Principles of Communication System Module-3

MODULE-3
Frequency Modulation
Explain the principles of frequency modulation with waveforms and equations.

 The frequency of the carrier wave is changed according to the amplitude of the
message signal by keeping amplitude and phase of the carrier constant is
known as frequency modulation.
 Therefore, information is transmitted by the frequency variation in the case of
FM. The amount of change in carrier frequency produced by the modulating
signal is known as the frequency deviation fd.
 Initially when the amplitude of the modulating signal is minimum during its
positive half cycle, then the frequency of the modulated signal is somewhat
similar to the carrier wave.
 With the increase in the amplitude of the message signal the frequency of the
carrier wave increases.
 As the amplitude of the message signal starts decreasing, frequency of the
carrier wave decreases.
 Modulating Signal

 Carrier wave

 In FM, the frequency changes according to the modulating voltage. Hence,

instantaneous frequency is given as,

Here, Δf (fd) denotes the frequency deviation.

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Principles of Communication System Module-3

Principles of Phase Modulation

 When the amount of phase shift of a constant-frequency carrier is varied in
accordance with a modulating signal, the resulting output is a phase modulation (PM)
signal
 The greater the amplitude of the modulating signal, the greater the phase shift.
 positive alternations of the modulating signal produce a lagging phase shift and
negative signals produce a leading phase shift.
 the maximum rate of change of modulating voltage occurs exactly at the zero crossing
points. In contrast, note that in an FM wave the maximum deviation occurs at the
peak positive and negative amplitude of the modulating voltage.

A frequency shift occurs in PM only when the modulating signal amplitude varies.
(a) Modulating signal. (b) FM signal. (c) PM signal.

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With neat diagram explain converting a phase modulated signal into frequency
modulated signal
 To make PM compatible with FM, the deviation produced by frequency variations in
the modulating signal must be compensated for. This can be done by passing the
intelligence signal through a low-pass RC network

 This low-pass filter, called a frequency-correcting network, predistorter, or 1/f filter,

causes the higher modulating frequencies to be attenuated.
 the higher modulating frequencies produce a greater rate of change and thus a greater
frequency deviation
 The predistorter compensates for the excess frequency deviation caused by higher
modulating frequencies. The result is an output that is the same as an FM signal.
 The FM produced by a phase modulator is called indirect FM

Modulation index and sidebands

Sidebands
 When a constant-frequency sine wave modulates a carrier, two side frequencies are
produced.
 The side frequencies are the sum and difference of the carrier and the modulating
frequency.
 In FM a large number of pairs of upper and lower sidebands are generated. As a result,
the spectrum of an FM signal is wider than that of AM signal.
 If the modulating frequency is 1 kHz, the first pair of sidebands is above and below the
carrier by 1000 Hz and so on.
 Note that the amplitudes of the sidebands also vary. If amplitudes of all the sine waves
are added, then FM signal is created.
 As the amplitude of the modulating signal varies, the frequency deviation changes.
 The number of sidebands produced, and their amplitude and spacing, depends on the
frequency deviation and modulating frequency.
 FM signal has a constant amplitude. Since an FM signal is a summation of the sideband
frequencies.
 Sidebands with the largest amplitudes are significant in carrying the information.

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Principles of Communication System Module-3

Fig: Frequency spectrum of an FM signal. The amplitudes depend upon the modulation index mf

Modulation index (mf)

 The ratio of the frequency deviation to the modulating frequency is known as the
modulation index or deviation ratio.

OR
Where, fd = frequency deviation
fm = modulating frequency.
 For example, if the maximum frequency deviation of the carrier is ±12 kHz and the
maximum modulating frequency is 2.5 kHz, the modulating index is
mf = 12/2.5 = 4.8

Problem:
What is the deviation ratio of TV sound if the maximum deviation is 25 kHz and the
maximum modulating frequency is 15 kHz?

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Principles of Communication System Module-3

Determine 𝑽𝑭𝑴 = 𝑽𝑪 𝐬𝐢𝐧⁡(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝒎𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒎 𝒕) in terms of Bessel functions. Write the

amplitude of sideband frequencies (Jn) in terms of modulation index (mf)
 Given the modulation index, the number and amplitudes of the significant sidebands
can be determined by solving the basic equation of an FM signal.
 The FM equation 𝑽𝑭𝑴 = 𝑽𝑪 𝐬𝐢𝐧⁡(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝒎𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒎 𝒕)
where VFM is the instantaneous value of the FM signal and mf is the modulation
index.
 This equation is solved with a complex mathematical process known as Bessel
functions.

