Basic Electrical Tests- How to do

and Its Importance – Part 2

Michael Evangelista
APAC Applications Engineer

GENERAL ELECTRICAL TEST

[GET PRODUCTS]

By Megger
Agenda

• Part 1 – July 13
• Low Resistance / Contact
Resistance Testing
• Insulation Testing

• Part 2– July 19
• Earth Resistance Testing
• Power Quality Introduction
Grounding or Earth
Resistance Testing
What is Ground?

A ground is a conducting connection by

which an electrical circuit or equipment
is connected to the earth or some
conducting body – Source: IEEE Standard 81

Low impedance conductor used to

provide a safe path for dissipation of:
▪ Fault currents
▪ Lightning strikes
▪ Static charges
▪ FMF/RFI signals
Benefits of Proper
Grounding

▪ Lessens the chance of injury due to

faulty insulation.
▪ Reduces the likelihood of damage
from lightning strikes and induced
voltages.
▪ Improves the performance of
computer, communication, and
other sensitive equipment.
Megger –
Earth Testing Pioneer

Dr George Tagg pioneered earth

testing at Megger

Designing, manufacturing and

selling for well over 50 years
Earth Testing
Theory
Two Basic Test Types
Earth resistivity
Choose location and design for earth
system

Earth system resistance

Check that resistance is low enough
Earth Resistivity
Soil Resistivity
Purpose of this test:
Find lowest possible resistance in an
area
Obtain the values needed to design the
earth system
Factors affecting Earth resistivity
Earth composition
Moisture in the ground
Temperature
Consider
Resistivity will vary through the year
Moisture more constant at water table
Stable temperature below the frost line
 Earth Resistivity
Imeas
test methods

Emeas Purpose: Survey a site for the lowest

resistance connections for Earth.
C1 (E) P1 (ES) P2 (S) C2 (H)

A A A
<A/20 Methods: 4-pole (Wenner method).

EARTH

Earth resistivity,  = 2AR (cm)

R = Emeas/Imeas
 Earth Resistivity test terms
Imeas

Variables
Emeas
 is average earth resistivity to
depth A in ohm-cm
C1 (E) P1 (ES) P2 (S) C2 (H)
A is the distance between the
A A A
<A/20
spikes
EARTH
R is the resistance read from the
earth tester
For example
Planning to install 3m long electrodes?
Then measure earth resistivity with spacing A,
between spikes at 3m The depth of test probes
should be less than 1/20 A = <15cm

Average Earth resistivity  = 2AR (cm)

Earth Resistivity test terms

Earth resistivity is of interest because

by rearranging the formula and
knowing its value from tables we can
calculate the resistance of the earth
electrode required.

 = 2AR (cm) therefore electrode

resistance R =  / 2A
Ground System
Resistance
But First….

1. Ground system definitions

2. Why test?

3. Component parts of
ground electrode
resistance
Earth system definitions

Simple
Generally consists of a single
ground electrode driven into the
ground
Complex
Multiple ground rods connected,
mesh or grid networks
More common in substations, cell
sites etc
Why test earth system?

Why a low earth resistance is required:

▪ Enable protective devices to operate
in good time (Line to Ground Fault
Detection)

▪ Reduce ground potential rises

(GPR)

▪ Danger of shock from GPR (during

fault)
▪ Step potential
▪ Touch potential
▪ Adjacent conductors
Why Earth Resistance Must Be Low?

• Assume that you have a 4000-V

supply (2300 V to ground) with a
resistance of 13 Ω (see Fig. 7); Practical Example:

• Assume that an exposed wire in this

system touches a motor frame that is
connected to a grounding system
which has a 10-ohm resistance to
earth

• By Ohm’s Law, there will be a current

of 100 A5 through the fault (from the
motor frame to the earth). If you
happen to touch the motor frame and
are grounded solidly to earth, (by
standing in a puddle) you could be
subjected to 1000 V (10 Ω x 100 A).
Step and touch voltages

V V
Step Touch
Dangers of Step & Touch Potentials
Resistance and GPR from ground electrode

esistance (Ohms)
.0 1000
1. 00

Voltage (V)
1. 00
0. 00
0. 00
0.0 0
esistance
Component parts of ground
electrode resistance

1. Resistance of the electrode and the

connections to it
2. Contact resistance of the surrounding
soil to the electrode
3. Resistance of the surrounding body of
earth around the electrode – these can
be thought of as “shells” and create a
sphere of influence
Grounding System Resistance - theory

Purpose: Measure resistance of grounding system

to Earth – ascertain that prospective fault current
can be conducted safely to Earth and thus limit
“touch voltage”.

