Helícopteros y aeronaves

diversas
Chapter 6: Performance

Adrián García Gutiérrez

agarcg@[Link]
Introduction
The aerodynamic tools described in the previous chapters can now be used to
analyze the basic performance of the helicopter. By the term helicopter peiformance
we mean:
1 Estimation of the installed engine power required for a given flight condition
2 Determination of maximum level flight speed
3 Evaluation of the ceiling
4 Estimation of the endurance or range of the helicopter

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Table of contents
1 Introduction
2 Hover and vertical flight
3 Forward level flight
4 Induced Power
5 Blade Profile Power
Compressibility Losses and Tip Relief
Reverse Flow
Parasitic Power
Climb Power
Tail rotor power
Total Power
6 Performance Analysis
Effect of Gross Weight
Effect of density
Effect of lift/drag ratio
Climb performance
Fuel
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Blade section design I
We have seen in previous days that the rotor power in hover can be estimated from:

κW 3/2 W 3/2
   
3 σCd0 1
P = Pi + P0 = p + ρA(ΩR) = p (1)
2ρA 8 FM 2ρA
or:
3/2 3/2
κCW
 
σCd0 1 Cw
Cp = Cpi + Cp0 = √ + = √ (2)
2 8 FM 2
where:
Cw ≈ CT is the weight coefficient
κ is the induced power factor of the rotor
Cd0 is the average profile drag coefficient
FM: Figure of merit of the rotor

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Effect of the density on hovering performance I

Figure: Example showing the power required to hover versus helicopter weight for various
density altitudes

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Effect of the density on hovering performance II
As much as 20% greater power will be required to hover a a density altitude of
2800m versus SL
The induced power κ is not substantially affected by density altitude
The engine power also decreases with increasing altitude
For a reciprocating engine a reasonable approximation can be found by
multiplying the power available at mean sea level by the density ratio found at
that altitude relative to MSL with a nonstandard temperature correction. For a
turboshaft engine the power output at altitude follows a more complicated
relationship but is approximately proportional to the atmospheric pressure ratio
with a nonstandard temperature correction.

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Effect of the density on hovering performance III

Figure: Excess hover power available as a function of GTOW and density altitude.

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Effect of the density on hovering performance IV
At any given altitude the decrease in excess power is almost proportional to the
extra aircraft weight
The excess power available with altitude ultimately becomes zero, and this
defines the hover ceiling.

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Vertical rate of climb I
The power required for any vertical rate of climb, Vz , can be estimated by solving for
the induced velocity using the momentum theory result given previously:
s
Vc 2
 
vi Vc Vc
=− + +1≈1− (3)
vi0 2vi0 2vi0 2vi0

The maximum rate of climb is then obtained by solving:

s
Vc 2
 
Pi0 + ∆P Vc Vc
= + +1≈1+ (4)
Pi0 2vi0 2vi0 2vi0

Note that the climb velocity does not depend on excess rotor thrust but on an
excess of power.
For low to moderate rates of climb, ∆P ≈ TV2 c or Vc ≈ 2∆P
W

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Example

Figure: Power required to climb

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Scheme

Figure: Equilibrium of forces on a helicopter in forward flight.

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Forward level flight I
For a helicopter in forward flight, the total power required at the rotor, P, can be
expressed by the equation:

P = Pi + P0 + Pp + Pz (5)
in which:
Pi : induced power
P0 : profile power required to overcome viscous losses at the rotor
Pp : Parasitic power required to overcome the drag of the helicopter
Pz : Climb power required to increase the gravitational potential
Also:
1 θFP : flight path angle. For small angles, Vc = V∞ θFP
2 αTPP : Rotor angle of attack

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Forward level flight II
Then,

T cos(αTPP − θFP ) = W ≈ T , (6)

T sin(αTPP − θFP ) = DFP cos θFP . (7)

Asumming that the fuselage drag is independent of the angle of climb:

T (αTPP − θFP ) = D, so:
D
αTPP = θFP + . (8)
W
The power to undertake a climb is:

TV∞ sin αTPP ≈ TV∞ αTPP = WV∞ θFP + DV∞ = WVz + DV∞ (9)

The term WVz is known as the climb power, Pz . The term DV∞ is known as the
parasitic power, Pp , because this is energy lost to viscous effects.

