Life Process of Class 10

The various basic functions (processes) performed by living organisms to maintain their life on this
earth are called life processes. To maintain life, organisms have to perform certain functions such
as nutrition, respiration, reproduction and excretion etc., which are called as life processes.

NUTRITION
All living organisms continuously require energy for their life processes. They also need organic
raw materials to build up most of their own body molecules. The materials which provide the two
primary requirements of life, namely, organic raw materials and energy, are called nutrients. A
substance which is taken to supply the necessary nutrients to the body is termed food, or diet.
Nutrient can be defined as a substance, which an organism obtains from its surroundings and
uses it either as an energy source, or for biosynthesis of body constituents. Thus, nutrition is a
process of intake, as well as utilization of nutrients by an organism.

MODES OF NUTRITION: There are two main modes of nutrition, autotrophic and heterotrophic.

Autotrophic Mode of Nutrition: The word ‘auto’ means ‘self’ and ‘trophe’ means ‘nutrition’. Thus,
autotrophic means ‘self-nutrition’. Autotrophic nutrition is present in plants, algae and some
bacteria. Organisms produce their own food using light energy or chemical energy through
photosynthesis (all green plants) or chemosynthesis (sulphur bacteria), respectively. Autotrophic
nutrition is that mode of nutrition in which an organism makes (synthesizes) its own food from the
simple inorganic materials like carbon dioxide and water present in the surroundings with the help
of sunlight energy or chemical energy. Those organisms which can make their own food from
carbon dioxide and water are also called autotrophs or producers.

Heterotrophic Mode of Nutrition: The word ‘heteros’ means ‘others’ and ‘trophe’ means
‘nutrition’. Thus, ‘heterotrophic’ means ‘nutrition obtained from others’. In heterotrophic nutrition,
the organisms cannot make (synthesize) their own food from the inorganic raw materials like
carbon dioxide and water, and uses the food made by autotrophic organisms directly or indirectly
i.e. the heterotroph is a consumer. All the animals have a heterotrophic mode of nutrition. Most
bacteria and fungi also have heterotrophic mode of nutrition.

Type of Heterotrophic Nutrition: A heterotrophic organism (or heterotroph) can obtain its food
from other organisms in three ways:
Saprophytic (Saprotrophic): Saprophytic nutrition is that nutrition in which an organism obtains
its food from dead and decaying organic matter of dead plants, dead animals and household
wastes like rotten bread, etc. These organisms are also called decomposers. Bacteria and fungi
are saprophytes. Saprophytes release certain enzymes to act on the organic matter which break
down the complex organic molecules and convert them into simpler substances. These simpler
substances are then used by saprophytes as their food. The food is partially digested outside the
body, and then it is absorbed.
Parasitic: The parasitic nutrition is that nutrition in which an organism derives its food (nutrition)
from the body of another living organism. The organism which obtains their food and shelter from
another organism is called a ‘parasite’ and the organism from whose body food is obtained is
called the ‘host’. In the relationship between parasite and host, parasite always benefitted but the
host is always in harm.
Ectoparasite (live on the body of their host): Leech, ticks, lice, Cuscuta (amarbel) etc.
Endoparasite (live inside the body of their host): Taenia (Tape worm), Ascaris (Round worm),
Plasmodium etc. Thus, the micro-organism ‘Plasmodium’ (causes malaria disease) is a parasite.
Holozoic: The mode of nutrition in which animals take their complex food as a whole is called as
holozoic nutrition. In holozoic nutrition, food passes through five steps – ingestion (intake of food),
digestion (break down of complex food into simpler form), absorption (extraction of useful
components from food), assimilation (utilization of absorbed food components) and egestion
(removal of unwanted and undigested food components). e.g. almost all animals including human
beings and microorganisms (amoeba) etc.

NUTRITION IN PLANTS
Photosynthesis: Green plants are capable of manufacturing their own food in the form of
carbohydrate (glucose) in presence of light by using water and carbon-dioxide, this process is
called photosynthesis. Carbohydrates (glucose) provide energy to the plant and the ones not used
are stored in the form of starch. Starch is the reserve food of plants whereas reserve food in case
of animals in glycogen.
Mechanism of photosynthesis
During the process of photosynthesis, the following events occur:
1. Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
2. Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water molecules (hydrolysis) into
hydrogen and oxygen.
2H 2O → 4H+ + 4e– + O2
* The above processes are considered as light reaction as it can take place only in the presence of
light.
3. Reduction of carbon-dioxide to carbohydrates (glucose). This is also known as dark reaction as
it does not require light.
* Desert plants (like cactus) take up CO2 at night and prepare an intermediate which is acted upon
by the energy absorbed by the chlorophyll during the day.

Site of Photosynthesis: If you see the cross section of a leaf, you will find some green dots.
These green dots are cell organelles called chloroplasts which contain chlorophyll. Chlorophyll
containing organelles (chloroplasts) are found in large numbers in plant and algal cells. The
chloroplasts occur in mesophyll cells of the leaf.