Methods:
2-pole: Direct measurement.
3-pole: Fall of Potential – Full method
3-pole: Fall of Potential – short method
3-pole: Slope Method.
Selective measurements: ART
Stakeless measurements: Earth Clamp.
Maximum ground resistance targets

▪ Varies depending on the standard used:

▪ Some call for 5 maximum
▪ Some call for a fraction of an ohm

▪ Typical values from an insurance

company:
▪ Industrial plant 5
▪ Chemical plant: 
▪ Computer system: 

▪ Typical values for a power company:

▪ Generating station: 1 maximum
▪ Large sub-station: 1 maximum
▪ Small sub-station: 5 maximum

▪ Water pipe ground should be less than 3W

and frequently less that 1W
Example: Substation Ground System
Installed Earth/Ground System

• Systems must be
checked regularly,
especially if they have
high fault currents
• Large systems must
have very low
resistances (<90mΩ is
typical)
• Noisy readings are
common in built up areas
Earth Testing Methods
(1) Dual Clamp

Quick test that can be done without

disconnections or access to bare
conductors
 Let’s review the Dual Clamp….

Voltage Clamp

Current Clamp

It induces a known voltage in a loop circuit that includes ground, and

measures resultant current flow

then calculates the loop resistance of the circuit

Let’s review the Dual Clamp….

RLOOP >>Rothers = BAD ELECTRODE

(where the clamp is hooked)

Let’s review the Dual Clamp….

The greater the number of parallel paths, the closer the measured value will be to the
actual earth resistance of the electrode under test
Let’s review the Dual Clamp….

The greater the number of parallel paths, the closer the measured value will be to the
actual earth resistance of the electrode under test
 Considerations when using clamp ground tester

✓ Effective only in situations with multiple

grounds in parallel such as pole grounds

✓ Requires a good return path so it cannot

be used on isolated grounds

✓ Cannot be used if an alternate, lower

resistance, return path exists not
involving the soil
Must measure at the correct part of the loop

Connecting Wire Lightning Rods

®
TIV

er
Me 0V
CA

gg
0 n6
(2) 2-pole: Direct measurement

C1 (E) Imeas P2 (S)

P1 (ES) C2 (H)
Measure “coupling” between two
earth points; measure resistance
of ground electrode to Earth.
Emeas

Measures resistance of the

two Ground electrodes in Second earth electrode or
series. other low resistance,
conductive connection to
Earth electrode Earth.
R = Emeas/Imeas under test
2-pole: Direct measurement
disadvantages

▪ A series measurement of a resistance

loop.

▪ Accuracy depends on assumption that all

other elements in loop are of low
resistance.

▪ Must disconnect individual ground

electrodes to measure them.
(3)
Imeas
3-pole: Fall of Potential
(full method)
Emeas

C1 (E)

P1 (ES)
P2 (S) C2 (H)
Classic method for measuring
resistance of a single grounding A
electrode, or of a system of
Earth electrode Auxiliary test
electrodes to Earth. under test electrodes

R = Emeas/Imeas
Fall of Potential - Full Method

✓ Vary location of P2 (Potential)

spike by regular steps along a
straight line between the electrode
under test and the C2 (Current)
electrode.
✓ Plot graph of resistance
measurements to distance of P
✓ Resistance of system taken where
slope is flat.
Note: The C spike must be outside
the sphere of influence to achieve a
viable reading
Fall of potential - Current Probe Sphere of Influence

Ground
Electrode
Under
Test (X) Auxiliary Auxiliary
Potential Current
Probe (P) Probe (C)

P probe must be outside of both

spheres of influence for correct
measurement
Effect of Sphere of Influence
Fall of potential – test and result
Ground Potential
Electrode Probe (P)
Under Positions
Current
Test (X) Probe (C)

Resistance in Ohms

X Distance of Potential Probe from X (dp)

C
Ground Current
Electrode Probe
Position Position
Fall of potential – test and result
Ground Potential
Electrode Probe (P)
Under Positions
Current
Test (X) Probe (C)

Resistance in Ohms

X Distance of Potential Probe from X (dp)

C
Ground Current
Electrode Probe
Position Position
Fall of potential – test and result
Ground Potential
Electrode Probe (P)
Under Positions
Current
Test (X) Probe (C)

