Study Notes on Projective Geometry

Prabodh Shejwalkar

7 July 2026
 This is a simple handout covering topics in Projective Geometry in the order that I
learnt myself. Some problems and their solutions are also provided. All properties are
rigorously proven with no gaps.
Contents
1 Theory 4
1.1 The Basics of Projective Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Harmonic Bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Apollonian Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 Poles/Polars and Brocard’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.5 Pascal’s Theorem on Top!! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.6 Projective Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2 Practice Problems and Solutions 18

2.1 Lemma 9.40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2 Theorem 9.41 (Desargues’ Theorem) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3 USA TSTST 2012/4 (Problem 9.42) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.4 Singapore TST (Problem 9.43) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.5 Canada 1994/5 (Problem 9.44) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.6 Bulgarian Olympiad 2001 (Problem 9.45) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.7 ELMO Shortlist 2012 (Problem 9.46) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.8 IMO 2014/4 (Problem 9.47) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.9 Shortlist 2004 G8 (Problem 9.48) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.10 Sharygin 2013 (Problem 9.49) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.11 Shortlist 2004 G2 (Problem 9.50) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.12 USA January TST for IMO 2013 (Problem 9.51) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.13 Brazillian Olympiad 2011/5 (Problem 9.52) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.14 ELMO Shortlist 2013 (Problem 9.53) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.15 APMO 2008/3 (Problem 9.54) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.16 Brianchon’s Theorem (Problem 9.55) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.17 ELMO Shortlist 2014 (Problem 9.56) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

3
1 Theory
§1.1 The Basics of Projective Geometry
First, we define the Projective plane. This is basically just a normal (Euclidean) plane
with “points at infinity” added. The idea is that we define a point at infinity P∞ for any
pencil of parallel lines; any two parallel lines ℓ and ℓ1 meet only at P∞ . This replaces
the clumsy “concurrent or all parallel” notation used in the Radical Center Theorem.
We also make a “line at infinity” which consists of all the points at infinity.
Definition 1.1.1. Given four collinear points A, B, X, Y we define their cross ratio as
XA Y A
(A, B; C, D) = /
XB Y B
Note that here, the ratios are directed. Thus, the cross ratio can be positive, negative,
or zero, or undefined.

Remark. We claim that (A, B; X, Y ) is positive if and only if segments AB and XY are
disjoint or one is contained within the other.
Indeed, we have that
XA Y B
· >0
XB Y A
There are three cases:
• If AB and XY are disjoint then XA, XB have same sign and Y A, Y B have same
sign and so the cross ratio is positive.
• If AB and XY are not disjoint but nine is contained inside the other, then assume
WLOG tht A, X, B, Y are collinear in that order. Then XA and XB have opposite
sign but Y A and Y B have same sign and thus the cross ratio is negative.
• If say AB is contained inside XY , then XA and XB have same sign and Y A and
Y B also have same sign and thus the cross ratio is positive.

Now, we extend our definiton of the cross ratio.

Definition 1.1.2. Let a, b, x, y be lines concurrent at point P . If ∠(ℓ, m) is the angle
between two lines ℓ and m then we write
sin ∠(x, a) sin ∠(y, a)
(a, b; x, y) = ± /
sin ∠(x, b) sin ∠(y, b)

The sign is chosen such that if one of the four angles formed by line a and b contains
neither x nor y, then (a, b; x, y) is positive, other wise it is negative. Thus, we have our
first theorem:

Theorem
Suppose that P (A, B; X, Y ) is a pencil of lines, If A, B, X, Y are collinear then

P (A, B; X, Y ) = (A, B; X, Y )

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Prabodh Shejwalkar — 7 July 2026 Study Notes on Projective Geometry

Proof. We have that

XA Y A
|(A, B; X, Y )| = | / |
XB Y B
and
sin ∠XP A sin ∠Y P A P B · XA P B · Y A
|P (A, B; X, Y )| = | / |=| / | = |(A, B; X, Y )|
sin ∠XP B sin ∠Y P B P A · XB P A · Y B

Remark. This follows from the law of sines as follows:

XA PA XB BP
= , =
sin ∠XP A sin ∠AXP sin ∠XP B sin ∠BXP
which implies that
AP BP
· sin ∠XP A = sin ∠AXP = sin ∠BXP = · sin ∠XP B
XA XP
which when simplified gives
sin ∠XP A XA · BP
=
sin ∠XP B XB · P A
which gives the above result. The case for X replaced with Y is analogous.

Note that (A, B; X, Y ) is positive if and only if segments AB and XY are disjoint or one
is contained within the other. Also note that P (A, B; X, Y ) is positive if and only if one
of the four angles formed by line P A and P B does not contain rays P X or P Y . It’s easy
to see that each condition implies the other.
Thus the sign equality also holds for any configuration and thus P (A, B; X, Y ) =
(A, B; X, Y ).

Theorem
Let A, B, X, Y be concylic. If P is any point on its circumcircle, then P (A, B; X, Y )
does not depend on P . Moreover,
XA Y A
P (A, B; X, Y ) = ± /
XB Y B
where the sign is positive if segments AB and XY do not intersect and negative
other wise.