Raw materials for photosynthesis

1. Carbon dioxide: It is a gas, which is released into the atmosphere during respiration by all
living organisms. This gas is utilized by autotrophic plants which enters the leaf through the
stomata present on its surface during the process of photosynthesis.
2. Water: It is another requirement for photosynthesis which is transported upward through xylem
tissues to the leaves. Some other elements such as N, P, Fe and Mg are also required by plants to
build their body is taken up from the soil along with water by roots.
3. Chlorophyll: It is a green pigment in plants which act as a catalyst. It is responsible for
absorption of sun’s energy. The chlorophyll pigments are photoreceptor molecules which play a
key role in the photosynthetic process. These are present in chloroplasts.
4. Light: It affects the rate of photosynthesis by its intensity, quality and duration. In green light,
the rate of photosynthesis is minimum, while in red and blue lights the rate of photosynthesis is
maximum. Rate of photosynthesis is higher in plants getting average light of 10-12 hrs a day.

Stomata
Stoma are tiny pores present on the surfaces of the leaves (more on the lower surface and less on
the upper surface). Each stoma is guarded by two bean or kidney shaped guard cells, which
control the opening and closing of the stomatal pore.
Opening and Closing of Stomatal Pore: The opening and closing of the stomata is the function
of guard cells. The guard cells swell when water flows into them from nearby cells causing the
stomatal pore to open. Similarly, the pore closes if the guard cells shrink when water flows back
into nearby cells. Since large amounts of water can also be lost through stomata the plant closes
these pores when it does not need CO2 for photosynthesis.
Functions of stomata
1. Stomata function in gas exchange (CO2 and O2) between the plant and the atmosphere during
photosynthesis.
2. Stomata help in transportation of water in plants by transpiration.
3. Stomata help to regulate the body temperature in plants.

NUTRITION IN ANIMALS
Nutrition In Amoeba: The mode of nutrition in Amoeba is holozoic and it is omnivorous. It feeds
on unicellular plants or animals. It engulfs the food particle using pseudopodia, the process is
called phagocytosis.
When Amoeba comes in contact with food particles, it makes temporary finger-like extensions of
the cell surface called pseudopodia around its prey (food) which engulf the prey (food) by forming
a food cup. When the tips of encircling pseudopodia touch each other, the food is encaptured into
a bag called food vacuole. The food vacuole serves as a temporary stomach secreting digestive
juice (enzymes) which digest the food in it. The digested food gets absorbed and diffuses into the
cytoplasm which get utilized by amoeba during various activities. Egestion of undigested food
takes place at any point on the surface of the body i.e. there is no fixed anus. When the food
vacuole opens outside, the egestion of undigested food takes place. So, amoeba has no fixed
point (mouth and anus) for ingestion and egestion.
Nutrition In Paramecium: Paramecium also exhibits holozoic nutrition just like amoeba but it has
fixed points (pores) for ingestion and egestion. Paramecium has hair like structures called cilia on
their entire body surface. The movements of these cilia help them to engulf the food through the
oral groove (pore). A food vacuole is created, enclosing the food. Undigested food is given out to a
tiny pore called an anal pore