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Induced Power I
The induced power of the rotor can be aproximated as:

Pi = κTVi (10)
When Ux is large enough, μ > 0.1, the power equation can be written as:

κT 2
P= + P0 + Pp + WVz (11)
2ρAV∞

where κ is the now familiar empirical correction to account for a multitude of

aerodynamic phenomena, mainly those resulting from tip losses and nonuniform
inflow. The value of κ cannot necessarily be assumed independent of advance ratio,

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Induced Power II
but the use of a mean value between 1.15 and 1.25 is usually sufficiently accurate
for preliminary predictions of rotor power requirements. Note:

κC 2 κCT2
CPi = p T ≈ , (12)
2 λ2 + μ2 2μ

for larger μ.

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Blade Profile Power I
The profile power coefficient with a uniform blade chord is:
Z 2π Z 1 3
σCd0 U
CP0 = dr dψ, (13)
4π 0 0 ΩR

in which:
U is the resultant velocity at the element
Cd0 is the profile drag coefficient of the airfoils
Supposing that U ≈ UT = ΩR(r + μ sin ψ):
Z 2π Z 1
σCd0 σCd0
CP0 = (r + μ sin ψ)3 dr dψ = (1 + 3μ2 ). (14)
4π 0 0 8

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Blade Profile Power II
In general, the profile drag can be approximated as:

σCd0
CP0 = (1 + K μ2 ) (15)
8
where the numerical value of K varies from 4.5 in hover to 5 at μ = 0.5, depending
on the various assumptions and/or approximations that are made.

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Compressibility Losses and Tip Relief I
Gessow Crim (1956) have estimated the additional effects of compressibility on the
overall rotor profile power requirements when the tip of the advancing blade
approaches and exceeds the drag divergence Mach number Mdd of the airfoil
sections.
0.007(∆Mdd + 0.052(∆Mdd )2 ) for M1,90 > Mdd

∆Cp0
= (16)
σ 0 for M1,90 < Mdd

where ∆Mdd is the amount the advancing blade tip Mach number exceeds the drag
divergence Mach number of the airfoil section, ∆Mdd = M1,90 − Mdd , where M1,90 is
the tip value at r = 1 and ψ = π/2.
Generally, it is found that the drag on an airfoil remains nominally constant and
independent of Mach number until Mdd is reached

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Compressibility Losses and Tip Relief II

Figure: Predictions of main rotor power in forward flight will be underestimated at high
advance ratios without accounting for compressibility effects.

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Compressibility Losses and Tip Relief III
The region of the rotor disk affected by compressibility effects can be defined by
finding where the incident Mach number of the flow that is normal to the leading of
the blade exceeds the drag divergence Mach number Mdd . For a blade the incident
Mach number is
Mr ,ψ = MωR (r + μ sin ψ), (17)
where MωR is the hover tip Mach number. The region of the disk affected is defined
by:
Mdd
MωR (r + μ sin ψ) ≤ Mdd =⇒ r + μ sin ψ ≤ . (18)
MωR

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Compressibility Losses and Tip Relief IV

Figure: The region of the disk where the blade sections reach high Mach numbers.

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Compressibility Losses and Tip Relief V
The azimuth angle for the onset of drag divergence ( ψ1 ) can be obtained by setting
r = 1 so that   
−1 1 Mdd
ψ1 = sin −1 (19)
μ MωR
ψ2 is found thanks to simmetry. The parts of the blade in the drag divergence region
can be found using:
 
Mdd
rdd = − μ sin ψ ψ1 ≤ ψ ≤ ψ2 (20)
MωR

and the increment in profile power associated with this region on the disk will be
Z ψ2 Z 1
∆Cp 1
= (r + μ sin ψ)3 ∆Cd r dr dψ (21)
σ 4π ψ1 rdd

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Compressibility Losses and Tip Relief VI
where ∆Cd is the extra drag on the blade section when it exceeds the drag
divergence Mach number Mdd . For the NACA 0012, for example:

12.5(M − 0.74)3 M ≤ 0.74


∆Cd (M) = (22)
0 otherwise

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Compressibility Losses and Tip Relief VII

Figure: Sectional drag increases rapidly after the drag divergence Mach number is
exceeded.

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Compressibility Losses and Tip Relief VIII
Tip relief effects can be accounted for in the blade element theory using an effective
local Mach number Meff at each blade element in the tip region that exceeds the
drag divergence Mach number, that is, Mr ,ψ > Mdd . One method suggested by
Prouty (1986) is to define the effective Mach number as:
   
Mdd2 Mdd2
Meff (r ) = Mr ,ψ + 1− (1 − r )ARblade , (23)
Mdd3 Mdd3

in which:
Mdd2 , is the 2-D value of the drag divergence Mach number
Mdd3 , is the 3-D value with tip relief
In most cases it is found from finite wing measurements that Mdd3 exceeds
Mdd2 by 10-15%.
The parameter ARblade is the aspect ratio of the blade (i.e., R/c).