Resistance in Ohms

X Distance of Potential Probe from X (dp)

C
Ground Current
Electrode Probe
Position Position
Fall of potential – test and result
Ground Potential
Electrode Probe (P)
Under Positions
Current
Test (X) Probe (C)

Resistance in Ohms

X Distance of Potential Probe from X (dp)

C
Ground Current
Electrode Probe
Position Position
Fall of potential – test and result
Ground Potential
Electrode Probe (P)
Under Positions
Current
Test (X) Probe (C)

Resistance in Ohms

X Distance of Potential Probe from X (dp)

C
Ground Current
Electrode Probe
Position Position
Fall of potential – test and result
Ground Potential
Electrode Probe (P)
Under Positions
Current
Test (X) Probe (C)

Resistance in Ohms

X Distance of Potential Probe from X (dp)

C
Ground Current
Electrode Probe
Position Position
Fall of potential – test and result
Ground Potential
Electrode Probe (P)
Under Positions
Current
Test (X) Probe (C)

Resistance in Ohms

X Distance of Potential Probe from X (dp)

C
Ground Current
Electrode Probe
Position Position
Fall of potential – test and result
Ground Potential
Electrode Probe (P)
Under Positions
Current
Test (X) Probe (C)

Resistance in Ohms

X Distance of Potential Probe from X (dp)

C
Ground Current
Electrode Probe
Position Position
Fall of potential – test and result
Ground Potential
Electrode Probe (P)
Under Positions
Current
Test (X) Probe (C)

Resistance in Ohms

X Distance of Potential Probe from X (dp)

C
Ground Current
Electrode Probe
Position Position
Fall of potential – test and result
Ground Potential
Electrode Probe (P)
Under Positions
Current
Test (X) Probe (C)

Resistance in Ohms

X Distance of Potential Probe from X (dp)

C
Ground Current
Electrode Probe
Position Position
Fall of potential – test and result
Ground Potential
Electrode Probe (P)
Under Positions
Current
Test (X) Probe (C)

Resistance in Ohms

X Distance of Potential Probe from X (dp)

C
Ground Current
Electrode Probe
Position Position
Fall of potential – test and result
Ground Potential
Electrode Probe (P)
Under Positions
Current
Test (X) Probe (C)

Resistance in Ohms

X Distance of Potential Probe from X (dp)

C
Ground Current
Electrode Probe
Position Position
Fall of potential – test and result
Ground
Electrode
Under Potential
Probe (P) Current
Test (X) Probe (C)
Position

True system
resistance
measured
here

Resistance in Ohms

X Distance of Potential Probe from X (dp)

C
Ground Current
Electrode Probe
Position Position
Fall of potential – test and result
Ground
Electrode
Under Potential
Probe (P) Current
Test (X) Probe (C)
Position

True system
resistance
measured
here

Resistance in Ohms

Usually approx 62%

of X to C distance

X Distance of Potential Probe from X (dp)

C
Ground Current
Electrode Probe
Position Position
Typical Probe Spacing

▪ Single electrode
▪ C probe 15m away
▪ P probe 9.5m away

▪ Large system, several electrodes or plates

▪ C probe 60m away
▪ P probe 38m away

▪ Above only rough guide – look up tables

available
Insufficient probe spacing
Ground
Electrode
Under
Test (X) Current
Potential Probe (C)
Probe (P)

Resistance in Ohms

Distance of Potential Probe from X (dp)

 Fall of Potential Method -
Advantages
▪ Extremely reliable:
▪ Results can be checked by testing at
different probe spacings.

▪ Conforms to IEEE 81; only approved method.

▪ Operator has complete control of the test

set-up.

▪ Can be used to test any size system.

▪ Highly accurate:
▪ 4-wire configuration/no additional loop
resistances included.
▪ Significant for low resistance (1-2)
grounds.
Fall of Potential Method - Disadvantages

▪ Extremely time consuming and

labor intensive.
▪ Temporary probes must be placed.
▪ Cables must be run to make
connections.

▪ Space constraints can make it hard

to place remote probes. (probes
usually many meters away)

▪ Must disconnect individual ground

electrodes to measure them.
Simplified Fall of Potential
Method

▪ Based on the theory behind

the full Fall of Potential
method.

▪ Take measurements at three

points.
Simplified Fall of Potential
Method
▪ Advantage: Much faster than full Fall
of Potential method.