Proof. By the inscribed angle theorem, as P moves along the circle, the angles ∡XP A,
∡XP B, ∡Y P A, ∡Y P B are invariant, and so are their sines. Note that sin A = sin(180◦ −
A). Thus by the definition of cross ratio for a pencil of lines, it is dependent only upon the
angles ∠XP A, ∠XP B, ∠Y P A, ∠Y P B, which implies that P (A, B; X, Y ) is invariant
for all P on the circle (ABXY ).
Now, by the extended law of sines, if we let the diameter of the circle to be 1, then
sin ∠XP A = AX. Applying the analogous equations yields that
sin ∠XP A sin ∠Y P A XA Y A
P (A, B; X, Y ) = ± / =± /
sin ∠XP B sin ∠Y P B XB Y B
If segments AB and XY intersect, then each of the four angles created by lines P A and
P B contains either line P X or line P Y (that is, one of the four rays P X, XP , P Y , Y P

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Prabodh Shejwalkar — 7 July 2026 Study Notes on Projective Geometry

lies wholly inside or on the boundary of this region.) Thus by definition, P (A, B; X, Y )
is negative, and thus the right hand side.
If segments AB and XY do not intersect, then one of the angles created by lines
AP and BP does not contain either of ray XP , P Y , Y P , P X. Thus by definition,
P (A, B; X, Y ) is positive, and thus the right hand side.

Thus we can “take perspectivity” at point P , we can project a circle onto a line, a line
onto another line, and the cross ratio will remain invariant.
Problem 1.1.3. Check that

(A, B; X, Y ) = (B, A; X, Y )−1 = (A, B; Y, X)−1 = (X, Y ; A, B)

for any four distinct points A, B, X, Y .

Proof. By definition we have that

XA Y A
(A, B; X, Y ) = /
XB Y B
using directed segments. Thus, replacing A by B we get
XB Y B
(B, A; X, Y ) = / = (A, B; X, Y )−1
XA Y A
and the case for X replaced by Y is analogous. Also,
AX BX AX AY −AX −AY XA Y A
(X, Y ; A, B) = / = / = / = / = (A, B; X, Y )
AY BY BX BY −BX −BY XB Y B

Problem 1.1.4. Let A, B, X be distinct collinear points and k a real number. Prove that
there is exactly one point Y (possibly the point at infinity) such that (A, B; X, Y ) = k.

Remark. Note that if k = 0, then

XA
XB
YA
=0
YB
YB
As X ̸= A, the numerator cannot be zero and thus we need YA = 0 =⇒ Y = B. It’s easy
to confirm that Y = B [Link] let k be nonzero.
Note that by the definition of the cross ratio, we need that
XA YA
=k·
XB YB
which, as X, A, B, k are fixed, implies that the ratio YY B
A
is a fixed real number. Now,
note that there exists exactly one point Y on line AB given constant points A, B, and
r ∈ R such that
YA
=r
YB
where the lengths are directed and Y is possibly a point at infinity. Thus, there exists
exactly one point Y such that
XA
YA XB
=
YB k
and thus the uniqueness of Y is established.

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Prabodh Shejwalkar — 7 July 2026 Study Notes on Projective Geometry

Remark. For r = 1, we have Y A = Y B, but using directed segments, it’s easy to see that
Y cannot be a Euclidean point, and thus Y is the point at infinity.

Problem 1.1.5. Let A, B, X be collinear points and let P∞ be a point at infinity along
that line. What is (A, B; X, P∞ )?
XA
Proof. Proof. The answer is (A, B; X, P∞ ) = XB .
To see this, note that as P∞ is a point at infinity, we have that
P∞ A
=1
P∞ B
and thus we have that
XA P∞ A XA
(A, B; X, P∞ ) = / =
XB P∞ B XB

§1.2 Harmonic Bundles

A harmonic bundle is an instance of (A, B; X, Y ) = −1. They occur in many places and
they are useful to solve Olympiad math problems.

Lemma (Midpoints and Parallel Lines)

Given points A and B, let M be the midpoint of AB and let P∞ be the point at
infinity along line AB. Then,

(A, B; M, P∞ ) = −1

Proof. Note that we have

MA
= −1
MB
using directed lengths, and as P∞ is a point at infinity, we have
P∞ A
=1
P∞ B
Dividing the first term by the second yields
MA
MB −1
(A, B; M, P∞ ) = P∞ A
= = −1.
P∞ B
1

Lemma (Harmonic Quadrilaterals)

Let ω be a circle and let P be a point outside ω. Let P X and P Y be tangents to ω.
Take a line through P intersecting ω again at A and B. Then

• AXBY is a harmonic quadrilateral;

• If Q = AB ∩ XY , then (A, B; Q, P ) is a harmonic bundle.