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Compressibility Losses and Tip Relief IX

Figure: Profile power increases rapidly at high advancing tip Mach numbers but is offset to
some extent by tip relief effects.

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Reverse flow I
At higher rotor advance ratios, a considerable amount of reverse flow will exist on
the retreating side of the rotor disk, that is, the blade sections operate with the
trailing edge into the relative wind.

UT = 0 = ΩR(r + μ sin ψ) (24)

For a conventional helicopter the maximum feasible advance ratio is about 0.5,
which means that the inboard 50% of the retreating blade operates in reverse flow.

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Reverse flow II

Figure: With increasing advance ratio, the region of reverse flow covers an increasingly
large proportion of the retreating side of the rotor disk. (a)μ = 0.3. (b) μ, = 0.5

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Reverse flow III
The effects of reverse flow can be included by changing the sign of the drag in the
region defined by r = −μ sin ψ on the retreating side of the disk. This may be
treated by writing the integral in the profile power equation as the sum of two parts,
that is:

Z 2π Z 1 Z 2π Z −μ sin ψ
σCd0 σCd0
CP0 = (r + μ sin ψ)3 dr dψ − (r + μ sin ψ)3 dr dψ
4π 0 0 2π 0 0
(25)
where the second integral is the increment that accounts for the proper sign on the
drag inside the reverse flow region. If the drag coefficient is assumed to be
unchanged in the reverse flow region, then, after integration the profile power
coefficient becomes:  
σCd0 3 3 4
CP0 = 1 + 3μ + μ (26)
8 8

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Parasitic Power I
The parasitic power, Pp , is a power loss as a result of viscous shear effects and flow
separation (pressure drag) on the airframe, rotor hub, and so on. Because
helicopter airframes are much less aerodynamic than their fixed-wing counterparts
(for the same weights), this source of drag can be very significant. We can write the
parasitic power as:  
1 2
Pp = ρV S CD V∞ , (27)
2 ∞ ref f
in which:
Sref is some reference area
CDf is the drag coefficient based on this reference area

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Parasitic Power II
In nondimensional:
   
1 Sref 3 1 f 3
CPp = μ CDf = μ , (28)
2 A 2 A

where A is the rotor disk area and f (= CDf · Sref ) is known as the equivalent wetted
area or equivalent fiat-plate area. This parameter accounts for the drag of the hub,
fuselage, landing gear, and so on, in aggregate:

Df
f = 1
. (29)
ρV∞2
2

This avoids any confusion that may arise through the definition of Sref . It is found
that values off range from about 10 ft2 (0.93 m2) on smaller helicopters to as much
as 50 ft2 ( 4.65 m2 ) on large utility helicopter designs.

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Climb Power I
The climb power is equal to the time rate of increase of potential energy.
If the potential energy is denoted as E, then E = Wh.
The rate of increase of potential energy is:

W ḣ = TVZ = WVZ , (30)

where W is-the aircraft weight and VZ is the climb velocity.

The climb power coefficient can be written as CP c = λZ CW .
The effect of the fuselage vertical drag is normally taken into account when
estimating the climb power.
Typically, the vertical download on the fuselage can be up to 5% of the gross
takeoff weight.

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Tail rotor power I
The power required by the tail rotor typically varies between 3 and 5% of the
main rotor power in normal flight, and up to 20% of the main rotor power at the
extremes of the flight envelope.
It is calculated in a similar way to the main rotor power, with the thrust required
being set equal to the value necessary to balance the main rotor torque
reaction on the fuselage.
The use of vertical tail surfaces to produce a side force in forward flight can
help to reduce the power fraction required for the tail rotor, albeit at the expense
of some increase in parasitic and induced drag.

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Tail rotor power II
If the distance from the main rotor shaft to the tail rotor shaft is xtr , the tail rotor
thrust required will be:
Pi + P0 + Pp
TTR = , (31)
ΩxTR
where ω is the angular velocity of the main rotor.
The interference between the main rotor and the tail rotor, and between the tail
rotor and the vertical fin, is usually neglected in preliminary analysis.
However, the effects of the main rotor wake may be accounted for by an
increase in the induced power factor κ to take into account the generally higher
nonuniform inflow at the tail rotor location.