▪ Disadvantage: Less reliable, as

fewer measurements are being
made.
Simplified Fall of Potential
Method dc
X P2 C2
RA = R1 + R2 + R3

3
RMax Deviation = RA - RX
40% 60%
(RX is furthest R value from RA)
50%
% deviation = (RMax Deviation )*100

RA
If (% deviation)*1.2 > 10% (or desired C2 P2 P1 C1

accuracy), C2 must be moved further

away
DET2/2
Three basic types of Fall-of-Potential test methods:

• Full Fall-of-Potential — a number of tests are made at different spaces of P and the resistance curve is
plotted.

• Simplified Fall-of-Potential — three measurements are made at defined distances of P and mathematical
calculations are used to determine the resistance (to be described in more detail later).

• 61.8% Rule — a single measurement is made with P at a distance 61.8% (62%) of the distance between the
electrode under test and C.
 (4) Attached Rod Technique (ART) Method

In the previous 3-pole measurement, the

electrode under test had to be The current, Iclamp is the portion of Imeas which flows into the electrode-under-test.
disconnected Imeas-Iclamp flows into the rest of the connected Earthing system.
In ART mode, we must measure current
using a Current Clamp in order to keep Electrode resistance, R = Emeas/Iclamp
the electrode connected

Imeas

P1 (ES) Emeas

Iclamp
P2 (S) C2 (H)

Earth electrode
under test
B
Megger’s DET Range

DET2/3

DET4

DET3

DET14 & 24C

Performance
Free PDF copy of our:

Getting Down to Earth

[Can be downloaded from the website under technical library]

Introduction to Power Quality
Power Quality

▪ What is Power Quality?

▪ The concept of powering and grounding sensitive equipment

in a manner that is suitable to the operation of that
equipment (IEC)

SOURCE→LOAD=COMPATIBLE
Introduction

The modern power grid is changing.

The addition of green energy sources
Solar
Wind energy
As loads increase coupled with the intermittent nature of solar and wind
energy the voltage stability will suffer.
The reduction of coal bulk generation plants
New technologies such as, electric vehicles are adding new loads to the
grid which, can lead to altered peak hours.
The implementation of the smart grid technology which is designed to
makes the grid more efficient.
Class A Recording

What does it mean to have a Class A Power Quality Analyzer?

The Class A power quality analyzer performs its measurements in compliance

with the IEC61000-4-30 standard as well as the IEEE-1159 standard.

[ this refers to methodology]

Measurement of RMS Voltage

Sampling Rate – Fixed number of discrete measurements

taken every cycle. (256samples per Cycle)

Phase Lock Loop – Guarantees the same number of samples

per cycle regardless of the frequency of the RMS. (Within a given
range)

Response Time – How often an RMS value is calculated.

Storage Interval – How often the RMS (Min, Avg & Max) are
aggregated and stored to memory.
Measurement of RMS Voltage

Example:
Sampling rate = 256 samples / cycle
Response Interval = 1 cycle
then RMS is calculated using 256 points once every 1 cycle.

Example:
Sampling rate = 256 samples / cycle
Response Interval =10 cycle
then a single RMS value is calculated once every 10 cycles using 2560 points.

These values are saved in a temporary memory.

Under Voltage

▪ An under-voltage is a decrease in rms voltage less than 0.9 pu for a

duration longer than 1 min.
• Typical values are between 0.8 pu and 0.9 pu.

▪ Effects of under-voltage events

• Motors can overheat
• Current increases - Heat increases in the coils
• Lighting systems
• Incandescent lights dim.
• Fluorescent lighting flash or may not turn on
• Manufacturing equipment Drop off line
• High Cost in lost production
Under Voltage

▪ Typically not due to system faults

▪ Generally due to variations on the system load and / or
system switching
• Large load switching on
• Capacitor bank switching off
• Overloaded circuits
▪ Utility feeders attempt to maintain ± 5% voltage regulation
▪ Under voltages can occur due to:
• Overloaded feeders
• Incorrect tap settings
• Malfunctioning regulators
• Blown fuses on capacitor banks
• Capacitor banks in service during light load conditions
Over Voltage

▪ Defined as an rms increase in AC voltage greater than 1.1

percentile units (pu) for a duration longer than 1 min.
▪ For example if nominal voltage were 100V then an over
voltage event occurs when the voltage rises above 110V for
over a 1 minute interval.
• Typical values are 1.1 to 1.2 pu or 110% to 120% of
nominal.
Over Voltage