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Prabodh Shejwalkar — 7 July 2026 Study Notes on Projective Geometry

Proof. We use symmedians. As BP is the B symmedian of ∆BXY , we have that

BX AX XA Y A
= =⇒ / =1 In magnitude
BY AY XB Y B
Now note that segments AB and XY must intersect by construction, and thus
XA Y A
(A, B; X, Y ) = −| / | = −1
XB Y B
Now, for the second part, we project the harmonic bundle (A, B; X, Y ) = −1 from X
to line AB. Point X goes to P , points A and B remain fixed, and point Y goes to point
Q. Thus, as projection preserves cross ratio,
X
−1 = (A, B; X, Y ) = (A, B; P, Q) = (A, B; Q, P )−1
and thus (A, B; Q, P ) = −1, making it a harmonic bundle.

Lemma (Inversion Induces Harmonic Bundles)

Let P be a point on line AB, and let P ∗ denote the inverse of P when inverted
around the circle with diameter AB. Then (A, B; P, P ∗ ) = −1.

Proof. Note that at least one of the points P , P ∗ lies outside the circle with diameter AB.
Thus assume without loss of generality that P lies on or outside the circle with diameter
AB. The other case follows by changing P by P ∗ in all the following arguments.

Remark. Note that for P = A or P = B the cross ratio (A, B; P, P ∗ ) is undefined.

Let P X and P Y be tangents to the circle with diameter AB, say Γ (They exist because
of our WLOG assumption). Then by the basic property of inverses we see that X, P ∗ ,
Y are collinear. Thus the lemma follows from the previous lemma’s part 2.

Lemma (Cevians Induce Harmonic Bundles)

Let ABC be a triangle with concurrent cevians AD, BE, CF (possibly on the
extensions of the sides). Line EF meets line BC at X (possibly at infinity). Then
(X, D; B, C) = −1.

Proof. By Menelaus’ Theorem on ∆ABC with respect to collinear points E, F , X, we

have that
BX CE AF
· · = −1
XC EA F B
and by Ceva’s Theorem in ∆ABC with concurrent cevians AD, BE, CF we have that
BD CE AF
· · =1
DC EA F B
Note that CE AF
EA and F B cannot be zero as E, F are Euclidean points and the product of
the ratios as written above is a nonzero real. Thus, dividing the first expression by the
second,
BX
BX BD BD
=− =⇒ (X, D; B, C) = CX = −1.
XC DC CD

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Prabodh Shejwalkar — 7 July 2026 Study Notes on Projective Geometry

Lemma (Complete Quadrilaterals Induce Harmonic Bundles)

Let ABCD be a quadrilateral whose diagonals meet at K. Lines AD and BC meet
at L, and line KL meets AB and CD at M and N . Then (K, L; M, N ) = −1.

Proof. Let AB and CD meet at P , possibly at infinity. Apply the previous lemma to
∆DLC with concurrent cevians AC, BD, LN to get
(D, C; P, N ) = −1
Now, projecting from B onto line CD we have that
B
(K, L; M, N ) = (D, C; P, N ) = −1

1
Problem 1.2.1. In the coordinate plane, the points A = (−1, 0), B = (1, 0), X = ( 100 , 0)
and Y = (m, 0) form a harmonic bundle (A, B; X, Y ) = −1. What is m?

Proof. Note that there exists a unique point Y on line AB such that (A, B; X, Y ) = −1.
We claim that m = 100 is the unique solution. We use directed segments. Indeed, if
Y = (100, 0), then XA = −101 99
100 , XB = 100 , Y A = −99, Y B = −101, and thus
−101
XA Y A 100 −101
/ = 99 / −99 = −1
XB Y B 100

which implies that (A, B; X, Y ) is a harmonic bundle.

Problem 1.2.2. Points A, B, C, D, E lie on a circle with center ω and point P lies
outside the circle. The given points are such that
• lines P B and P D are tangent to ω,
• P , A, C are collinear,
• DE ∥ AC.
Prove that BE bisects AC.

Proof. Note that this problem can also be solved using angle chasing but we give a
projective solution. Let the line through B that bisects AC at M meet ω again at F .
Then, note that quadrilateral ABCD is harmonic. Thus,
F
−1 = (A, C; B, D) = (A, C; M, F D ∩ AC)
Here, we have projected from F onto line AC. As M is the midpoint of AC, it follows
that DF ∩ AC is the point at infinity along lines DF and AC, which in particular means
that DF is parallel to AC.
Thus F is the intersection of the line through D parallel to AC with ω, which is the
exact same definition as point E. Thus E = F .
Thus BE bisects AC.

Problem 1.2.3. Points A, X, B, P lie on a line in that order, and (A, B; X, P ) = −1.

2
Let M be the midpoint of AB. Show that M X · M P = AB 2 and P X · P M = P A · P B.
Coordinate bash with AB the x axis and A = (−1, 0), and B = (1, 0). Thus M =
(m, 0) = (0, 0) and suppose that X = (x, 0) and P = (p, 0).

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Prabodh Shejwalkar — 7 July 2026 Study Notes on Projective Geometry

Claim — xp = 1.