Nutrition in Humans
Humans are omnivores, they can eat plant-based food as well as animal-based food.
Being more complex, humans have a very complicated nutrition system. Humans also exhibits
holozoic nutrition just like other animals. The digestive system of humans has an alimentary canal
and associated digestive glands.
Alimentary Canal: Alimentary canal in humans is a about 9 meters long tube of varying diameter.
It starts with the mouth and ends with the anus. It has the following parts: -
Mouth: It is the opening of the alimentary canal and helps in the ingestion of food.
The buccal cavity, which is present behind the mouth, is also commonly referred to as the mouth.
The buccal cavity has teeth and a tongue. The set of teeth helps in the mastication of food.
The tongue has taste buds on it and thus helps in tasting the food. The salivary glands also open
in the buccal cavity and pour saliva, which initiates the process of digestion. Both teeth and tongue
also help to mix saliva into the food.
Teeth - Teeth are the hard structures present in the buccal cavity. They help us to cut, shear and
masticate the food we eat. The vertical section of a tooth shows four layers enamel, dentine,
cement and dental pulp. Enamel is the outermost, shiny, highly mineralized and hardest part of the
human body. There are four types of teeth in humans, Incisors, canines, molars and premolars,
each with a specific function. Incisors cut the food, canines tear the food while molars and
premolars crush it. The dental formula in adult humans is 2:1:2:3.
Pharynx: It is a short, conical region that lies after the mouth cavity and connects it to the
oesophagus. Pharynx is the common passage for both food and air.
Oesophagus: It is a about 25 cm long, narrow, muscular tube which leads to the stomach. Its
function is to transport food (bolus) and fluid, after being swallowed, from the mouth to the
stomach through peristalsis. No digestive glands are present in the oesophagus so no digestion
takes place here. Peristalsis is a series of wave of contraction of muscles of the alimentary canal
that passes from one end to the other. This pushes the food forward. This movement helps to
push the food forward through the alimentary canal
Stomach: The stomach is a thick-walled and J-shaped bag-like structure. It lies below the
diaphragm on the left side of abdominal cavity. It receives food from the oesophagus at one end
and opens into the small intestine at the other end. The inner lining of the stomach secretes
mucous, hydrochloric acid and digestive juices. Food is churned into an acidic, semi-solid mass in
the stomach and is called chyme. The food is stored and partially digested in the stomach.
Role of HCl and mucus: Hydrochloric acid in the stomach is secreted by the gastric glands
present in its wall. The pH of gastric acid is usually between 1.5 to 3.5 which provides an acidic
medium for protein digestion and also kills bacteria entered through food and prevents infection.
This acid converts inactive pepsinogen and pro-rennin into active pepsin and rennin, respectively.
This acid prevents putrefaction of food in the stomach. A thick layer of mucus secreted by the
mucous glands of the stomach prevents itself from the action of gastric acid (HCl). Excess
acid can damage stomach wall and cause ulcer.
Small intestine: The small intestine is the longest part of the alimentary canal, about 20 feet
(7mtr) long and 2.5 cm in diameter. It originates from one end of the stomach and extends to the
large intestine. It is subdivided into three parts: the duodenum, the region which follows the
stomach; the jejunum is the middle part; and the ileum is the last part which continues further into
the large intestine. A common pancreatic duct from the pancreas and liver opens into the
duodenum. Most of the chemical digestion and absorption takes place in the small intestine. The
duodenum part of the small intestine is the main seat of digestion. The acidic chyme in the
duodenum receives the bile secreted from the liver, the pancreatic juice secreted from the
pancreas and the intestinal juice from the glands of the intestinal wall. The digested food, vitamins
and minerals are absorbed in this section. The inner lining of the small intestine is composed of
tiny, finger like projections called villi. Digested nutrients pass into the semipermeable villi through
diffusion. These villi increase the rate of absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream by greatly
increasing the surface area of the small intestine.
Large Intestine: The large intestine in humans is about 5 feet long. It is smaller but wider than
small intestine. It has three parts - caecum, colon and rectum. The region of the large intestine just
after the ileum is called the caecum, middle part is colon which has three regions, ascending
colon, transverse colon and descending colon, while the last part is called the rectum. Rectum
opens to the outside by the anus. The anus has internal and external anal sphincters (muscles)
which on contraction help in egestion. Caecum receives undigested food from small intestine
through ileum. The colon is responsible for the absorption of water and salts, whereas the rectum
stores the undigested food temporarily before defaecation (egestion). At the base of the ascending
colon, a small finger-like out-growth is seen and is called an appendix.

Digestive Glands and Physiology of Digestion

Salivary glands and digestion in mouth: Salivary glands are present in mouth (buccal cavity)
which secretes a liquid called saliva. Digestion of carbohydrates (starch) starts in the buccal cavity
itself, with the action of salivary amylase present in the saliva. Salivary amylase converts starch
into maltose. Mechanical digestion of food takes place in the buccal cavity where teeth masticate
the food, saliva gets mixed, and it turns into a bolus. Some other functions of saliva are: -
It lubricates and protects the soft and hard tissues of the oral cavity
It also gives protection from dental caries
Saliva prevents microbial growth in the oral cavity.
Saliva acts as a solvent in which solid particles get dissolved easily.
Gastric glands and digestion in stomach: These glands secrete gastric juice, which is acidic,
containing HCl, enzymes and mucus. In the stomach, the churning of food takes place due to the
muscular contraction and relaxation of its wall. It breaks down the food into simpler substances.
Digestion of proteins starts in the stomach with the action of pepsin. Proteins are broken down into
smaller fragments called peptides by the action of pepsin. The bolus, after mixing with gastric
juice, turns into a fine soluble form known as chyme.
Liver, pancreas and intestinal glands and digestion in small intestine
Chyme enters the small intestine, where complete digestion takes place due to the action of
various enzymes present in the pancreatic juice, bile and intestinal juice.
Liver is the largest and major digestive gland of humans. It is located just below diaphragm in the
upper right-hand portion of the abdomen. This organ is dark reddish-brown in colour due to an
extensive blood supply. It secretes bile which helps in digestion. Bile is a yellowish-green in colour,
bitter in taste, slightly alkaline fluid. Bile being alkaline in nature neutralises the acidic chyme. Bile
emulsifies fat into microscopic droplets and thus helps in the digestion and absorption of fat. So,
bile is called digestive juice though it does not contain enzyme. Liver also helps in detoxification.
The conversion of harmful ammonia to urea takes place in the liver.
Pancreas gland located below the stomach, secretes pancreatic juice into the duodenum through
the pancreatic duct. There are three enzymes namely pancreatic amylase, pancreatic lipase and
trypsin, in pancreatic juice that break down carbohydrates, fats, and proteins respectively.
Glands of intestine are present in the mucous layer of the intestinal wall. These glands secrete
intestinal juice, which contains various enzymes. These enzymes finally convert the carbohydrates
into glucose, proteins to amino acids and fats into fatty acids and glycerol. The digested food is
completely absorbed by the villi and microvilli of the small intestine.