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Total power I
In light of the foregoing, the total power coefficient for the helicopter in forward flight
can be written in the form:

κC 2
 
σCd0 1 f
Cp ≡ CQ = p T + (1 + K μ2 ) + μ3 + λZ CW + CP TR . (32)
2
2 λ +μ 2 8 2 A

The tail rotor power must always be added to obtain a proper estimate of total
helicopter power requiremerits. For larger values of μ:

κCT2 σCd0
 
1 f
CP ≡ CQ = + (1 + K μ2 ) + μ3 + λZ CW + CP,TR . (33)
2μ 8 2 A

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Total power II

Figure: Predictions of main rotor power in forward flight

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Effect of Gross Weight I
Clearly the power required in forward flight will be a function of helicopter weight.
Because a relatively small weight fraction of fuel is carried relative to total weight, it
is convenient to represent the performance results in terms of gross take of weight
(GTOW). Note that with increasing GTOW, the excess of power available becomes
progressively less, but it is particularly affected at lower airspeed where the induced
power requirement constitutes a greater fraction of the total power.

Observation
The airspeed obtained at intersection of the power required curve with the power
available curve gives the maximum level flight speed; however, the maximum
speed may be limited by the onset of power creep from compressibility effects or
high blade loads associated with rotor stall before this point is reached.

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Effect of Gross Weight II

Figure: Predictions of main rotor power in forward flight at different gross takeoff weights

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Effect of density I
Increasing density altitude increases the power required in hover and at lower
airspeeds. At higher airspeeds, the result of lower air density results in a smaller
power requirement because of the reduction in parasitic drag. However, a higher
density altitude will also affect the engine power available. At 9,000 ft the power
available is about 25% less than that available at MSL conditions, resulting in a
large decrease in the excess power available at any airspeed relative to that at MSL.

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Effect of density II

Figure: Predictions of main rotor power in forward flight at different density altitudes

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Effect of lift/drag ratio I
The lift-to-drag ratio (L/D) of the helicopter or just the rotor alone can also be
calculated from the power required curves.
This is useful for comparison of the forward flight efficiency with another rotor,
another helicopter, or a fixed-wing aircraft
Because the rotor provides both propulsive and lifting forces, the lift force is
T cos αTPP
The effective drag can be calculated from the power expended (D = P/V∞ ).
For the rotor alone, the power is P = Pi + P0 , and for the complete helicopter
P = Pi + P0 + PP + PPR .

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Effect of lift/drag ratio II
Therefore, for the rotor alone:
L T cos αTPP WV∞
= ≈ (34)
D (Pi + P0 )/V∞ Pi + P0

For the complete helicopter the lift-to-drag ratio is:

L T cos αTPP WV∞

= ≈ (35)
D (Pi + P0 + Pp + PTR )/V∞ Pi + P0 + Pp

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Effect of lift/drag ratio III

Figure: Example of equivalent lift-to-drag ratios for rotor and complete helicopter
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Effect of lift/drag ratio
Observation
The maximum lift-to-drag ratio of the rotor is about 6, which is typical of most
modem helicopters and is also typical of a low aspect ratio fixed wing. The
maximum lift-to-drag ratio of the complete helicopter is about 4.5, which gives
some idea as to the considerable effect of the airframe drag in the overall cruise
efficiency of the helicopter.

A typical L/D ratio for a fixed-wing aircraft of the same gross weight will be about
3-4 times this value. Note that the maximum lift-to-drag ratio for this example occurs
at about 100 kts, which will be the airspeed to fly for maximum range.
The lift-to-drag ratio of the rotor and helicopter will also be a function of the density
altitude at which it is flying.

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Climb performance I
The general power equation can be used to estimate the climb velocity, Vc , that is
possible at any given airspeed:
T2
P − (PTR + P0 + Pp + 2ρκAV∞
)
Vc = , (36)
T
It is realistic to assume that for low rates of climb or descent the rotor induced
power, Pi , the profile power, P0 , and the airframe drag, D, remain nominally
constant. In this case we can easily solve for the climb velocity to get:

P − Plevel ∆P
Vz = = . (37)
T T

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Climb performance II

Figure: Maximum possible rate of climb as a function of airspeed for different density
altitudes

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Fuel consumption I
For many performance problems, such as the calculation of range and endurance, a
knowledge of the engine fuel burn is required. From the power required curves the
fuel consumption can be estimated for a given type of engine. Engine performance
data are often expressed in terms of a specific fuel consumption SFC (in units of lb
hp−1 hr −1 or kg kw−1 hr−1 ) versus shaft power (in units of hp or kW)
For a reciprocating engine:
 
1.133σ − 0.133
Palt ≈ PMSL √ , (38)
θ
in which:
σ: Density ratio
θ: Temperature ratio
δ: Pressure ratio

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Fuel consumption II
In the case of a turboshaft engine:
 
δ
Palt ≈ PMSL . (39)
θ
The fuel flow rate is a linear function of the power output:
 
ẆF P
√ = AE + BE √ , (40)
σ θ δ θ
where the coefficients AE and BE depend on the characteristics of a particular
engine.