Proof. Note that as (A, B; X, P ) = −1, we have that

XA PA
=−
XB PB
which implies that
x+1 p+1
=− =⇒ xp − x + p − 1 = −xp − x + p + 1 =⇒ xp − 1 = −(xp − 1)
x−1 p−1
which proves xp = 1.

Now, we directly prove the claims using our coordinates. Now we exploit the fact that A,
X, B, P lie on a line in that order.
Note that X and P lie on the same side of M , as XBAX
= −AP
PB > 1.
1

 2
AB
M X · M P = x · p = xp = 1 =
2

and also note that as A, X, B, P lie on a line in that order and M lies between A and
B, P X = p − x, and P M = p − m. Thus,
 
1
PX · PM = p − · p = p2 − 1 = (p + 1)(p − 1) = P A · P B
p

and the proof is complete.

§1.3 Apollonian Circles

Lemma (Right Angles and Bisectors)

Let X, A, Y , B be collinear points in that order and let C be any point not on this
line. Then any two of the following conditions implies the third:

• (A, B; X, Y ) is a harmonic bundle

• ∠XCY = 90◦

• CY bisects ∠ACB.

Proof. Draw the line through Y perpendicular to CY and let it intersect CA at E and
CB at F .
If ∠ACB is bisected by CY , then as Y lies on segment AB, CY is the internal bisector.
Thus if ∠XCY = 90◦ then CX is the external bisector of ∠ACB. Thus by the directed
version of Angle Bisector Theorem we have that
AC AY AX
= =−
CB YB XB
and thus (A, B; X, Y ) is a harmonic bundle.

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Prabodh Shejwalkar — 7 July 2026 Study Notes on Projective Geometry

If ∠ACB is bisected by CY and (A, B; X, Y ) is a harmonic bundle then

AC AY AX AX AC
= =− =⇒ =−
CB YB XB XB CB
and thus by the converse of the directed version of the angle bisector theorem we have
that CX is the external bisector of ∠ACB, and thus ∠XCY = 90◦ .
If ∠XCY = 90◦ and (A, B; X, Y ) is a harmonic bundle, then we contend:

Claim — ∆CY E ∼
= ∆CY F .

Proof. Projecting from C to line EF , we have that

C
−1 = (A, B; X, Y ) = (E, F ; ∞, Y )

where ∞ is the point at infinity along parallel lines CX and EF . Then Y must be the
midpoint of EF , thus Y E = Y F in magnitude. Thus we have that ∆CY E ∼ = ∆CY F by
SAS Theorem.

Thus we have that ∠ACY = ∠ECY = ∠F CY = ∠BCY , as desired.

Theorem (Apollonian Circles)

Let AB be a segment and let k = ̸ 1 be a positive real. The locus of points C
CA
satisfying CB = k is a circle whose diameter lies on line AB.

Proof. Let X and Y be the two points on AB satisfying this condition (note that two
points exist as k ̸= 1). WLOG assume that X lies outside segment AB and Y lies inside
segment AB.
CA
Now, consider any point C such that CB = k. Then by the Angle Bisector Theorem,
we must have ∠ACY = ∠BCY . Also, (A, B; X, Y ) = −1. Thus from our previous
lemma, we have that ∠XCY = 90◦ and thus we discover the Apollonian Circle.

Problem 1.3.1. In the notation of the above theorem, what is the Apollonian circle of
XY through A?
First, note that as (A, B; X, Y ) = −1, we have that (X, Y ; A, B) = −1 = (X, Y ; B, A)− 1,
which implies that
BX AX
=−
BY AY

Claim — The desired circle is the circle with diameter AB.

Proof. Note that A lies on the desired circle. Now, we have that
BX AX
[ =−
BY AY
which implies that B also lies on the Apollonian circle by definition. As the Apollonian
circle of XY is a circle with its diameter on line XY , we have that AB is a diameter of
the desired circle, as claimed.

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Prabodh Shejwalkar — 7 July 2026 Study Notes on Projective Geometry

Problem 1.3.2. Check that as k varies, the resulting set of all circles are coaxial.
The main idea is essentially the following:

Claim — The desired radical axis is the perpendicular bisector of AB.

Proof. We coordinate bash this. Set AB to be the x axis and denote all points by real
numbers, say point X is denoted by x ∈ R. Then let a = −1, b = 1. Let M be the
midpoint of AB, so m = 0.

Claim — xy = 1.

Proof. Note that as (A, B; X, Y ) = −1, we have that

XA YA
=−
XB YB
which implies that
x+1 y+1
=− =⇒ xy − x + y − 1 = −xy − x + y + 1 =⇒ xy − 1 = −(xy − 1)
x−1 y−1
which proves xy = 1.

Now, the center of the Apollonian Circle through X and Y is of course the midpoint Z
1
2 +x
of XY . Thus let z = x 2x+1 = x
2 .
Consider the quantity
2 2
x2 + 1 x2 − 1
 
2 2
M Z − ZX = −
2x 2x

which equals
2x2 4x2
  
2
= =1
2x 2x 4x2
which is independent of x. Thus M has equal power with respect to all Apollonian
Circles. Thus M lies on the radical axis of any two Apollonian Circles. Finally, note that
all Apollonian Circles have diameter on AB, and thus the radical axis is perpendicular
to AB. Thus we have the desired radical axis is the perpendicular bisector of AB.