RESPIRATION
Respiration broadly means the exchange of gases. At cellular level, it is a catabolic process in
which breakdown of complex organic compounds takes place and energy is released. Respiration
is an essential physiological activity of all living organisms by which they obtain energy for carrying
out all other metabolic activities of the body. Cellular respiration is set of metabolic reactions
occurring inside the cells to convert biochemical energy obtained from the food (glucose) into a
chemical compound called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The three phosphate bonds present in
the molecule are high-energy bonds, and when they are broken, a large amount of energy is
released. Such released energy is then used for other metabolic reactions. Therefore, it is said to
be the energy currency of the cell. Cellular respiration may take place in the presence or absence
of oxygen. There are two types of respiration:
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION: This type of respiration takes place in the absence of oxygen and is
generally found in the lower organisms (bacteria, yeast) and muscle cells. Anaerobic respiration by
yeast to produce alcohol is also known as fermentation which is used to make beverages (liquor).
AEROBIC RESPIRATION: This type of respiration takes place in the presence of oxygen and is
generally found in the almost all higher animals including human beings and plants.

[Link]. Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration

1. Takes place in presence of Takes place in absence of oxygen
oxygen
2. Complete breakdown of food Partial breakdown of food takes place
takes place
3. Food gets converted into Food can be converted into either ethanol and CO 2 (as in yeast) or
CO2 and water. in lactic acid (as in animal muscles)
4. 38 molecules of ATP are 2 molecules of ATP are produced.
produced

Respiration in Muscles: Respiration in muscles can be anaerobic when there is not enough
oxygen. Glucose gets broken down into carbon dioxide and lactic acid. This results in the
accumulation of lactic acid that makes the muscles sore (pain). This type of anaerobic respiration
is also known as lactic acid fermentation.

Organs and modes of respiration in animals

Skin: Skin functions as respiratory surface. For such respiration, skin is thin, porous, moist and
vascular. e.g. Earthworm, Frog etc. Respiration through skin is called as cutaneous respiration.

Trachea (air tubes): Tracheal system is present in insects (grasshopper, cockroach, housefly).
Exchange of gases takes place through trachea (air tubes). Air enters the body through small
pores called spiracles which leads into trachea (air tubes). Respiration through trachea (air tubes)
is called tracheal respiration.
Gills: Exchange of gases takes place through gills. as in aquatic animals like fish and prawn.
Respiration through gills is called branchial respiration.
Lungs: It occurs with the help of lungs as in terrestrial (land) animals like frog, lizard, birds, rat,
humans etc. Respiration through lungs is called pulmonary respiration. Frog can respire through
skin, lungs and buccal cavity.
In lower animals like amoeba, sponges etc., no specialised organs are present for gaseous
exchange. It occurs by diffusion through the body surface which is called cell surface respiration.
In these organisms no specific organ is there for exchange of gases because the entire surface of
these organism is in direct contact with the environment.

All respiratory organs whether skin, trachea, gills or lungs have three common features:
1. All the respiratory organs have a large surface area so as to get enough oxygen.
2. All have thin walls for easy diffusion and exchange of respiratory gases.
3. The respiratory organs like the skin, gills and lungs have a rich blood supply for transport of
gases. In the tracheal system, air reaches cells directly and blood plays no role in the transport of
gases.

Respiration in aquatic animals: Aquatic animals like fishes use dissolved O2 in water. Since the
amount of O2 in water is fairly low as compared to the amount of O2 in the air, the rate of breathing
in aquatic organisms is much faster than that seen in terrestrial (land) organisms. Fishes take in
water through their mouths and force it to past the gills where the dissolved O 2 is taken up by
blood. Fish release CO2 into water. For this exchange, they have special respiratory organs called
gills. Gills are thin, moist membranous structures that are richly supplied with blood. So, a very
large surface area is provided for gaseous exchange when the gills are immersed in water.

Respiration in Humans (Human Respiratory System)

Respiration in human beings is a very complex process and involves:
Breathing: It is a physical process which involves intake (inhalation) of fresh air (having more O 2)
from the environment and removal (exhalation) of foul air (having more CO2) from the body.
Cellular respiration: It is a biochemical process, takes place in each and every cell, where food in
oxidized in order to release energy.