▪ Effects of Over Voltage

• Stress and damage electrical equipment insulation.
• Breakdown of Cable
• Transformer and Motor Damage
• Flash over
• Tripping breakers
• Equipment controllers dropping off line.
• Increased current inrush / increased energy usage.
Over Voltage

▪ Causes
• Commonly caused by load variations and switching
operations
• Large loads turning off
• Capacitor
• Solar panels
• Other causes include
• Incorrect tap settings on transformers
• Resonance
• Ungrounded delta system
• Long cable runs with light loads
Voltage Dip / Sag

▪ Sag: A short duration event

• 0.5 cycle to 1 minute
▪ RMS voltage decreases
• Between 0.1 and 0.9 (pu) of nominal
▪ Three categories of sags
• Instantaneous
• Duration = 0.5 cycles to 30 cycles
• Momentary
• Duration = 30 cycles to 3 seconds
• Temporary
• Duration = 3 seconds to 1 minute

.
Interruption

Momentary Interruption
▪ Interruption - short duration event
• 0.5 cycle to 1 minute
• RMS voltage < 0.1 (pu) of nominal
▪ Two categories of interruptions
• Momentary
• Duration = 0.5 cycles to 3 seconds
• Temporary
• Duration = 3 seconds to 1 minute
.
Voltage Dip / Sag

▪ Effects
▪ Equipment shutting down
• Costly
• Lost Time
• Lost Material
• Switching power supplies operating
incorrectly
• Speed change of induction
machinery
• Capacitor bank output reduction
• Dimming of lighting devices

.
Voltage Dip / Sag
▪ Causes
• Large loads turning on
• Intermittent connections
• Source side faults
▪ Large loads draw large inrush current
• Inrush current causes voltage drop
• Induction motor
• 6 to 10 times full load at start up
▪ Intermittent connections
• Change system impedance
▪ Source side fault
• Single line to ground faults (SLG)
• Line to Line faults (LL)

.
Voltage Swell

▪ Increase in rms voltage above 1.1

percentile units (pu)
▪ Duration - 0.5 cycle to 1 min
• Instantaneous
• 0.5 cycles to 30 cycles
• Momentary
• 30 cycles to 3 seconds
• Temporary
• 3 seconds to 1 minute
Voltage Swell

▪ Effects
• Critical process shutdowns
• Can require hours to restart = lost $
• Tripping breakers
• Relay switching
• Lighting
• Component failures
▪ Repeated Swells can effect:
• Insulation which can effect
• Transformers
• Cables
• Switchgear
• Capacitor banks
Voltage Swell

▪ Causes
• Load changes
• Switching off large loads
• Switching on capacitor banks
• Source side faults
• Less common than sags
• Single line to ground fault (SLG)
• Rise on the un-faulted phases
• Delta configuration
Transients

▪ Two different basic types of

transients
• Oscillatory transients
• Low frequency transients
• Few-hundred-hertz regions
• Impulsive Transients
• High-frequency transients
• Few-hundred-kilohertz
regions
Transients

▪ Transients can damage insulation because

insulation, like that in wires has capacitive
properties.
▪ Both capacitors and wires have two
conductors separated by an insulator.
▪ The capacitance provides a path for a
transient pulse.
▪ If the transient pulse has enough energy it
will damage that section of insulation.
Transients

▪ A transient acting on a coil of a motor or a

transformer will dissipate the majority of
its energy in the first few coils.
• Each successive coil presents more
resistance and capacitance.
• Reducing the transients energy.

▪ Since the majority of the energy is

transferred to the first few coils, this is
where the damaged insulation will
typically appear.
Transients

▪ Transients can also affect fluorescent lighting.

• Fluorescent lights illuminate because the gas
inside of the light is ionized when voltage is
applied across the electrodes.
▪ Transients can produce excessive energy that
can displace the material within the electrodes.
▪ This will eventually reduce the amount of light
given off by the fluorescent light, as well as
reducing its lifespan.
Transients

▪ When capacitor banks are

switched on there is an initial
inrush of current.
▪ This will lead to a low-frequency
transient that will have a
characteristic ringing.
▪ These types of transients are
referred to as oscillatory
08/12/2007 14:22:30.600 SUBCYCLE on X3-1