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Fuel consumption III
Considering a helicopter with NE engines that must produce a net power P for flight,
then each engine will produce a power of P/NE · This means that the fuel burn (fuel
flow) will be:
    
ẆF P P
√ = NE AE + BE √ = NE AE + BE √ , (41)
σ θ NE σ θ δ θ
which shows that the fuel flow will always be greater by a factor of approximately
(1 − NE )AE for a multi-engine installation.
Therefore, the design will normally use the fewest number of engines that is
consistent with safety of flight and other considerations. Modern helicopters in the
medium- to heavy-weight category will use either two or three engines, although
smaller helicopters will generally use only one engine to constrain empty aircraft
weight and reduce operational costs.

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Fuel consumption IV

Figure: Normalized specific fuel consumption and fuel flow for a notional turboshaft engine

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Speed for minimum power I
To obtain maximum endurance, the fuel burn per unit time must be minimized. Now,
the weight of fuel burned WF in a given time t is given in terms of SFC as

WF = SFC × P × t, (42)

so the endurance for a given amount of fuel is:

WF
t= . (43)
SFC × P
Clearly this time is maximized at the best SFC and lowest power required for flight.

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Speed for minimum power II

Figure: Representative fuel bum versus airspeed plots for the example helicopter.
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Speed for minimum power I
To estimate the value of Vmp , the approximation previously derived can be used:

κC 2
 
σCd0 1 f
Cp ≡ CQ = p T + (1 + K μ2 ) + μ3 + λZ CW + CP TR (44)
2
2 λ +μ 2 8 2 A

At lower airspeeds the rotor profile power is small and builds slowly with the square
of airspeed. Therefore, the minimum power is essentially determined by the
variation in induced power and the parasitic power at these lower air speeds:

κCw2 1 f
 
Cp ≈ + μ3 . (45)
2μ 2 A
so:
κC 2 3
 
∂CP f
=− W + μ2 , (46)
∂μ 2μ2 2 A

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Speed for minimum power II
which equals zero for a minimum
!1/4
2
κCW
μ= , (47)
3f /A

for maximum endurance. Note that, in general, this speed will increase with
increasing altitude and temperature. In addition, it will be apparent that this airspeed
is proportional to the square-root of disk loading and helicopter weight.

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Speed for Maximum Range I
The range of the helicopter is the distance it can fly for a given takeoff weight and for
a given amount of fuel. In all cases contingency fuel allowances (i.e., reserves)
must be considered, depending on the mission profile and whether visual or
instrument flight rules apply. As the range is R = Vt, a first approximation is:

VWF
R= . (48)
SFC × P
As a first approximation, the speed to fly to give the best range is obtained when the
ratio V /P is a maximum or the ratio P/V is a minimum, that is, when the helicopter
is operated at the best lift-to-drag ratio.

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Speed for Maximum Range II
This airspeed is usually at a somewhat higher airspeed than that required for
maximum endurance. Notice that this speed will change with both the weight of the
helicopter and with the atmospheric conditions.

κCw2 1 f
 
Cp
≈ + μ2 . (49)
μ 2μ2 2 A

Differentiating this latter expression with respect to μ, gives:

∂(Cp /μ) κC 2
 
f
= − 3W + μ. (50)
∂μ μ A

Therefore: !1/4
2
κCW
μ= , (51)
f /A

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Speed for Maximum Range III
for maximum range. Note that, like the speed for maximum range, this speed will
also increase with increasing density altitude and with the square-root of aircraft
weight.

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Range-Payload and Endurance-Payload
Relations I
Range-payload and endurance-payload curves provide information about the
effects of aircraft range and endurance when trading off payload for fuel.
The specific mission for the aircraft must be defined, although most flight plans
will involve a flight from point A to point B.
The engine characteristics must be considered to determine both the maximum
endurance and maximum range.
Fuel flow curves must be derived versus indicated airspeed and gross weight,
and these depend on whether the helicopter is powered by reciprocating or
turboshaft engines.
Generally, the fuel flow curves versus airspeed (at a given density altitude) are fairly
flat, and so this alternative form of defining the performance curves closely follows
the shapes of the power curves.

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Range-Payload and Endurance-Payload
Relations II

Figure: A representative mission profile for a helicopter.