Many organs take part in the process of respiration in human beings. The main organs of human
respiratory system are:
Nose and nostrils, nasal cavity (nasal passage), pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles,
alveoli and lungs.
Nose and nostrils: The external part of the nose bears two nostrils separated by a cartilaginous
septum. In the nostrils, hairs are present which prevent large particles from entering the
respiratory system. So, filtration of air takes place here. Nostrils also help in detecting odour
through their sensory cells.
Nasal passage (nasal cavity): From the nostrils, air travels through the nasal cavities or
chambers. The nasal chambers are lined with glands which secrete mucous. The nasal chambers
perform following functions:
· Warm the air.
· Add moisture to the air for easy diffusion.
· The mucous entraps the dust, micro organisms and harmful particles; thus, cleaning the air.
Pharynx: The pharynx is a cavity at the back of the mouth, and the nasal cavity opens into it. So,
it is a common passage for food and air. From the nasal cavity, air enters into pharynx and then
into trachea (wind pipe) through a slit (opening) called glottis. The glottis gets covered by a small
cartilaginous flap-like structure called epiglottis. Epiglottis, thus, prevents the entry of food into the
wind pipe at the time of swallowing of food. The pharynx opens into larynx.
Larynx (voice box): Popularly called “Adam’s apple”, it is a hollow cartilaginous structure leading
into the trachea. The larynx contains two ligamentous folds called vocal cords. Vocal cords vibrate
to produce sound resulting in speech.
Trachea (wind pipe): Larynx opens into a long tube called trachea which is supported by
incomplete C shaped cartilaginous rings. These rings provide the flexibility and strength to trachea
and prevent its collapse when there is not much air in it. Trachea runs in front of oesophagus and
after reaching thoracic cavity (chest cavity) divides into right and left bronchi (singular bronchus).
These bronchi enter the lungs of their respective side and divide further into many branches to
make a network of small, narrow tubes. These tubes on further division form more narrow tubes
called bronchioles which ends into tiny air sacs (air bags) called alveoli.
Lungs (Respiratory organ)
The main respiratory organs in human beings are lungs which lie in the thoracic cavity one on
either side of the heart. The cavity is separated from abdominal cavity by a dome shaped
muscular partition called diaphragm. Lungs are soft, spongy and of pinkish colour which are
covered by a protective layer called pleura. Lungs also get an extra protection from ribs and
vertebral column. The trachea divides into two bronchi in lungs. Each lung has a network of
bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli called bronchial tree. Alveoli (unit of lungs) are balloon-like
structures which provides a surface where exchange of gases takes place. The walls of alveoli are
very thin and contains an extensive network of blood vessels. These alveoli provide large surface
area for easy and maximum exchange of gases.

Mechanism (physiology) of Breathing in Human:

Breathing is facilitated by the action of internal intercostal and external intercostal muscles
attached to the ribs and the diaphragm. To maintain a high metabolic rate, humans require more
oxygen. Rate of breathing under normal conditions is 15 to 18 times per minute. During vigorous
exercise, rate increases by about 20 to 25 times.
Inhalation (Breathing in): This is an energy requiring process. Contraction of intercostals
muscles and diaphragm (which becomes flat) results in the movement of ribs outwards and
upwards. This action increases the volume of thoracic cavity, thus increasing the lung volume. It
reduces air pressure in the lungs as compared to atmospheric pressure. So, air rushes into the
lungs through air passage, i.e., from high pressure (outside) to low pressure (inside).
Exhalation (Breathing out): Due to relaxation of intercostals muscles and diaphragm, the ribs
return to their original position and diaphragm becomes dome-shaped. It reduces the volume of
thoracic cavity and lungs which returns to their original position. This action decreases the volume
of thoracic cavity, thus decreasing the lung volume. It increases air pressure in the lungs as
compared to atmospheric pressure. So, air rushes out of the lungs through air passage, i.e., from
high pressure (inside) to low pressure (outside).

Mechanism of Exchange of Gases

Exchange of Gases in Alveoli
Blood rich in carbon dioxide, i.e., the deoxygenated blood enters the capillary network of alveoli.
After inhalation, alveoli have a higher concentration of O2 and lower concentration of CO2 than in
the blood capillaries. Therefore, O2 diffuses into the blood capillaries and combines with
haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin which get transported throughout the body. CO2 from blood
capillaries diffuses out into the alveolar air.
Exchange of Gase in Tissues
In cells (tissue), metabolism of glucose and other substances takes place which results in the
utilisation of O2 and production of CO2. As a result, the concentration of oxygen in the cells and
tissue fluid decreases while the concentration of CO2 increases than in the blood capillaries.
Therefore, oxyhaemoglobin breaks down releasing O2 which diffuses out from the blood capillaries
into the cells and tissue fluid.

Need of lungs in higher animals

In unicellular organisms and lower animals, the gaseous exchange takes place through their cell
surface or moist skin. The requirement for oxygen is sufficiently met in these ways. But as the
animal starts becoming more and more complex, for example, humans, the requirement for
oxygen cannot be met alone by diffusion. Because diffusion is very slow process. Moreover,
diffusion will not be able to supply oxygen to the deep-seated cells. This difficulty has led to the
evolution of a more complex mechanism of gaseous exchange, and that is the development of
lungs.

Respiration and Gaseous Exchange in Plants

Unlike animals and humans, plants do not have any specialized structures for gaseous exchange.
Plants also need energy for their various metabolic activities. This energy is obtained through the
process of respiration which takes place in all parts of a plant like roots, stem and leaf. Compared
to animals, respire at a very lower rate. Exchange of gases in roots take place by the process of
diffusion. Oxygen, present in soil diffuses into the root hair and passes into the root cells, from
where carbon dioxide moves out into the soil. In woody plants, bark has lenticels (air cavities) for
gaseous exchange in between environment and plant calls. In leaves, respiration takes place
through stomata by diffusion of oxygen into cells of the leaf and carbon dioxide is released into the
atmosphere.