Lemma (Harmonic Bundles on the Bisector)

Let ABC be a triangle with incenter I and A excenter IA . Prove that

(I, IA ; A, AI ∩ BC) = −1

Proof. Consider BI. We have that ∠CBA is bisected by BI and ∠IA BI = 90◦ . Thus
invoking the right angles and bisectors lemma, we get that

(I, IA ; A, AI ∩ BC) = −1

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Prabodh Shejwalkar — 7 July 2026 Study Notes on Projective Geometry

§1.4 Poles/Polars and Brocard’s Theorem

Fix a circle with center O and any other point P . Then consider the inverse of P with
respect to the circle, say P ∗ .
Definition 1.4.1. The line through P ∗ perpendicular to P O is the “polar” of P with
respect to the circle.
Definition 1.4.2. The point P ∗ such that a line ℓ is the polar of P ∗ is called the “pole”
of ℓ.

Theorem (La Hire’s Theorem)

A point X lies on the polar of Y if and only if point Y lies on the polar of X.

Proof. As usual we denote the inverse with a star. If points X, Y , and O are collinear
then it’s easy to see that if point X lies on the polar of Y , then Y ∗ = X, and then point
Y clearly lies on the polar of point X as X ∗ = Y . The same logic holds in the other
direction and thus the theorem holds.
Now, assume that points O, X, Y are not collinear. Then we have that X, Y , X ∗ , Y ∗
are concylic.
=⇒ If point X lies on the polar of point Y then ∡XY ∗ Y = 90◦ =⇒ ∡XX ∗ Y = 90◦ ,
which implies Y lies on the polar of X.
⇐= If point Y lies on the polar of point X then ∡XX ∗ Y = 90◦ =⇒ ∡XY ∗ Y = 90◦ ,
which implies X lies on the polar of Y .
Thus, the proof is complete.

Proposition
Let AB be a chord of a circle ω and select points P and Q on line AB. Then
(A, B; P, Q) = −1 if and only if P lies on the polar of Q.

Proof.
⇐= If P lies on the polar of Q then exactly one of P , Q lie on segment AB. Assume
WLOG that Q lies inside segment AB.

Remark. Note that if P lies on ω then Q also lies on ω. Then WLOG let P = A. Then we
have
P A QA 0 0
(A, B; P, Q) = / = /
P B QB AB AB
which is undefined. Thus assume P lies strictly outside ω.

Then by La Hire’s Theorem, Q lies on the polar of P . Let P X and P Y be tangents to ω.

Now, we have that ABXY is harmonic, and projecting from ω to line AB through Y ,
we have that
Y
−1 = (A, B; Y, X) = (A, B; P, Q)
which finishes.

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Prabodh Shejwalkar — 7 July 2026 Study Notes on Projective Geometry

=⇒ If (A, B; P, Q) = −1 then at exactly one of P , Q lie inside segment AB. Then

assume WLOG that Q lies on segment AB. Now, draw tangents from P to ω and let
them touch the circle at X and Y . Then, projecting from AB to ω through Y , we have
(if X ′ = QY ∩ ω
Y
−1 = (A, B; P, Q) = (A, B; Y, X ′ )
Thus quadrilateral ABX ′ Y is harmonic, where X ′ = QY ∩ ω. Thus we have that X = X ′
as quadrilateral ABXY is also harmonic. Thus Q lies on XY , which implies that Q lies
on the polar of P .

Theorem (Brocard’s Theorem)

Let ABCD be a cyclic quadrilateral inscribed in a circle with center O. Lines AB
and CD meet at P , lines AD and BC meet at Q, and lines AC and BD meet at R.
Show that P , Q, R are the poles of RQ, P R, P Q respectively. Also show that O is
the orthocenter of triangle P QR.

Proof. Let P R meet BC at M and AD at N . Then, as the concurrent cevians AC, BD,
P N in ∆ADP induce harmonic bundles,
(A, D; N, Q) = −1
By our previous proposition, this implies that N lies on the polar of Q.
Also, as the concurrent cevians BD, CA, and P M in ∆P CB induce harmonic bundles,
(B, C; M, Q) = −1
By our previous proposition, this implies that M lies on the polar of Q.
As a line is defined by two points on it, we see that line M N is the polar of Q. Thus line
RP is the polar of Q, as desired. Extremely similar arguments like the above give that
P Q is the polar of R, and QR is the polar of P .
Now, by the definition of polars, we have that OR ⊥ P Q and OP ⊥ QR and OQ ⊥ P R,
which implies that O is the orthocenter of ∆P QR.

