Umwelt – the physical,
biological dimension, our CO-OPERATIVE ENQUIRY
 embodied existence; Co-operative inquiry is one articulation of
The Mitwelt – the social/public action research. The original proposal for
dimension involving relating and experiential inquiry was put forward by
interacting with others; John Heron in 1971. This developed into

The Eigenwelt – the practice of co-operative inquiry. In co-
personal/psychological dimension, operative inquiry, all those involved in the
comprising our sense of identity; research endeavor are both co-researchers,
 whose thinking and decision-making
The Uberwelt – the spiritual contributes to generating ideas, designing
dimension referring to our sense of and managing the project, and drawing
values,ideal and purpose (Deurzen- conclusions from the experience; and also
Smith, 1988). co-subjects, participating in the activity
that is being researched.
Although people inhabit all four
dimensions of existence at once, the
salience and significance of each may PARTICIPATIVE WORLDVIEW
become more/less apparent as the client’s
A participatory worldview is articulated
difficulties are explored and clarified in
based on a subjective-objective ontology;
increasing depth and understanding. In
an extended epistemology of experiential,
order to facilitate the exploration of
presentational, propositional, and practical
existence in these domains, there are three
ways of knowing; a methodology based
basic principles (or ‘rules’) of the
on cooperative relations between
existential-phenomenological method coresearchers; and an axiology that affirms
which are as follows: the primary value of practical knowing in
the service of human flourishing.

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Co-operative inquiry can be seen as In Phase II, the co-researchers now also
cycling through four phases of reflection become co-subjects: they engage in the
and action, drawing on a fourfold actions agreed, observing and recording
“extended” epistemology: the process and outcomes of their own and
Experiential knowing is through each other’s experience. In particular, they
direct face-to-face encounter with a are careful to notice the subtleties of
experience, to hold lightly the
person, place or thing; it is knowing
propositional frame from which they
through empathy and resonance, that
started so that they are able to notice how
kind of in-depth knowing which is practice does and does not conform to
almost impossible to put into words. their original ideas. This phase involves
Presentational knowing grows out of primarily practical knowledge: knowing
experiential knowing, and provides the how (and how not) to engage in
first form of expression through story, appropriate action, to bracket off the
drawing, sculpture, movement, dance, starting idea, and to exercise relevant
drawing on aesthetic imagery. discrimination.
Propositional knowing draws on In Phase III is, in some ways, the
concepts and ideas, and, touchstone of the inquiry method. It is a
Practical knowing consummates the stage in which the co-subjects become fully
other forms of knowing in action in the immersed in and engaged with their
world. experience. They may develop a degree of
openness to what is going on so free of pre-
conceptions that they see it in a new way.
In Phase I, a group of co-researchers come They may deepen into the experience so that
together to explore an agreed area of superficial understandings are elaborated
human activity. In this first phase, they and developed. Or they may be led away
agree on the focus of their inquiry and from the original ideas and proposals into
together develop a setof questions or new fields, unpredicted action and creative
propositions they wish to explore. They insights. It is also possible that they may get
agree to undertake some action, some so involved in what they are doing that they
practice, which will contribute to this lose the awareness that they are part of an
exploration, and agree to a set of inquiry group: there may be a practical
procedures by which they will observe and crisis, they may become enthralled, they
record their own and each other’s may simply forget. Phase III involves
experience. Phase I is primarily in the mainly experiential knowing, although it
mode of propositional knowing, although will be richer if new experience is
it will also contain important elements of expressed, when recorded, in creative
presentational knowing as group members presentational form through graphics, color,
use their imagination in story, fantasy, and sound, movement, drama, story, poetry, and
graphics to help them articulate their so on. In Phase IV, after an agreed period
interests and to focus on their purpose in engaged in phasesII and III, the co-
the inquiry. Once the focal idea—what the researchers reassemble to consider their
inquiry is about—is agreed upon, Phase I original propositions and questions in the
will conclude with planning a method for light of their experience. As a result, they
exploring the idea in action, and with may modify, develop or reframe them; or
devising ways of gathering and recording reject them and pose new questions. They
data from this experience. may choose, for the next cycle of action, to
focus on the same or on different aspects of
the overall inquiry. The group may also