TRANPORTATION
All living organisms need various components like air, water, and food for their survival. On a regular basis,
animals ensure these elements by breathing, drinking and eating. The required elements are transported to
their body cells and tissues by a transportation system. In plants, the vascular tissue is responsible for
transporting the substances.

Transportation in Humans (Circulatory System)

Transportation in humans is done by the circulatory system. Its main function is transport of
nutrients to the tissues and removal of waste products. The material transported through
circulatory system include water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, vitamins, hormones and waste
products. The circulatory system in humans mainly consists of blood, blood vessels and the heart.

Blood: Blood is a fluid connective tissue having fluid matrix called plasma with blood cells, floating
in it. It is bright red-coloured fluid that circulates in the entire body. The volume of blood is about 6
litre in adult human body.
Composition of Blood
Blood contains three different kinds of cells or corpuscles present in a liquid matrix
called plasma. Blood cells are manufactured in the bone marrow from stem cells.
Plasma: Plasma is the liquid part of the blood which contains 90 - 92% water. It also contains
several salts, glucose, proteins, amino acids, fats, enzymes, hormones, antibodies and also
digested and excretory products of food.
Blood Cells: These are of three types.
Red Blood Cells (erythrocytes): These are the most abundant cells present in blood. These are
red in colour due to the presence of pigment called haemoglobin, which is a protein with iron in its
molecule. Haemoglobin helps in the transportation of oxygen. It combines with oxygen to forms an
unstable compound called oxyhaemoglobin. A red blood cell lasts for about four months, after
which it breaks down and is disintegrated in the liver or spleen.
White Blood Cells (leucocytes): They are much fewer in number than the RBCs these cells do
not possess haemoglobin. They are larger than the RBCs in size. Their main function is to defend
the body against any infection or disease. WBCs produce antibodies which are responsible for
providing immunity. WBCs also ingest and destroy bacteria and dead cells by engulfing and
digesting them.
Platelets (thrombocytes): They are colourless, non - nucleated, irregular-shaped fragments of
cells, with a very short life span of 3 - 5 days. They help in the clotting of blood.
Blood vessels: There are three types of blood vessels - arteries, veins and capillaries, connected
to form a continuous system.
Arteries: Thes are wide vessels which carry blood from the heart to different organs of the body.
They are thick-walled, muscular and elastic, and deep seated in the body. The arteries divide into
smaller vessels, called arterioles, which themselves divide repeatedly to form a dense network of
more narrow and microscopic vessels called capillaries.
Capillaries: these are narrow vessels with thin and permeable walls. Through these, oxygen,
carbon dioxide, dissolved food and excretory products are exchanged with the tissues around the
capillary. Capillaries unite into larger vessels called venules, which join to form veins.
Veins: These carry blood from different organs to the heart. The blood pressure in them is steady
and is less than the pressure in the arteries. They are wider and have thinner walls then the
arteries. They also have valves in them which permit unidirectional flow of blood and thus prevent
blood flowing away from the heart.

The heart
Structure of heart: Heart is a muscular pumping organ. The adult human heart is about the size
of a closed fist. It is located in the chest cavity just above the diaphragm. It is covered and by a
protected layer called pericardium. A pericardial fluid is present between the heart wall and
pericardium. The heart is made called cardiac muscle. The heart consists of four chambers. The
upper two chambers constitute the right and left auricles or atria (signal atrium) and the lower two
chambers form the right and left ventricles. The auricles are relatively thin-walled in comparison to
the ventricles which have much thicker walls. The right and left sides are separated by a partition
called septum which prevents mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. Opening of right
atrium into right ventricle is guarded by tricuspid valve. Similarly opening of left atrium into left
ventricle is guarded by bicuspid valve. These valves permit the flow of blood from atrium to
ventricle and not in the reverse direction.
Working of the heart (Mechanism of circulation): In higher animals, separation of the right side
and left side of the heart is useful as it does not allow oxygenated and deoxygenated blood to mix.
Such separation allows a highly efficient supply of oxygen to the body because these animals
have high energy needs. They constantly use energy to maintain their body temperature. Hence
the heart is four chambered in birds and mammals. Thus, the working of human heart is as
follows:
1. The oxygenated blood from lungs comes left atrium through pulmonary veins.
2. The de-oxygenated blood comes to right atrium through two large veins called superior and
inferior vena cava.
3. When the left and the right atrium contracts, the oxygenated and deoxygenated blood reaches
the respective ventricles through bicuspid and tricuspid valves respectively.
4. Left ventricle on contraction sends oxygenated blood to body through the largest artery called
aorta. The aorta further sends blood to all the body parts. While the right ventricle on contraction
pumps the blood into lungs for oxygenation (purification) through pulmonary artery.