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Range-Payload and Endurance-Payload
Relations III
The fuel burn with respect to distance is:

∂WF P × SFC
= (52)
∂R V
where SFC is the specific fuel consumption of the engine.
The power required, P, varies with gross weight and density altitude and, as
already shown, the SFC depends on power and density altitude.
Because the weight decreases as fuel is burned, last must be integrated
numerically to find the range.
Fuel burned during takeoff, climb, and descent is factored into the calculation,
along with a mandated fuel reserve in minutes of flying time.

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Range-Payload and Endurance-Payload
Relations IV
Z WGTOW −WF  
V V
R= dW ≈ WF , (53)
WG TOW P × SFC P × SFC W =W 0
in which W 0 = WGTOW − WF /2 .
In a similar way:  
1
E = WF (54)
P × SFC

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Range-Payload and Endurance-Payload
Relations

Figure: A representative payload-range curve for example the helicopter.

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Maximum altitude or ceiling I
The maximum attainable altitude or ceiling that the helicopter can fly at is
determined by the power available at the rotor and the power required for flight
at a given weight.
The power required will increase with increasing density altitude and
simultaneously the engine power output will decrease with altitude
κT 2
Preq = + P0 + PP + PT R + WVc (55)
2ρAV∞
Because this condition is approached asymptotically, the altitude at which this
occurs can be determined by setting the rate of climb Vz arbitrarily to the low value
of 0.3 m/s and solving for the density altitude at which this condition is reached.
This is called the service ceiling.

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Maximum altitude or ceiling II

Figure: A representative payload-range curve for example the helicopter.

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Maximum altitude of ceiling
This type of plot is often referred to as an operational flight envelope.
It is apparent that the ceiling curves mimic the excess power available or
maximum rate of climb curves, as ,would be expected.
The ceiling that the helicopter can reach may be further qualified by specifying
in ground effect (IGE) or out of ground effect (OGE) [Link] is because
operations IGE will reduce power required and so can help to augment the
operational ceiling, a useful behavior when operating out of high altitude or
mountainous terrain.
However, the useful flight envelope may be further restricted by structural
limitations that must be clearly defined to avoid inadvertent operations that may
over-stress the rotor.

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Autorotational Performance I
The autorotation maneuver is defined as a self-sustained rotation of the rotor
without the application of any shaft torque from the engine.
Under these conditions, the power to drive the rotor comes from the relative
airstream upward through the rotor as the helicopter descends through the air.
Autorotation is used as a means of recovering the safe flight helicopter in the
event of a catastrophic mechanical failure, such as engine, transmission, or tail
rotor failure. The ability to autorotate is, therefore, a safety of flight issue.

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Autorotational Performance II
Under established autorotative conditions, there is an energy balance where the
decrease in aircraft potential energy per unit time is equal to the power required to
sustain the rotor speed.
Although most autorotations are conducted with some forward speed, first consider
a vertical autorotative descent with no forward speed. In an autorotation, the inflow
angle φ must be such that there is no net in-plane force and, therefore, no
contribution to rotor torque, that is, for this station on the blade,

dQ = (D − φL)y dy = 0. (56)

However, this is a condition that can only exist at most at two radial stations on the
blade: some stations on the rotor will absorb power from the relative airstream and
some will consume power such that the net power at the rotor shaft is approximately
zero

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Autorotational Performance III

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Height-Velocity Curve I
Observation
In a survey of helicopter accidents conducted by Harris et al. (2000), it was found
that out of 8,436 accidents, 2,408 accidents occurred because of the loss of engine
power. Out of these 2,408 accidents, about half were a result of fuel exhaustion.
Nine hundred thirty-five accidents resulted in substantial damage to the helicopter,
and 445 helicopters were destroyed. Besides the tragic loss of lives, such statistics
are certainly not acceptable from an engineering standpoint and clearly emphasize
the need for better helicopter designs with adequate single engine out performance
and safe autorotational landing capability.

The flight conditions that will allow safe entry to an autorotation and recovery of the
helicopter are summarized in the form of height-velocity or "H-V" curves. These are
often called "deadman’s" curves, for obvious reasons.

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Height-Velocity Curve II

Figure: Representative height-velocity curves for single-engine and multi-engine helicopters.

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Height-Velocity Curve III
The curves that define the "avoid" regions are established though systematic
test flights prior to certification of the helicopter. The tests are conducted at
altitude relative to a virtual "floor" by incrementally approaching the
combinations of airspeed and altitude where acceptable autorotational
capability becomes questionable on the basis of pilot opinions, that is, a
difficulty rating.
The engineering results are then corrected for different helicopter gross weights
and density altitudes, and charts made for the flight manual.
For flight anywhere outside the avoid region the pilot should be able to safely
recover the helicopter through an autorotative maneuver in the event of a flight
emergency.
While flight in the avoid region is not prohibited, its boundaries dictate the
conditions where sustained flight operations should be avoided less there be an
engine failure.

