Under guidance of

Ms. Kusum Arora

 Contents

[Link]. Topic Page no.

1 Acknowledgement
2 Abstract
3 Components
4 Power Supply
5 Function generator
6 555 Timer IC
7 PWM
8 PPM
9 Applications
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the following students have successfully completed the project titled:
"Design and Implementation of a PPM and PWM Kit using 555 Timer IC"
under the guidance of the Department of Electronics Engineering.
Team Members:

• Siddharth Singh (22001008063)

• Ravi Jhajhriya (22001008047)
• Sumit Verma (22001008064)
• Sushma (22001008066)
• Ishita (23001008503)
• Poonam(23001008509)

The project demonstrates the application of Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) and Pulse
Width Modulation (PWM) using the versatile 555 Timer IC, showcasing their understanding
of analog signal generation and modulation techniques in practical electronics.
Date: 22nd May 2025

___________________ ____________________ _______________

Head of the Department Mini-project Coordinator Project Supervisor
 ABSTRACT

This project focuses on the design and development of a PPM and PWM Kit
aimed at demonstrating the principles of Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) and
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) using fundamental electronic components.
The kit integrates a step-down transformer (220V to 20V) to provide the
necessary power supply, along with a function generator based on the IC 8038
to produce base waveforms. The core modulation functions are implemented
using the 555 Timer IC, configured appropriately to generate both PPM and
PWM signals.
To ensure signal stability and proper interfacing, operational amplifiers are
used as buffers, enhancing the system's performance and reliability. The kit
serves as a practical educational tool for understanding time-domain
modulation techniques and the working of essential components like timers,
waveform generators, and op-amps.
This modular and easy-to-use kit is ideal for laboratory demonstrations and
academic learning, especially for students in electronics and communication
engineering.
 Components Briefing

1. Power Supply
This circuit provides a regulated ±12V dual power supply using two linear voltage regulator
ICs: 7812 for +12V and 7912 for –12V. The input is derived from a center-tapped step-down
transformer (220V to 20-0-20V) connected to a bridge rectifier, which converts AC to DC.
The positive rail is filtered using capacitors and regulated through the 7812, while the
negative rail is regulated via the 7912.
This setup is ideal for powering op-amp circuits and other analog components that require
symmetrical dual voltage.

—> Circuit Diagram

—> Working of Dual Power Supply (+12V / –12V):
The power supply uses a center-tapped step-down transformer to convert 220V AC to 20-0-
20V AC. This AC voltage is then passed through a bridge rectifier, which converts it into
unregulated DC voltage. The output from the rectifier is filtered using electrolytic capacitors
to smooth the ripple.
The positive voltage is regulated using the 7812 voltage regulator, which provides a stable
+12V output, while the 7912 regulator provides a –12V output from the negative half of the
rectified voltage. Together, these provide a clean and stable ±12V dual supply, suitable for
powering analog circuits like op-amps and signal processing modules.
2. Function Generator Using 8038 IC

—> IC 8038
The IC 8038 is a precision waveform generator capable of producing sine,
square, triangular, sawtooth, and pulse waveforms with high accuracy
and stability. It operates over a wide frequency range (typically from
0.001 Hz to 300 kHz) and is ideal for use in function generators,
modulators, and waveform synthesizers.
The frequency of oscillation is controlled by external resistors and
capacitors, and waveform symmetry can be adjusted via control pins. The
IC provides separate outputs for sine, triangle, and square waves, making
it versatile for various analog signal applications.
It is particularly useful in projects requiring stable signal sources, such as
your PPM and PWM kit.
 —> Internal Structure of 8038

—> Working of 8038 IC

The 8038 waveform generator IC works by charging and discharging a
capacitor using internal current sources. This generates a triangular
waveform, which is then internally converted into sine and square waves
using shaping and comparator circuits.
By adjusting the external resistors and capacitor connected to the IC, you
can control the frequency and duty cycle of the output waveforms. The IC
provides separate output pins for sine, square, and triangle waves,
making it ideal for use in signal generation and testing circuits.
It offers high frequency stability and low distortion, making it reliable for
analog waveform generation in lab kits and modulation systems.

Frequency for 8038 is given by

f=0.15/RC

Where:F = Output frequency in Hz, R=External resistor (in ohms), C = Timing capacitor (in farads)

3. PWM and PPM using 555 timer IC

—>555 Timer IC
The 555 Timer IC is one of the most widely used integrated circuits in electronics. It operates
in three modes: astable, monostable, and bistable, making it versatile for various timing and
pulse generation applications.
In astable mode, it functions as an oscillator, generating continuous square wave pulses—
ideal for use in PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) and PPM (Pulse Position Modulation)
circuits. In monostable mode, it produces a single output pulse when triggered.
The 555 timer is easy to configure using external resistors and a capacitor, and it's known
for its reliability, low cost, and wide operating voltage range (typically 4.5V to 15V).