In this way, deoxygenated blood comes to the heart; it is oxygenated in the lungs and brought
back to the heart. From the heart, oxygenated blood is distributed to all parts of the body. As the
blood flows twice through the heart, it is called double circulation. Once it goes through the heart
during pulmonary circulation and a second time during systemic circulation.
 Flow chart showing double circulation

Electrocardiogram: The functioning of heart can be graphically recorded by an instrument

called electrocardiogram (ECG). The heart muscles generate electric currents which bring about
heart beats. The electrical changes during heart beat can be graphically recorded by placing
electrodes on the chest above the heart and connecting the electrodes to a sensitive
galvanometer with a recording device.

Pacemaker: In some heart patients, the heart does not beat normally. The muscle cells stop
functioning. In such patients, a machine called pace maker is inserted in the chest near patient’s
heart, so that heart beats normally.

Blood pressure: It is the pressure (force) that blood exerts against the wall of blood vessels. This
pressure is much greater in arteries than in veins. Blood pressure is measured using an
instrument called sphygmomanometer. The pressure of blood inside arteries during contraction of
heart is called systolic blood pressure while pressure in artery during relaxation of heart is
called diastolic blood pressure. The normal systolic blood pressure is about 120 mm of Hg and
diastolic blood pressure is 80 mm of Hg.

Lymph: It is another type of fluid which also helps in transportation. It is similar to the plasma of
blood but colourless and contains very less proteins. This is formed by passage of some fluid from
blood capillaries into intercellular spaces in the tissue through the pores present in the walls of
capillaries. Lymph present within the lymph vessels and the lymphatic organs (e.g., spleen and
tonsils). The major functions of lymph are:

● It carries digested and absorbed fat from intestine into blood.

● It drains excess fluid from extra cellular space back into the blood.
● It provides immunity to the body.

Transportation In Plants
Transport system in plants is less elaborate than in animals. So, the only substances which are to
be supplied to a plant through a transport system are water and minerals. Another job of the
transport system of plants is to transport food prepared in the leaves to the various parts of the
plants like stems, roots, etc. The main conducting tissues in plants are xylem and phloem.

Transport of water
The water and dissolved minerals move from the roots to other parts of the plants through the two
types of elements of the xylem tissue called xylem vessels and tracheids. Xylem vessels and
tracheids are both non-living conducting tissues which have thick walls. In xylem tissue, vessels
and tracheids of the roots, stems and leaves are interconnected to form a continuous system of
water-conducting channels reaching all plant parts.
MECHANISM OF TRANSPORT OF WATER AND MINERALS IN A PLANT

● The plants take in water (containing dissolved minerals) from the soil through their roots.
This water (containing minerals) called sap is carried by the xylem vessels to all the parts of
the plant.
● The roots of a plant have hair called root hairs. The function of root hairs is to absorb water
and minerals from the soil by the process of diffusion and reach the root xylem.
● The xylem vessels of the root of the plant are connected to the xylem vessels of its stem.
So, the water (containing dissolved minerals) enters from the root xylem vessels into stem
xylem vessels. The xylem vessels of the stem branch into the leaves of the plants. So, the
water and minerals carried by the xylem vessels in the stem reach into each and every part
of the leaf.
● This creates a continuous column of water that gets pushed upwards due to root pressure.
Transpiration contributes to the upward movement of water by creating a straw effect which
pulls the water column upwards as there is a continuous loss of water from leaves.
Thus, the two driving forces for the transport of water in the xylem are:
∙ Root pressure (more important at night)
∙ Transpiration pull.

Transpiration: Transpiration is a biological process in which water is lost in the form of water
vapour from the aerial parts of the plants. This process occurs mainly through the stomata, where
the exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) occurs.
Importance of transpiration
(i) Ascent of Sap: It is the upward movement of cell sap, i.e. water and minerals through the xylem
and excess of water is then lost in the form of water vapours after preparation of food.
(ii) Removal of Excess of Water: Transpiration helps to remove excess of water.
(iii) Cooling effect: It helps to regulate the temperature of plant since evaporation reduces
temperature.

Transport of food substances (Translocation)

The transportation of nutrients and sugar, like carbohydrates, produced by the leaves to different parts of
the plant by phloem is known as translocation. Sieve tubes and companion cells are the main conducting
components of phloem. The translocation of food (sucrose) and other substances takes place in the
sieve tubes with the help of adjacent companion cells both in upward and downward directions.
The translocation in phloem is achieved by utilizing energy. Materials like sucrose (carbohydrate)
are transferred into phloem which increases the osmotic pressure of the tissue causing water to
move into it. Thus, material in the phloem with high pressure moves to tissues with low pressure.
In this process food from source tissues (leaves) get transported to the sink tissues (area of
growth and storage).

EXCRETION
The process of removal of toxic wastes from the body of an organism is called excretion. The
process of maintaining the right amount of water and proper ionic balance in the body is
called osmoregulation.

Excretion in animals
In different animals, different organs of excretion are present. These are as follows:

● In Amoeba and other single celled animals, contractile vacuole serves the function of
excretion and osmoregulation. The waste materials and excess water are removed by the
process of diffusion with the help of a contractile vacuole
● In sponges, the waste materials diffuse out of the body through the osculum.
● In animals like Hydra (belonging to, the oral opening serves as the excretory organ.
● In flatworms, excretory structures are single cells called flame cells.
 ● In earthworm, excretory organs consist of tubular structures called nephridia.
● In human beings, kidneys are the excretory organs.