1297.00

transients. 746.50

▪ Oscillatory transients can cause

X2-3 (Volts)
196.00

equipment to trip out and cause -354.50

UPS systems to turn on and off -905.00

35.48 45.12 54.76 64.40 74.04

erroneously.
Time (ms)
Transients

▪ Lightning is a major cause of

transients.
• A bolt of lightning can be over
5 miles long, reach
temperatures in excess of
20,000 degrees Celsius.
▪ Lightning strikes or high
electromagnetic fields produced
by lighting can induce voltage &
current transients in power lines &
signal carrying lines.
▪ These are typically seen as
unidirectional transients.
Unbalance

▪ Unbalance is a condition in a poly-phase system in which

the RMS values of the line voltages (fundamental
component), or the phase angles between consecutive line
voltages, are not all equal per IEEE 1159 and IEC 61000-4-
27.

RMS Voltage
200

100

-100

-200

Phase A Voltage Phase B Voltage Phase C Voltage

Unbalance

▪ Unbalanced voltages cause

problems, to inductive devices
• Transformers
• Motors
• Generators
▪ Unbalance not exceed 1% on 3
phase motors
▪ Unbalanced current 6 to 10 times
higher
▪ Motor overheat
Unbalance

▪ ANSI measurement
▪ Ratio of the maximum
deviation of a the voltage to
the average voltage of all
phases, expressed in
percent. This is done using
phase-to-phase voltage Line-to-line voltages are typically
measurements. used for this calculations If phase to
neutral voltages are used then the
phase angle unbalance is not
reflected in the % Unbalance,
therefore this method is seldom used
Unbalance

▪ Symmetrical Components allows voltage unbalance to be

mathematically broken down into three balanced systems,
the positive sequence, the negative sequence and the zero
sequence.
Unbalance

▪ The level of voltage unbalance

can described in terms of
negative sequence factor and
the zero sequence factor.
▪ The negative sequence factor
is a ratio of the negative
sequence component to the
positive sequence component.
▪ The zero sequence factor is the
ratio of the zero sequence
component to the positive
sequence.
Unbalance

▪ Minor voltage unbalance (< 2%) typically

due to unbalanced loads.
▪ Some causes can include:
• Large single phase loads
• Blown fuse on capacitor bank
• Single-phase line regulator
• Residential solar panels
▪ Larger unbalance (> 5%) due to single-
phasing conditions:
• Open protective device
• Wrong tap settings
• Open phase on transformer
Flicker

▪ Flicker is a very specific problem

related to human perception and
incandescent light bulbs. It is not
a general term for voltage
variations.
▪ Human vision can be very
sensitive to light flicker that is
caused by voltage fluctuations.
Flicker

▪ Instantaneous voltage is compared

to a rolling average voltage.
▪ The deviation is multiplied by a value
in a weighted curve.
• Based on human eye sensitivity to
incandescent lighting at 120V 60Hz
or 230V 50Hz.
▪ Short Term flicker (Pst)
• 10 minute interval
▪ Long Term flicker (Plt)
• 2 hour interval
Flicker

▪ The basic criteria is simple. If

the Pst is less than 1.0 then
flicker levels are good. If Pst is
greater than 1.0 then the flicker
levels could be causing
irritation.
▪ This applies to incandescent
lighting ONLY. Other types of
lighting cannot be tested using
this curve.
▪ Since it uses a weighting curve
it applies only to 120V 60Hz
and 230V 50Hz.
Rapid Voltage Change (RVC)

▪ A rapid voltage change is a fast rise

or fall of the RMS voltage.
• Typically 3%
▪ RVC events cause mainly changes
in lighting and will normally not bring
damage to electrical equipment.
▪ A reduction in the voltage by 10%
can result in a 34% reduction in the
light intensity from a 60 W
incandescent lamp.
▪ Can effect all types of lighting
systems
Rapid Voltage Change (RVC)

▪ Caused by changes in source voltage or

load.
▪ Source Voltage
• Solar grids when the sun is obscured by
clouds.
• Wind power when wind speed decreases
▪ Load
• Rapid load changes
▪ NOTE: for an event to be classified as a
rapid voltage change the voltage must not
fall below the lower voltage limit
Harmonics

▪ Harmonics are a sinusoidal

component of periodic waves that
have frequencies that are multiples
of the fundamental frequency
▪ Linear Loads such as incandescent
light and motors draw current equally
throughout the waveform.
▪ Non-Linear loads such as switching
power supplies draw current only at
the peaks of the wave.
▪ It is these non linear loads that cause
harmonics.
Harmonics

▪ Typically current harmonics

will not propagate through a
system.
▪ Voltage harmonics will
propagate through a system,
as they will pass through
transformers.
▪ When non-linear loads get
high enough they can cause
harmonics in the voltage.
What are harmonics?