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Height-Velocity Curve IV
The avoid region at low altitude and high airspeeds determines the minimum
altitude below which translational kinetic energy cannot be converted into
potential energy by means of a zoom-climb prior to entering the autorotation.
This boundary is also marked to prevent unsafe operations close to the ground.
The most important avoid region is obviously, however, at low airspeeds.

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Height-Velocity Curve I

Figure: Representative height-velocity curves for single-engine and multi-engine helicopters.

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Autorotative indices I
It is clear that the autorotative performance of a helicopter depends on several
interrelated factors. These include:
1 the rotor disk loading (which affects the descent rate),
2 the stored kinetic energy in the rotor system (which influences the probability of
success of entry and completion of the autorotational maneuver),
3 as well as subjective "difficulty rating" flight assessments by pilots.
To help select the rotor diameter during predesign studies, an "autorotative index" is
often used. One form of the index can be defined in terms of the ratio of the kinetic
energy of the main rotor to the gross weight of the aircraft, that is:

IR Ω2
AI = , (57)
2W

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Autorotative indices II

Figure: Autorotative indices derived for several helicopters at standard sea level conditions

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Autorotative indices III
These indices are of great use in the sizing of the main rotor or in examining the
effects on autorotative characteristics with increasing gross weight or density
altitude. Note that the absolute values of the index are of no significance by
themselves, but the relative values provide a means of comparing the autorotative
performance of a new helicopter design against another helicopter with already
acceptable autorotative characteristics.

Observation
An index of about 20 would normally be considered acceptable for single-engine
helicopters. A multi-engine helicopter can have a lower index and still have safe
flight characteristics in the event of a single engine failure because any initial decay
in rotor rpm is soon picked up by increasing torque from the remaining engine(s).

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Steady maneuvers: level banked turn I
By assuming the helicopter to act as a point mass, the centripetal acceleration
2
required to perform a turn with a flight path of radius Rturn will be RVturn
∞
:
s
 2
W V∞
q
2 =
T = W 2 + FCF W2 + . (58)
g Rturn

This result, of course, assumes that the tail rotor makes a negligible contribution to
the problem. The load factor on the rotor is, therefore,
s
 2 2
T V∞
n= = 1+ . (59)
W gRturn

The bank angle required will be:

1
φ = cos−1 , (60)
n
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Steady maneuvers: level banked turn II
and so for equilibrium the rotor thrust T is:

W
T = . (61)
cos φ

These equations allow the rotor thrust to be determined, albeit approximately, for
any bank angle and, therefore, for any turning radius of the flight path. Notice that
the bank angle required to perform a given radius of turn will also be a function of
the speed of the helicopter along its flight path, which is a key factor in determining
the load factor for a given radius of turn.
The power required in turning flight with bank angle φ:

κ(CT / cos φ)2 σCd0

 
1 f
CP = p + (1 + K μ2 ) + + CPTR (62)
2 λ2 + μ2 8 2 A

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Steady maneuvers: level banked turn III
Notice that it is only the induced part of the power (the thrust dependent term) that
is affected by the bank angle,φ, assuming that the turn is coordinated and there is
no slip (yaw) angle.

Observation
For steep bank angles the power required may exceed that available and the
maneuver capability could be power limited. This is particularly apparent at high
density altitudes, where maneuver performance will almost certainly be limited
because of either reduced excess power available or by reaching rotor stall limits.

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Steady maneuvers

Figure: Forces acting on a helicopter in (a) a symmetrical pull-up maneuver and, (b) a
coordinated turn.

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Transient Maneuvers I
The analysis of the transient (nonsteady) maneuver of a helicopter can be
approached using energy methods. The instantaneous energy state of the
helicopter E, can be written as:
 
1 W 2 1
E = Wh + V∞ + IR ω2 (63)
2 g 2
where:
W : is the weight
h is its altitude
Ir is the rotor inertia
ω is the rotational speed of the rotor

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Transient Maneuvers II
The time rate of transfer of energy between these three different energy states of
the helicopter is equivalent to the power required to change the energy level. This
transfer of excess power provides a measure of maneuver capability and the rate of
transfer of power is a measure of its potential agility
 
∂E ∂h W ∂V∞ ∂ω
=W + V∞ + IR ω = ∆Penergy level (64)
∂t ∂t g ∂t ∂t

The net excess power available can be written as a contribution from the engine(s)
and from the rate of change of energy level associated with changes in the flight
condition, that is, the net excess power available is:

∆P = ∆Pengine + ∆Penergy level (65)

where ∆P can be viewed as the net excess power available over and above that
required for equilibrium flight at any one flight condition (i.e., at any given altitude,
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Transient Maneuvers III
airspeed, rotor rpm and maneuver state). For example, any excess power available
can be used to:
Increase potential energy (gain more altitude)
Increase kinetic energy (i.e. gain more airspeed)
To increase the rotor energy (rotor rpm)
or to change the flight condition

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Transient Maneuvers IV
For a conventional helicopter the rotor thrust T can be estimated from the product of
the gross weight of the aircraft W and the rotor load factor n. Consider a helicopter
undergoing a simple pull-up maneuver. The normal acceleration, a, is:

a = (n − 1)g = z̈ + qV∞ , (66)

where q is the pitch rate.

The excess power available ∆P can be used to produce extra rotor thrust. In
horizontal flight:
   
W W
T − W = ∆T = a= (z̈ + qV∞ ). (67)
g g
so the load factor is given by:
 
z̈ + qV∞ ∆T
n =1+ =1+ (68)
g W
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Transient Maneuvers V
The ability to produce this load factor depends on the stall margin of the rotor, which
in this case can be defined in terms of the value of CT /σ that will produce stall
relative to the 1g level flight value:

(Ct /g)1g
Msm = n (69)
(CT /σ)stall

If Msm > 1, then the rotor stall boundary will be exceeded before the power limit is
reached. Therefore, an excess power available is no guarantee of maneuver
capability, and both power and rotor stall margins must be addressed.

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Transient Maneuvers VI

Figure: Transient load factors for a representative helicopter based on excess power
available and sustainable pitch rate. Demonstrated capability may exceed the rotor stall
margin at moderately high airspeeds

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Transient Maneuvers VII
The potential maneuver capability from the excess engine power available can be
estimated with reference to the engine power required versus power available
curves. In low-speed flight (i.e., near to hovering flight), it is sufficient to assume the
hover result relating rotor power required to rotor thrust using the momentum theory,
that is,   3/2
1 T
P= p (70)
FM 2ρA
where A is the rotor disk area, FM is the rotor figure of merit, and p is the air density
at the actual operational flight conditions. Differentiating the power equation with
respect to thrust gives:
 s
∂P 3 T
= (71)
∂T 2FM 2ρA

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Transient Maneuvers VIII
Linearizing the problem by assuming the excess thrust and engine power are a
fraction of those required at the level, unaccelerated flight condition means the
excess power can be written as
 
∂P
∆P = ∆T , (72)
∂T
or the extra rotor thrust capability found by

∆P
∆T = ∂P

(73)
∂T

Then, the acceleration is related to the extra rotor thrust by:

∆T
a = z̈ + qV∞ = (74)
W /g

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Transient Maneuvers IX
and the potential load factor capability is then:
   
z̈ + qV∞ ∆T ∆P dT
n =1+ =1+ =1+ (75)
g W W dP

Assuming that the increase in thrust is relatively small compared to the thrust
required. For level, unaccelerated flight at that gross weight and density altitude
gives the potential load factor as
 
2 ∆Peng
n ≈1+ (76)
3 P

This problem can also be examined by assuming that the power required by the
rotor is approximated by the forward flight result:

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Transient Maneuvers X
κT 2
P= + P0 + Pp (77)
2ρAV∞
where P0 is the profile power required and Pp is the parasitic power:

κT 2 1 3
P≈ + ρfV∞ (78)
2ρAV∞ 2

κT 2 1 3
P≈ + ρfV∞ (79)
2ρAV∞ 2
By differentiation of the last equation, the approximate change in power required
regarding a change in rotor thrust can be written as

∂P κT
= (80)
∂T ρAV∞
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Transient Maneuvers XI
By assuming that the change in rotor thrust is a fraction of the thrust required at that
aircraft weight, gives the potential load factor as:
 
1 ∆Peng
n ≈1+ (81)
2 P

These results help quantify the effects of excess engine power available on the
potential maneuver capability of the helicopter, which approximately mimics the
curve of excess power available relative to level flight.
However, it is clear that the maneuver capability depends on many interrelated
parameters, including the translational kinetic energy of the helicopter, the
kinematics of its flight trajectory, and the stall margins of the rotor.

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References I
[1] Leishman, J.G.
Principles of helicopter aerodynamics.
Cambridge University Press, 2006.
[2] Cuerva, A. et al.
Teoría de Helicopteros.
Gaceta.
[3] Seddon, J; Newman, S.
Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics.
Wiley, 2011.

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