 The FM wave is expressed as a composite of sine waves of different frequencies and

amplitudes that, when added, give an FM time-domain signal.
 The first term is the carrier with an amplitude given by a Jn coefficient, in this case
J0.
 The next term represents a pair of upper and lower side frequencies equal to the sum
and difference of the carrier and modulating signal frequency.
 The amplitudes of the sidebands are determined by the Jn coefficients, which are, in
turn, determined by the value of the modulation index. These amplitude coefficients
are computed by using the expression

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Principles of Communication System Module-3

FM Signal Bandwidth
 Higher the modulation index in FM, the greater the number of significant sidebands
and the wider the bandwidth of the signal.
 When spectrum conservation is necessary, the bandwidth of an FM signal can be
restricted by putting an upper limit on the modulation index.
 The total bandwidth of an FM signal can be determined by knowing the modulation
index and using Bessel functions.
 For example, assume that the highest modulating frequency of a signal is 3 kHz and
the maximum deviation is 6 kHz. This gives a modulation index of mf = 6 kHz/3 kHz
=2
 Referring to Bessel functions table this produces four significant pairs of sidebands.
 The bandwidth can then be determined with the simple formula

where N is the number of significant sidebands in the signal.

 Another way to determine the bandwidth of an FM signal is to use Carson’s rule.

Problem:
What is the maximum bandwidth of an FM signal with a deviation of 30 kHz and a
maximum of modulating signal of 5 kHz. Determine
(a) Modulation index (MI)
(b) Bandwidth by Carson’s rule

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Principles of Communication System Module-3

(c) Bandwidth if number of sidebands N=9

c. Nine significant sidebands spaced 5 kHz apart for mf = 6.

BW = 2fmN = 2(5 kHz)*9 = 90 kHz

Explain the noise suppression effects of frequency modulated signal with necessary
waveform

 Noise is interference generated by lightning, motors, automotive ignition systems, and

any power line switching that produces transient signals. Such noise is typically narrow
spikes of voltage with very high frequencies. They add to a signal and interfere with it.
 The potential effect of such noise on an FM signal is shown in above Fig.
 If the noise signals were strong enough, they could completely obliterate the
information signal.
 FM signals, however, have a constant modulated carrier amplitude, and FM receivers
contain limiter circuits that deliberately restrict the amplitude of the received signal.
 Any amplitude variations occurring on the FM signal are effectively clipped off, as
shown in Fig.

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Principles of Communication System Module-3

 This does not affect the information content of the FM signal, since it is contained solely
within the frequency variations of the carrier. Because of the clipping action of the
limiter circuits, noise is almost completely eliminated.
 Even if the peaks of the FM signal itself are clipped or flattened and the resulting signal
is distorted, no information is lost.
 The process of demodulating or recovering an FM signal actually suppresses noise and
improves the signal-to-noise ratio.

Frequency Modulation Versus Amplitude Modulation

Advantages of FM
 Noise Immunity: The main benefit of FM over AM is its superior immunity to noise,
made possible by the clipper limiter circuits in the receiver, which effectively strip off
all the noise variations, leaving a constant-amplitude FM signal.
 Capture Effect: Another major benefit of FM is that interfering signals on the same
frequency are effectively rejected. Because of the amplitude limiters and the
demodulating methods used by FM receivers, a phenomenon known as the capture
effect takes place when two or more FM signals occur simultaneously on the same
frequency. If one signal is more than twice the amplitude of the other, the stronger
signal captures the channel, totally eliminating the weaker signal.
 Transmitter Efficiency: FM signals have a constant amplitude, and it is therefore not
necessary to use linear amplifiers to increase their power level. In fact, FM signals are
always generated at a lower level and then amplified by a series of class C amplifiers
to increase their power. The result is greater use of available power because of the
high level of efficiency of class C amplifiers.
Disadvantages of FM
 Excessive Spectrum Use: it simply uses too much spectrum space. The bandwidth of
an FM signal is, in general, considerably wider than that of an AM signal transmitting
similar information.
 Circuit Complexity: One major disadvantage of FM in the past involved the
complexity of the circuits used for frequency modulation and demodulation in
comparison with the simple circuits used for amplitude modulation and demodulation.