Problem 1.4.3. Let ω be a circle and suppose P and Q are points such that P lies on
the polar of Q. Prove that the circle with diameter P Q is orthogonal to ω.
If P , Q, O are collinear then it’s easy to see that Q is the inverse of P after inverting
around ω. Now, we invert around ω. As usual, we denote the inverse with a star. Then
the circle with diameter P Q, which is uniquely defined by its diameter P Q, remains
invariant under inversion as P , Q swap places. Note that P , Q, O are collinear. Thus we
see that the circle with diameter P Q is orthogonal to ω.
If P , Q, O are not collinear, then we contend:

Claim — P , Q, P ∗ , Q∗ are concyclic with diameter P Q.

Proof. Note that as P lies on the polar of Q, Q lies on the polar of P by La Hire’s
Theorem. Thus we have by the definition of a polar,
∡QQ∗ P = ∡QP ∗ P = 90◦
and the claim is done.

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Now, after inverting around ω, the circumcircle of P QP ∗ Q∗ , which is uniquely defined

by three noncollinear points, remains invariant, as P and P ∗ swap places and Q and Q∗
swap places. Thus, the circle with diameter P Q is orthogonal to ω.

Remark. Here we have used the property that a for a circle Γ, Γ = Γ∗ if and only if Γ and
ω are orthogonal.

Problem 1.4.4. Let ABC be an acute scalene triangle, and let H be a point inside it
such that AH ⊥ BC. Rays BH and CH meet AC and AB at E and F , respectively.
Prove that if BF EC is cyclic then H is the orthocenter of ∆ABC.

Proof. Let O be the circumcenter of BEF C. Then, extend EF to meet BC at R (As

ABC is scalene, the lines intersect). Then, by Brocard’s Theorem on BEF C, we have
that O is the orthocenter of AHR, which implies that OR ⊥ AH, which implies that
OR ∥ BC as AH ⊥ BC. As R lies on BC, we see that O lies on BC too. Thus as
OB = OC, O is the midpoint of BC and thus (BEF C) is the circle with diameter BC,
forcing ∡BEC = ∡CF B = 90◦ , making H the orthocenter of ∆ABC.

§1.5 Pascal’s Theorem on Top!!

Theorem (Pascal’s Theorem)

Let ABCDEF be a cyclic hexagon (possibly self-intersecting). Then the points
AB ∩ DE, BC ∩ EF , CD ∩ F A are collinear.

Proof. This can be bashed with barycentric coordinates; but we will not include the
proof here as the proof should be in the barybash handout.

Problem 1.5.1. Let ABC be a triangle with circumcircle Γ. Let X be the intersection
of the tangent at Γ through A and BC. Define Y and Z similarly. Prove that X, Y , Z
are collinear.

Proof. Apply Pascal’s Theorem to AABBCC. Pascal’s Theorem states that the inter-
sections
AA ∩ BC, AB ∩ CC, BB ∩ CA
are collinear, where AA is the tangent to Γ at A. Thus points X, Y , Z are collinear.

Problem 1.5.2. Let ABCD be a cyclic quadrilateral with circumcenter Γ and apply
Pascal’s Theorem to AABCCD and ABBCDD. Prove Brocard’s Theorem.

Proof. Let X = AB ∩ CD, Y = AA ∩ CC, Z = AD ∩ BC, and W = DD ∩ BB. Then

by Pascal’s Theorem on AABCCD, we have that Y , X, Z are collinear and by Pascal’s
Theorem on ABBCDD, we have that X, Z, W are collinear. Thus W , X, Y , Z are all
collinear.

Claim — ZX is the polar of P = AC ∩ BD.

Proof. Note that Y A and Y C are tangent to Γ and thus AC is the polar of Y . By La
Hire’s Theorem Y lies on the polar of P . Also, W B and W D are tangent to Γ thus BD
is the polar of W . Again, by La Hire’s Theorem, W lies on the polar of P . Thus as the
polar of P is a line, this line is exactly XZ.

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Now, we can use Pascal’s Theorem on AACBBD, ACCBDD and AADBBC, ADDBCC
to get that XP is the polar of Z and ZP is the polar of X using an extremely similar
argument. Thus, ∆P XZ is self-polar, and by definition of a polar line, the line connecting
the center O to any pole is perpendicular to that pole’s polar line. Thus:

OP ⊥ XZ, OX ⊥ ZP, OZ ⊥ XP

This implies that O is the orthocenter of ∆P XZ, completing the proof of Brocard’s
Theorem.

§1.6 Projective Transformations

Theorem (Projective Transformations)

Each of the following is achievable with a projective transformation.

• Taking four points A, B, C, D (no three collinear) to any other four points
W , X, Y , Z (no three collinear).

• Taking a circle to itself and a point inside the circle to any other point Q inside
the circle.

• Taking a circle to itself and any given line outside the circle to the line at
infinity.

Furthermore, projective transformations preserve the cross ratio of any four collinear
points. Moreover,if the circumcircle of a cyclic quadrilateral is sent to a circle, then
the cross ratio of the cyclic quadrilateral is invariant.

This technique is really powerful! Let’s nuke some problems with this:
Problem 1.6.1. Let ω be a circle and let P be a point outside ω. Let P X and P Y be
tangents to ω. Take a line through P intersecting ω again at A and B. Then

• AXBY is a harmonic quadrilateral;

• If Q = AB ∩ XY , then (A, B; Q, P ) is a harmonic bundle.