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choose to amend or develop its inquiry new models in psychology that would
procedures—forms of action, ways of have relevance not only to India but also
gathering data—in the light of experience. to psychology in general.... By Indian
Phase IV is primarily the stage of psychology we mean a distinct
propositional knowing, although psychological tradition that is rooted in
presentational forms of knowing will form Indian ethos and thought, including the
an important bridge with the experiential variety of psychological practices that
and practical phases. In a more complete exist in the country". The Manifesto also
inquiry, the cycle will be repeated several recommended eight "necessary steps for
times. The group itself may become more responsibly promoting psychology in
cohesive and self-critical, more skilled in India" that ranged from preparing resource
its work and in the practices of inquiry. materials to offering student fellowships,
Ideally the inquiry is finished when the conducting seminars, offering courses,
initial (and emergent) questions and generating a website, and appointing a
concerns have been thoroughly addressed committee for follow-up action to ensure
in practice, when there is a new the implementation of the
congruence between the four kinds of recommendations.
knowing. It is, of course, rare for a group Rao and Paranjpe (2016) stated that Indian
to complete an inquiry so fully. It should psychology, “subscribes to methodological
be noted that the actual process is not as pluralism. Without rejecting objectivity,
straightforward as the model suggests: control, and simplicity of experimental
there are usually mini-cycles within major exploration, Indian psychology recognizes
cycles; some cycles will emphasize one the need to go beyond experimentation to
phase more than others; and some usefully capture the richness and manifold
practitioners have advocated a more complexity of human experience to
emergent process of inquiry, which is less embrace and accommodate
structured into phases; nevertheless, the phenomenological methods as coequals.”
discipline of the research cycle is
fundamental.

SIGNIFICANT INDIAN PARADIGMS INDIAN TRADITION: ONTOLOGY

ON PSYCHOLOGICAL Two major planes (satta) of reality:
KNOWLEDGE: YOGA, BHAGAVAD
GITA, BUDDHISM, SUFISM, AND TRANSCENDENTAL
INTEGRAL YOGA. REALITY (PARMARTHIKA)
From September 29 to October 1, 2002, is considered to be non-changing
more than 150 Indian psychologists met in and universal. it can be
Pondicherry at the National Conference on experienced in this life under
Yoga and Indian Approaches to certain conditionslike samadhi.
Psychology. These psychologists issued a can be approximately termed as the
declaration that has become known as the spiritual realm.
Manifesto on Indian Psychology, which 
was published in Psychological Studies, EMPIRICAL REALITY
the journal of the Indian National (VYAVHARIKA) is that which is
Academy of Psychology. The Manifesto apprehended through the sense
affirmed that "Rich in content,
modalities. can be approximately
sophisticated in its methods and valuable
understood as the material realm
in its applied aspects, Indian psychology is
(which includes all physio-psycho-
pregnant with possibilities for the birth of
social aspects of mundane
existence).

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EPISTEMOLOGY: Vedic concept of knowledge is something

entirely different from the scientific
(a) PARMARTHIKA – Knower and concept of knowledge. The ancients were
known are one and the same (ahm brahma aware of the more mundane type of
asmi). knowledge, but they were less exclusively
interested in it than modern science.
(b) VYAVAHARIKA – Subject and Avidya, or "ignorance", as they called it
object dichotomy is upheld (knowledge of somewhat disdainfully, denotes all
object is within the reach of knower). knowledge that is not knowledge of the
Absolute and the word is specifically used
METHODOLOGY: for knowledge of the world, in other
words, for science. According to Sri
(A) EXPERIENTIAL; (B) EMPIRICAL Aurobindo’s interpretation of the Isha
Upanishad, both vidya (Knowledge of the
(a) PARMARTHIKA– This involves
One) and avidya (knowledge of the
sadhana (spiritual praxis) in the multiplicity) are needed for a complete
supervision of a rsi or drsta (seer). understanding of reality.
Ultimate authority in India is in practice
held to belong not to ancient books nor Vidya: The higher knowledge of the Self
their learned expositions, but to those who (Atman) and the Supreme Self. spiritual
have personal experience of spiritual knowledge arises from the contact with the
truth. It is a living vision that transforms Self in a deeper state of self-absorption, at
the inner life, faculties and powers of the the end of a long spiritual journey and self-
person who attains it. purification. It arises in a state in which the
mind and the senses are withdraw and fully
Sadhana also denotes ‘making’, and thus resting. Spiritual knowledge is
implicates transformation of self. It involves transcendental knowledge which arises in a
detached truth seeking (jijnasa), person who is self-aware without the
sensitiveness (aksipartrakalpata), involvement of his mind or its faculties.
earnestness (samvega), maturity and Avidya: The lower knowledge of the
wisdom (viveka), and realization of the rituals, sacrifices, obligatory duties,
constraints and limitations emanating from occupational knowledge. This knowledge
egoism and acquisitiveness. In general, three is considered inferior, because it does not
ways (marga) of spiritual realization are in liberate us from the cycle of births and
practice; knowledge, action and devotion deaths. Instead, it leads to more
(jnana, karma and bhakti). attachment, karma, egoism, worldliness
and more involvement with things and
(b) VYAVAHARIKA– The major means Nature. All learned knowledge is
of knowledge include the following: accumulated knowledge and as long as the
mind is clogged with worldly knowledge,
pratyaksa (perception) peace and equanimity are not possible.
anuman (inference) From the lower knowledge comes the
upaman (comparison) discipline and the ability to practice the
sabda (verbal testimony) higher and realize the highest. They also
arthapatti (postulation) and affirm that knowledge of Brahman is the
anupalabdhi (non-cognition) highest knowledge, because it is
permanent, unchanging and indivisible, by
knowing which there is no further
SCIENCE AND SPIRITUALITY knowing.
(AVIDYA AND VIDYA)