With neat block diagram explain the concept of frequency modulation with an IC
voltage controlled oscillator IC NE566
 Oscillators whose frequencies are controlled by an external input voltage are generally
referred to as voltage-controlled oscillators (VCOs).
 Fig. (a) is a block diagram of one widely used IC VCO, the popular NE566.
 External resistor R1 at pin 6 sets the value of current produced by the internal current
sources.
 The current sources linearly charge and discharge external capacitor C1 at pin 7.

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Principles of Communication System Module-3

Frequency modulation with an IC VCO. (a) Block diagram with an IC VCO.

(b) Basic frequency modulator using the NE566 VCO.

 An external voltage VC applied at pin 5 is used to vary the amount of current produced
by the current sources.
 The Schmitt trigger circuit is a level detector that controls the current source by
switching between charging and discharging when the capacitor charges or discharges
to a specific voltage level.
 A linear sawtooth of voltage is developed across the capacitor by the current source.
This is buffered by an amplifier and made available at pin 4.
 The Schmitt trigger output is a square wave at the same frequency available at pin 3. If
a sine wave output is desired, the triangular wave is usually filtered with a tuned circuit
resonant to the desired carrier frequency.
 A complete frequency modulator circuit using the NE566 is shown in Fig. (b).
 The current sources are biased with a voltage divider made up of R2 and R3. The
modulating signal is applied through C2 to the voltage divider at pin 5.
 The 0.001-μF capacitor between pins 5 and 6 is used to prevent unwanted oscillations.
 The centre carrier frequency of the circuit is set by the values of R1 and C1. Carrier
frequencies up to 1 MHz may be used with this IC.

Explain the demodulation process of frequency modulator using slope detector

Slope detector operation.

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Principles of Communication System Module-3

 The simplest frequency demodulator, the slope detector, makes use of a tuned circuit
and a diode detector to convert frequency variations to voltage variations.
 The FM signal is applied to transformer T1 made up of L1 and L2. Together L2 and
C1 form a series resonant circuit.
 The signal voltage induced into L2 appears in series with L2 and C1 and the output
voltage is taken from across C1.
 The response curve of this tuned circuit is shown in Fig. (b).
 Note that at the resonant frequency fr the voltage across C1 peaks. At lower or higher
frequencies, the voltage falls off.
 As the carrier frequency varies above and below its center frequency, the tuned circuit
responds as shown in the figure.
 If the frequency goes lower than the carrier frequency, the output voltage across C1
decreases.
 If the frequency goes higher, the output across C1 goes higher. Thus, the ac voltage
across C1 is proportional to the frequency of the FM signal.
 The voltage across C1 is rectified into dc pulses that appear across the load R1.
 These are filtered into a varying dc signal that is an exact reproduction of the original
modulating signal.

Phase Locked Loop.

A phase-locked loop (PLL) is a frequency- or phase-sensitive feedback control circuit
used in frequency demodulation, frequency synthesizers, and various filtering and signal
detection applications.

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All phase-locked loops have the three basic elements

1. A phase detector is used to compare the FM input, sometimes referred to as the
reference signal, to the output of a VCO.
2. The VCO frequency is varied by the dc output voltage from a low-pass filter.
3. The low-pass filter smoothes the output of the phase detector into a control voltage
that varies the frequency of the VCO.

 The phase detector compares the two input signals and generate an output signal.
 If there is a phase or frequency difference between the FM input and VCO signals, the
phase detector output varies in proportion to the difference.
 The filtered output adjusts the VCO frequency in an attempt to correct for the original
frequency or phase difference.
 This dc control voltage, called the error signal, is also the feedback in this circuit.
 At some point, the error voltage causes the VCO frequency to equal the input
frequency; when this happens, the PLL is said to be in a locked condition.

Explain with neat circuit diagram of FM demodulator using IC 565

 Fig. is a block diagram of an IC PLL, the 565. The 565 is connected as an FM

demodulator.