Pin Diagram of 555 :

Internal Diagram of 555

—>Working of 555 Timer IC:

The 555 Timer IC operates by comparing voltages using two internal
comparators, a flip-flop, and a discharge transistor. It uses a voltage divider
with three 5kΩ resistors to set reference levels at 1/3 and 2/3 of the supply
voltage.
• In astable mode, the external resistors and capacitor determine the
charging and discharging cycles of the capacitor, producing a continuous
square wave (used in PWM/PPM).
• The capacitor charges and discharges through the resistors, causing the
output to toggle between high and low, creating a timing pulse or
oscillation.
• In monostable mode, the 555 outputs a single pulse of fixed duration
when triggered, ideal for one-shot applications.
The discharge pin helps control the timing capacitor, and the output pin delivers
the generated pulse signal.

Square Wave Generation using 555 Timer (Astable Mode):

In astable mode, the 555 timer continuously switches between HIGH and LOW states,
producing a square wave at the output. This is achieved through the charging and
discharging of a capacitor (C) via two resistors (R1 and R2) connected to the timer.

Working Steps:
1. Charging Phase:
• The capacitor charges through R1 and R2.
• When the capacitor voltage reaches 2/3 of the supply voltage (Vcc), the internal
comparator resets the flip-flop, and the output goes LOW.
1. Discharging Phase:
• The discharge transistor inside the 555 turns on, and the capacitor discharges
through R2 only.
• When the voltage drops to 1/3 of Vcc, the second comparator sets the flip-flop, and
the output goes HIGH again.
1. This cycle repeats, generating a continuous square wave at the output (pin 3).

Frequency and Duty Cycle:

• Frequency (f) = 1.44 / [(R1 + 2R2) × C]
• The duty cycle depends on the values of R1 and R2.
By adjusting R1, R2, and C, you can control the frequency and pulse width of the square
wave.
Video Link for Square wave :[Link]
5. PWM using 555 Timer IC

The 555 Timer IC can generate PWM signals by operating in a modified

astable mode, where the duty cycle (ON/OFF time) of the square wave can be
controlled independently of frequency.

Basic Concept:
In PWM, the width of the output pulse is varied while keeping the frequency
constant. This is useful for controlling the power delivered to devices like
motors, LEDs, etc.

Working Principle:
• A capacitor charges and discharges between 1/3 and 2/3 of the supply
voltage, similar to normal astable mode.
• To control the duty cycle, two diodes are placed in opposite directions
with separate resistors for charging and discharging paths.
• By varying one resistor (typically using a potentiometer), you can
change how long the output stays HIGH vs. LOW—i.e., pulse width.
Applications of PWM (Pulse Width Modulation):

Motor Speed Control

• PWM controls the average voltage supplied to DC motors, allowing precise speed
regulation without energy loss.
LED Dimming
• By varying the duty cycle, PWM adjusts the brightness of LEDs smoothly and
efficiently.
Audio Signal Generation
• Used in digital audio to reproduce analog waveforms or create sound in embedded
systems.
Power Control
• PWM is used in power supplies and converters to regulate output voltage efficiently
(e.g., in SMPS).
Communication Systems
• Serves as a modulation technique for transmitting data in digital communication.
Microcontroller-Based Systems
• PWM is used in servo motor control, tone generation, and more, using built-in
timers.
PPM USING 555 Timer IC

Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) can be generated using the 555

Timer IC by first producing a series of reference pulses (usually from
a monostable or astable configuration), and then shifting the
position of each pulse based on the amplitude of an input signal.
In a typical setup:
• A pulse train is generated using an astable multivibrator (often
with another 555 timer or a function generator like the 8038).
• This pulse train is fed to a monostable 555 timer, which triggers
an output pulse each time it receives an input.
• The position (timing delay) of this output pulse is modulated
based on an analog input, typically through a control voltage
that alters the timing capacitor’s charge rate.
This results in a series of pulses where the position (timing) of each
pulse encodes the information, not the width or amplitude.
—>Application of PPM
Remote Control Systems
• Used in RC aircraft and drones for transmitting control signals (e.g., servo
positioning).
Optical Communication
• Applied in fiber optic systems due to its high noise immunity.
Telemetry Systems
• Ideal for transmitting sensor data over long distances with minimal distortion.
Satellite and Space Communication
• Preferred in spacecraft communication for efficient and reliable data transmission.
Digital Data Transmission
• Used in wireless and infrared communication protocols for encoding digital signals.
—> Circuit Diagram

—>Waveform of PPM