Proof. Use a projective transformation that maps Q to the center O of ω. Thus ABXY
is a rectangle. Also, P is the point at infinity at a line perpendicular to XY . Now, as P
is a point at infinity along line AB as well, we need that the line perpendicular to XY
should be parallel to AB. This forces AB ⊥ XY , and as AB and XY are diagonals this
forces ABXY to be a square (vertices can be in a different order).
Now, as Q is the midpoint of AB and P is the point at infinity along line AB,
(A, B; P, Q) = −1 and also AXBY is clearly harmonic as it is a square.

Problem 1.6.2. Let ABC be a triangle with concurrent cevians AD, BE, CF (possibly
on the extensions of the sides). Line EF meets line BC at X (possibly at infinity). Then
(X, D; B, C) = −1.

Proof. We take a projective transformation φ that Sends A, B, C to the vertices of an

equilateral triangle and P is its center. This is possible as A, B, C, P are mutually
noncollinear by assumption. Let φ(A) = A∗ . Then, we have that A∗ P ∗ , B ∗ P ∗ , and C ∗ P ∗

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are the medians of ∆A∗ B ∗ B ∗ . Thus D∗ is the midpoint of B ∗ C ∗ and E ∗ F ∗ ∥ B ∗ C ∗ .

Thus we have that
(X ∗ , D∗ ; B ∗ , C ∗ ) = −1
as X ∗ is now the point at infinity along parallel lines E ∗ F ∗ and B ∗ C ∗ . As cross ratios
are preserved under projective transformations, we have (X, D; B, C) = −1.

17
2 Practice Problems and Solutions
§2.1 Lemma 9.40

Problem Statement

Let ABC be a triangle with contact triangle DEF and incenter I. Lines EF and
BC meet at K. Prove that IK ⊥ AD.

Let Γ be the incircle of ABC. Then, as AE and AF are tangent to Γ, line EF is the
polar of A. Thus, K lies on the polar of A. By La Hire’s Theorem, this implies that A
lies on the polar of K, say ℓ. Then note that as KD is tangent to Γ, ℓ passes through D
and also ℓ is perpendicular to KI.
Thus, as A also lies on ℓ, we have that AD ⊥ KI.

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§2.2 Theorem 9.41 (Desargues’ Theorem)

Problem Statement

Let ABC and XY Z be triangles in the projective plane. We say that the two
triangles are perspective from a point if lines AX, BY , CZ concur (possibly at
infinity), and we say that they are perspective from a line if the points AB ∩ XY ,
BC ∩ Y Z, CA ∩ ZX are collinear. Prove that the two conditions are equivalent.

¶ =⇒ To be written later.

¶ ⇐= Suppose that lines AX and BY meet at S, we show that S lies on CZ.

Now, we apply the part we just proved to triangle AXR and triangle BXQ. We have
that
AB, XY, QR, concurrent at P
and thus we have that

AX ∩ BY, AR ∩ BQ, XR ∩ Y Q are collinear.

Thus we have that S, C, and Z are collinear and the theorem is established.

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§2.3 USA TSTST 2012/4 (Problem 9.42)

Problem Statement

In scalene triangle ABC, let the feet of the perpendiculars from A to BC, B to CA,
C to AB be A1 , B1 , C1 respectively. Denote by A2 the intersection of lines BC and
B1 C1 . Define B2 and C2 analogously. Let D, E, and F be the respective midpoints
of the sides BC, CA, AB. Show that the perpendiculars from D to AA2 , E to BB2 ,
and F to CC2 are concurrent.

¶ Solution 1 I know this is a projective geometry handout but I found a synthetic

solution so let’s do it. Let A3 be the foot of D onto AA2 and define B3 and C3 similarly.
It is a deep theorem of complete cyclic quadrilaterals (Here we are using BCB1 C1 , with
center D) that A3 is the Miquel point of cyclic quadrilateral BCB1 C1 , with center D.
Now, A3 is the intersection of the circles BAC and B1 C1 A, other than A.

Claim — DA3 passes through H, the orthocenter of ABC.

Proof. Extend A3 D to meet the circumcircle of ABC again at say K. Then directing
angles, ∡ACK = ∡AA3 K = ∡AA3 D = 90◦ , which implies that K is the antipode of A
in circle (ABC). Now, it’s well known that H, D and the antipode of A in circle ABC
are collinear. Thus H lies on DK, which is the same as line DA3 .

Analogous claims about EB3 and F C3 finish the problem. The desired concurrency point
is H.

¶ Solution 2 We claim that the desired concurrency point is H. Indeed, note that in
complete cyclic quadrilateral BCB1 C1 , we have that BC ∩ B1 C1 = A2 , BC1 ∩ CB1 = A,
and BB1 ∩ CC1 = H. The circumcenter of BCB1 C1 is D. By Brocard’s Theorem, we
have that AA2 is the polar of H, which implies that AA2 ⊥ DH. Analogous equations
for B and C finish the problem.