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Principles of Communication System Module-3

 The numbers on the connections are the pin numbers on the 565 IC, which is housed in
a standard 14-pin dual-in-line package (DIP). The circuit is powered by ±12V power
supplies.
 The low-pass filter is made up of a 3.6-kΩ resistor inside the 565 that terminates at pin
7.
 A 0.1-μF external capacitor C2 completes the filter. Note that the recovered original
modulating signal is taken from the filter output.
 The free-running frequency of the VCO (f0) is set by external components R1 and C1
according to the formula f0 = 1.2/4R1C1 = 1.2/4(2700)(0.01 × 10-6 ) = 11,111 Hz or
11.11 kHz.
 The lock range fL can be computed with an expression supplied by the manufacturer
for this circuit fL = 16f0/VS, where VS is the total supply voltage.
 VS is the sum of the two 12-V supplies, or 24 V, so the total lock range centered on the
free-running frequency is fL = 16(11.11 × 103 )/24 = 7406.7 Hz, or ±3703.3 Hz.
 With this circuit, it is assumed that the unmodulated carrier frequency is the same as
the free-running frequency, 11.11 kHz.
 it is possible to set this type of circuit to any other desired center frequency simply by
changing the values of R1 and C1. The upper frequency limitation for the 565 IC is 500
kHz.

Draw the block diagram of super heterodyne receiver and explain the function of each
block

 Superheterodyne receivers convert all incoming signals to a lower frequency, known

as the intermediate frequency (IF)
 The key circuit is the mixer, which acts as a simple amplitude modulator to produce
sum and difference frequencies.
 The incoming signal is mixed with a local oscillator signal to produce this conversion.

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RF Amplifiers
 The antenna picks up the weak radio signal and feeds it to the RF amplifier, also
called a low-noise amplifier (LNA).
 Because RF amplifiers provide some initial gain and selectivity, they are sometimes
referred to as preselectors.

Mixers and Local Oscillators

 The output of the RF amplifier is applied to the input of the mixer.
 The mixer also receives an input from a local oscillator.
 The mixer output is the sum and difference frequencies of input signal and local
oscillator signal.
 tuned circuit at the output of the mixer selects the difference frequency, or
intermediate frequency (IF).
 The local oscillator is made tunable so that its frequency can be adjusted over a
relatively wide range.

IF Amplifiers
 The output of the mixer is an IF signal containing the same modulation that appeared
on the input RF signal.
 This signal is amplified by one or more IF amplifier stages.
 Since the intermediate frequency is usually much lower than the input signal frequency,
IF amplifiers are easier to design and good selectivity is easier to obtain.

Demodulators
 The highly amplified IF signal is finally applied to the demodulator, or detector,
which recovers the original modulating information.
 The demodulator may be a diode detector (for AM), a quadrature detector (for FM).
 In modern digital superheterodyne radios, the IF signal is first digitized by an analog-
to-digital converter (ADC) and then sent to a digital signal processor (DSP) where the
demodulation is carried out by a programmed algorithm.
 The recovered signal in digital form is then converted back to analog by a digital-to-
analog converter (DAC). The output of the demodulator or DAC is then usually fed to
an audio amplifier with sufficient voltage and power gain to operate a speaker.

Automatic Gain Control

 The output of a demodulator is usually the original modulating signal, the amplitude
of which is directly proportional to the amplitude of the received signal.

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 The recovered signal, which is usually ac, is rectified and filtered into a dc voltage by
a circuit known as the automatic gain control (AGC) circuit.
 This dc voltage is fed back to the IF amplifiers, and sometimes the RF amplifier, to
control receiver gain.

Frequency Conversion
 frequency conversion is the process of translating a modulated signal to a higher or
lower frequency while retaining all the originally transmitted information.
 In radio receivers, high-frequency radio signals are regularly converted to a lower,
intermediate frequency, where improved gain and selectivity can be obtained.

Mixing Principles
 Frequency conversion is a form of amplitude modulation or analog multiplication
carried out by a mixer circuit or converter. The function performed by the mixer is
called heterodyning.

Concept of a mixer
 Mixers accept two inputs. The signal fs, which is to be translated to another
frequency, is applied to one input, and the sine wave from a local oscillator fo is
applied to the other input.
 a mixer essentially performs a mathematical multiplication of its two input signals
 The oscillator is the carrier, and the signal to be translated is the modulating signal
 The output contains not only the carrier signal but also sidebands formed when the
local oscillator and input signal are mixed.
 The output of the mixer, therefore, consists of signals fs, fo, fo + fs, and fo - fs or fs -
fo.
 fs, fo, fo + fs are not needed in the output and are therefore filtered out.
 A tuned circuit or filter is used at the output of the mixer to select the desired signal
and reject all the others.

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JFET mixer.

 FETs make good mixers because they provide gain, have low noise, and offer a nearly
perfect square-law response.
 The FET mixer is biased so that it operates in the nonlinear portion of its range.
 The input signal is applied to the gate, and the local oscillator signal is coupled to the
source. Again, the tuned circuit in the drain selects the difference frequency.

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