Fundamental 20% 3rd Harmonics

1.5 Resultant 0.3
1 1.5 0.2
0.5 0.1
0 1 0
-0.50.00 4.17 8.33 12.50 16.66 -0.10.00 4.17 8.33 12.50 16.66
0.5
-1 -0.2
-1.5 -0.3
0
0.00 4.17 8.33 12.50 16.66
-0.5 20% 5th Harmonics
0.3
-1 0.2
0.1
-1.5
0
-0.10.00 4.17 8.33 12.50 16.66

-0.2
-0.3
Harmonics

▪ Harmonics can be characterized based on their order.

▪ Odd Harmonics are harmonics with odd order numbers.
• Expected – caused by non linear loads
▪ Even Harmonics are harmonics with even order numbers.
• Non-symmetrical due to faulty rectifiers.
▪ Triplens are odd harmonics that are multiples of 3.
• These will not cancel out and cause high neutral currents.
Harmonics

▪ Characterized by sequences
▪ Rotation of magnetic field
▪ Positive sequence rotate in direction
of fundamental
▪ Negative sequence rotate opposite of
fundamental
▪ Zero sequence has no rotation
• Cause heat on neutral
Harmonics

▪ Sequence Rotation
• Phase A = 0°, 360°, 720°
• Phase B = 120°, 480°, 840°
• Phase C = 240°, 600°, 960°
▪ 1st Order = ABC rotation
• Positive Sequence
▪ 5th Order = ACB rotation
• Negative Sequence Harmonic Phase A Phase B Phase C Rotation Sequence

▪ 3rd Order = No rotation 1

3
0
0x3=0
120
120x3=360
240
240x3=720
ABC
No Rotation
Positive Seq.
Zero Seq.
• Zero Sequence 5 5x0=0 5x120=600 5x240=1200 ACB Negative Seq.
7 7x0=0 7x120=840 7x240=1680 ABC Positive Seq.
9 9x0=0 9x120=1080 9x240=2160 No Rotation Zero Seq.
11 11x0=0 11x120=1320 11x240=2640 ACB Negative Seq.
Harmonics

▪ Harmonics cause heating effects

▪ Alternating current through a wire creates
eddy currents.
▪ Circular currents that are induced in the
conductor by alternating magnetic fields.
▪ Eddy currents then induce magnetic fields
that are opposite from the magnetic fields
that created them. The repulsion of the
magnetic fields increases the resistance in
the winding. This in turn creates heat and
loss of power. Higher frequency
harmonics will increase the energy of the
eddy current.
Harmonics

▪ Eddy current create “Skin Effect”

▪ Tendency of AC current to be distributed
in a conductor such that the density is
greatest near the surface of the
conductor.
▪ Less cross sectional area carries the
current hence the heating increases.
▪ At low frequencies the effect is minimal
▪ As frequency increases
• Skin effect increases
• Heat increases
Harmonics

▪ Excessive harmonic
distortion can cause many
power quality problems due
to the heat generated by
harmonics. These power
quality problems can include
neutral wires, transformers
as well as motors
overheating.
Conduct a PQ investigation

▪ Plan and Prepare

• What are the reported symptoms?
• How often does the symptom occur?
• Can any patterns be recognized?
• Can any correlations be made?
• Has there been any changes to the
equipment or the power system?

• Receive input from all those involved.

Conduct a PQ investigation

▪ Monitor
▪ Select the proper location
• Connect as close to failing
equipment as possible.
• Long motor leads can amplify
transients. Connect on the motor.
▪ Take the environment into account.
• Verify your instrument is rated for
the temperature, moisture and
humidity levels.
Conduct a PQ investigation

▪ Monitor
▪ Select the proper Current Transducer.
▪ What bandwidth do you need?
• Verify bandwidth meets required
harmonic orders.
▪ Are you recording from secondaries?
• Do these T’s and CT’s have the
required bandwidth?
▪ Do the CT’s require batteries?
• If yes, then can they last the required
duration of the recording?
Conduct a PQ investigation

▪ Monitor
▪ Review the data before starting
the recording.
• Verify the RMS Voltage and
Current values are reading
properly.
• Verify the KW is positive.
• Verify phase angles are
correct per connection
diagrams.
Conduct a PQ investigation