EXCRETION IN HUMAN BEINGS

Various organs are present in human to get rid of wastes.
1. Lungs - Carbon dioxide and water vapor produced during respiration are removed by lungs
during through exhalation.
2. Skin - Many salts, excess water, some amount of urea and other substances are excreted by
means of sweat glands present in the skin.
3. Liver - For removing urea, bile pigments and toxins, liver is the largest gland in the body and is
a detoxifying gland. It removes these excretory products through kidneys.
4. Kidneys - For excretion of liquid wastes, such as urine; the kidneys are part of a set of organs
known as the urinary system.

EXCRETORY SYSTEM IN HUMANS

Excretory system consists of the following organs.

● A pair of kidneys
● A pair of Ureters
● Urinary bladder
● Urethra.

Kidneys: Kidneys are bean- shaped structures, about 10 centimetres which are located just above
the waist on either side of the backbone. The right kidney is placed slightly above the left. kidneys
are the main excretory organs of the body. Each kidney is made of a large number of excretory units
or filtration units called nephrons. Renal artery brings blood along with excretory wastes (urine)
into the kidney and after filtration renal vein brings back purified blood out of the kidney.
Ureters: A long and narrow tube called the ureter runs from the inner side of each kidney. The
ureters, in turn, are connected to a large sac called the urinary bladder. Ureter collect urine from
kidney and transport it into the urinary bladder.
Urinary bladder: It is a muscular bag-like structure where urine is collected and stored.
Urethra: This muscular tube arises from urinary bladder and helps to expel urine out of the body
so, works as the outlet passage. The end of the urethra is normally held closed muscles
(sphincter), which controls the release of urine from the bladder. In males, urethra act as a
common passage for both urine and sperm.

Nephron
These are the structural and functional units of kidney. Each nephron consists of two parts - a
rounded, cup-shaped body called the Bowman’s capsule, and the tubular part or renal tubule.
Bowman’s capsule contains a bundle of capillaries called glomerulus. These blood capillaries arise
from the artery, which brings waste and excess water from body to kidney. The function of
glomerulus is to filter the blood passing through it. Bowman’s capsule leads into the renal tubule
which is highly coiled. The renal tubule has regions called a proximal convoluted tubule (PCT),
Loop of Henle and distal convoluted tubule (DCT). The collecting tubules of many nephrons join to
form the collecting duct. The function of tubular part of nephron is to allow the selective
reabsorption of extra water and other useful substances like glucose, amino acids, salts, minerals
etc., back into the blood capillaries.

Kidneys perform crucial functions like:

1. Filtration of waste materials and toxic substances from the blood.
2. It helps in osmoregulation.
3. Regulation of pH.
4. Regulation of extracellular fluid volume.
5. It secrets hormones that help produce red blood cells promotes bone health and regulates
blood pressure.
Formation of urine
1. The waste material is brought to kidneys by the renal arteries.
2. Blood is filtered, from the blood capillaries into Bowman’s capsule.
3. As this filtrate passes through the tubular parts of nephron, some useful products, such as
glucose, amino acids, salts and major amount (as required by the body) of water are selectively
reabsorbed by blood capillaries surrounding the nephron.
4. The nephrons drain the remaining liquid waste (urine) into the collecting duct which eventually
enters a long tube, the ureter. Human urine contains water and nitrogenous substances, most of
which is urea.

Micturition: This is a process where urine is expelled out from the body and also known as
urination. The bladder is muscular, so it is under nervous control. As a result, we can usually
control the urge to urinate. The bladder stretches and expands in volume as it fills with urine.
When it is nearly full, its walls send massage to the brain. This is how a person knows when his
bladder must be emptied. The sphincter muscles around the urethra are then voluntarily relaxed to
release urine out from the body through urethra.

Haemodialysis: When the kidneys fail, it results in a lot of complications, and to compensate for
this situation, a technology called dialysis has been developed.
It uses a machine filter called a dialyzer or artificial kidney.
This is to remove excess water and salt, balance other electrolytes in the body and remove waste
products of metabolism.
Blood from the body is removed and flows through a series of tubes made up of a semipermeable
membrane.
A dialysate flows on the other side of the membrane, which draws impurities through the
membrane

EXCRETION IN PLANTS
Plants use completely different strategies for excretion than those of animals. Some of the
important plant wastes and the methods by which they are removed are as follows:
1. The gaseous waste products are CO2 and O2 produced as a result of respiration and
photosynthesis respectively. These gaseous wastes are removed through stomata in leaves and
lenticels in stem which are released in air.
2. Plants get rid of excess water by the process of transpiration.
3. Organic by-products generated by the plant are stored in different forms in different parts. The
gums, oils, latex, resins, etc., are some waste products stored in plant parts like bark, stems,
leaves, etc. Plants get rid of above wastes by shedding off these parts.
4. Plants also excrete some waste substances into the soil around them.