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It is important to know that Brahman is not around us. It is sense-based and

an object of knowledge, something that we (supposed to be) guided by reason and
need to know or gain or possess or “common sense”. There are two
remember but the goal of our spiritual varieties of it. The naive variety is
effort to achieve liberation. simply whatever ordinary people know
about the world outside of themselves.
The expert variety is science. These
THE PRIMACY OF SELF- two don't differ in principle, but they
KNOWLEDGE IN INDIAN differ considerably in their actual
PSYCHOLOGY processes and results. Science is more
REFERENCE: rigorous, specialized and cumulative;
[Link] the senses are extended by instruments
[Link] that have been constructed with the
A consistent view of orthodox Hindu help off knowledge of this same type;
philosophy is that the Self is an the reason is extended in the form of
independent, incorporeal substance. The mathematics. Modernity is the scene of
Yogic ontology, a subscriber to this theme, an almost incredible collective growth
is inherently dualistic. It endorses two of this type of knowledge.
ultimate realities- Purusa or pure  SUBJECTIVE KNOWLEDGE.
consciousness, which is non-corporeal and Subjective knowledge is the
thus Nirguna and the psycho-physical knowledge we have of what is
substantiality called Prakriti, which is happening inside ourselves. The word
unconscious. Prakriti endorses three “subjective” has nowadays largely
attributes or Guna and is thus Saguna. It is negative connotations, and I use it here
in the unique interaction of the higher Self only for the naive variety of what we
or Pursha, and the Prakriti that the world know about our own nature and our
and the human beings are created. Prakriti own self-existence. Within the realm
and its components namely Buddhi of subjective knowledge one can
(intelligence), Ahamkara (ego-sense), distinguish three types: introspection
Manas (mind) and Indriya (senses) borrow which is a naive attempt at being
consciousness of the Self (Purusa). “objective” about oneself (knowledge
However, in course of interaction with the of type three), experiential knowledge
material world each of these components which deals with processes we
mistakes itself to be the absolute reality or intimately identify with (knowledge of
the Self. type two), and a superficial, ego-based
awareness of one's own identity. All
three are limited in scope and
The four "knowledge realms" are “subjective knowledge” has access
as follows: only to a tiny fraction of what we are
and what happens inside ourselves.
 OBJECTIVE KNOWLEDGE. This
is the knowledge we have of the
physical and socio-economic world

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 INNER [Link] consists other types of knowledge. According
of the sophisticated, expert variety of to the Indian tradition, a perfect
two types of knowledge of which knowledge of oneself automatically
subjective knowledge uses the naive gives in principle the possibility of
variety. Expert knowledge of Sri perfect knowledge of everything else.
Aurobindo's type three is the pure,
 detached witness consciousness that As mentioned before, the realms of
allows genuinely “objective” objective and subjective knowledge (as
knowledge of whatever happens in defined here) are the only ones that can be
one's own inner nature. The expert accessed fully in the ordinary waking
variety of type two, knowledge by consciousness (or OWC).
intimate direct contact, allows one's
consciousness to touch directly the
consciousness in others and even in
things so that one can know these by
 an intimate, unmediated direct contact.
[Link] is the
expert variety of knowledge by identity
(type one) and it leads us directly to
who we are in the very essence of our
being. The little of real self-knowledge
that reaches our surface consciousness
may never attain to that level of
perfection, but in itself this type of
knowledge is intrinsically true and
perfect. It is the secret origin of
whatever there is of real truth in all

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