▪ Record Data
▪ Verify the unit is recording.
▪ Record for at least 1 complete
problem cycle.
• If the problem happen every
couple of days then record
for at least 2 days.
• If the problem happen only
once a week then record for
at least a full week
Analyze Data

▪ Problem – Equipment
tripping off line.
▪ Examine recorded data
▪ Are the parameters within
the equipment's operating
range?
▪ Check PQ parameters
against a standard or
recommended practice.
▪ Perform automated
analysis.
Analyze Data

▪ CBEMA analysis
▪ PQ events could be
causing IT type equipment
to trip.
Megger PQs

MPQ1000 MPQ2000

NEW FIRMWARE TO DISPLAY DELTA

Hardware Differences

MPQ2000
NEW Optional MPQ Ethernet Lid RAIN
OR
SHINE
 MPQ 1000 – Powering Up

• Adapter Power
• 115 / 230V 50/60Hz
• Battery backed
• 8 Hours run time (Max)
• Record off of battery
MPQ2000 – Powering Up
Powered Off Phase A Auxiliary

EN50160
Requires 1 week recording
Features
Versatile

• Graphical Color Display

• USB
• Ethernet
• SD Card
• USB Stick
Features
Powerful

• Measures 1000V ac/dc

• Transients up to 1μsec
• Flicker
• Unbalance
• Dips (Sags) / Swells
• Voltage Channels
• Current Channels
• Phase Angle Deviations
• Power and Energy
Features
Full Featured

• Harmonics
• Inter-harmonics
• Harmonic Direction
• THD / TDD
• Captures waveforms
• Triggered by events
• Trigger by time
• AT THE SAME TIME
• Waveform analysis
• Up to 128th order
Features
Advances

Advanced Power Quality

• Rapid Voltage Change
• RVC
• Main Signaling Detection
• View line communications
• When it happens
• View the actual waveform
Features
Simple
• Select EN50160 Test
• Connect the Analyzer
• Select the EN50160 Analysis
NEW - Features
On Board Setup

New On Board Setup:

• Update the setups on the front panel of the
MPQ.
- From the DMM screen scroll to
SETUP and press the ENTER key
NEW - Features
Auto Mode

New AUTO mode:

• The MPQ will now measures the voltage &
frequency and automatically set the limits.
-Simply connect the MPQ, select the
setup configuration & start recording.
The MPQ does everything else.
Features
Multiple Instrument in One

• Scope/Oscilloscope
• Vector Scope
• Harmonic Bar Chart
• Inter-harmonic Bar Chart
• Harmonic Direction
• ALL WITHOUT RECORDING
Features
Easy – Versatile CT

• Flex CT
• 4 Range
• 60A, 600A, 3000A & 6000A
• Powered by the unit
• Auto Identifying
• Two different diameters
• 18cm ID and 27cm ID
Features
Full Range of CTs

• Split Core CT
• Auto Identifying
• Different Ranges
• 20A, 100A & 1000A
• AC / DC CT
• Auto Identifying
• 400V ac
• 600V dc
• Battery Powered Hall Effect

NEW MINI CT up to 100A

Features
Confidence

• Configuration Verification
• Auto ID CT and CT range
• Verifies proper frequency
• Verifies proper voltages
• Verifies proper angles
• Informs you of:
• Wrong frequency settings
• Wrong CT range settings
• Improper connections
• Backwards Current Clamps
Features
Easy

• On the spot on board data analysis

• Load multiple custom templates
• Select data file
• Select template
• Unit will review the data and inform you of
any parameters that are out of tolerance.
Shared Features
Convenient
• No need to download data
• Remove the SD Card and place it
in your PC
• Up load setups from PC to MPQ
unit
• Transfer setups from unit to unit
• Transfer data from the SD Card to
the PC
• Transfer Data to a USB Stick
• Transfer data / setups via USB
• Transfer data / setups via Ethernet
Applications

• Energy Audits
• Motor Inrush Analysis
• Troubleshooting
• Equipment Failures
• Tripping Breakers
• Motor Issues
• Transformer Issues
• Solar Analysis
• Plus More
Contact us…

Michael Evangelista Zumaedi

APAC Applications Engineer Asean Applications Engineer
[Link]@[Link] zumaedi@[Link]
+639778567182 • +62 812 870 23 910

APACtsg@[Link]

meggerhongkong@[Link]

Thank You!