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§2.4 Singapore TST (Problem 9.43)

Problem Statement

Let ω and O be the circumcircle and circumcenter of right triangle ABC with
∠ABC = 90◦ . Let P be any point on the the tangent to ω through A other than
A, and suppose ray P B intersects ω again at D. Point E lies on line CD such that
AE ∥ BC. Prove that P , O, E are collinear.

Let line AE meet ω again at S. Then note that AE ∥ BC =⇒ AE ⊥ AB, and thus S
is the antipode of B in ω.
Now, we use Pascal’s Theorem on hexagon AASBDC, which is degenerate. The
theorem says that the points

AA ∩ BD, AS ∩ CD, AC ∩ BS

are collinear. This translates exactly to P , E, O are collinear, as desired.

Remark. As a general heuristic, note that if you have a projective problem with lots of
points on a circle and their intersections, try using Pascal’s Theorem.

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§2.5 Canada 1994/5 (Problem 9.44)

Problem Statement

Let ABC be an acute triangle. Let AD be the altitude with D on BC, and let H
be any interior point on AD. Lines BH and CH, when extended, intersect AC, AB
at E, F respectively. Prove that ∠EDH = ∠F DH.

Let EF and BC meet at point X, and let AD and EF meet at K, in the projective plane.
Then, as the concurrent cevians AK, EB, F C in ∆AEF induce harmonic bundles, we
have that
(X, K; E, F ) = −1
Also, we have that ∡KDX = ∡ADX = ∡ADB = 90◦ . Thus, it follows from a deep
result on Right Angles and Angle bisectors in harmonic bundles that KD bisects ∠EDF .
Thus ∠EDH = ∠EDK = ∠F DK = ∠F DH as desired.

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§2.6 Bulgarian Olympiad 2001 (Problem 9.45)

Problem Statement

Let ABC be a triangle and let k be a circle through C tangent to AB at B. Side

AC and the C median of ∆ABC intersect k again at D and E, respectively. Prove
that if the intersection point of the tangents to k through C and E lies on the line
BD then ∠ABC = 90◦ .

Let X be the intersection of tangents to k from C and E. Let M be the midpoint of BA.
Note that we immediately obtain that BCDE is harmonic. Thus (B, D; C, E) = −1.
Now projecting onto AB, we have that
C
−1 = (B, D; C, E) = (B, A; Y, M )

where Y = CX ∩ AB. As M is the midpoint of AB we have that Y is the point at

infinity along lines AB and CX, focing AB ∥ CX. As CX and AB are both tangent to
k, it follows that k is the circle with diameter BC and thus ∠CBA = 90◦ .

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§2.7 ELMO Shortlist 2012 (Problem 9.46)

Problem Statement

Let ABC be a triangle with incenter I. The foot of the perpendicular from I
to BC is D, and the foot of the perpendicular from I to AD is P . Prove that
∠BP D = ∠DP C.

Introducing. . .
The projective plane!
Let IP ∩ BC = X. Then, as XD is tangent to the incircle with center I and AD ⊥ XI,
we see that AD is the polar of X. By the deep property of Incircle Polars, we see that X
also lies on EF , where DEF forms the contact triangle of ∆ABC, with E on CA and F
on AB.

Claim — (X, D; B, C) = −1.

Proof. Let AD ∩ EF = K. Then note that as the cevians AD, BE, CF concur at the
Gergonne point of ∆ABC, the cevians AK, F C, EB of ∆AEF induce the harmonic
bundle
(X, D; B, C) = −1

Also, note that ∡XP D = 90◦ . Thus by the deep property of Right Angles and Angle
bisectors in harmonic bundles, we see that P D bisects ∠BP C, which implies that
∡BP D = ∡DP C.

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§2.8 IMO 2014/4 (Problem 9.47)

Problem Statement

Let P and Q be on segment BC of an acute triangle ABC with ∠P AB = ∠BCA

and ∠CAQ = ∠ABC. Let M and N be points on AP and AQ such that P is the
midpoint of AM and Q is the midpoint of AN . Prove that the intersection of BM
and CN lies on the circumference of triangle ABC.

Remark. Note that this problem can easily be barybashed in just about 10 minutes. Cool.

¶ Solution 1 (Projective)-Prabodh Shejwalkar The circumcircle of ABC is Γ. BM

intersects Γ again at RB . CN intersects Γ again at RC . ℓB is the tangent to Γ at B and
ℓC is the tangent to Γ at C.
Now get ready for. . .
The projective plane!

Claim — ABRB C and ABRC C are harmonic.

Proof. Note that from the Tangent Secant Theorem and the similarity ∆AP B ∼ ∆CAB,

∡(ℓB , BC) = ∡BAC = ∡AP B = ∡(AM, BC)

which implies that ℓB ∥ AM . Let ∞B be the intersection of ℓB and AM at infinity. Then

as P is the midpoint of AM ,
B
(A, M ; P, ∞B ) = −1 = (A, RB ; C, B)

where we have projected onto Γ and used the fact that ℓB is tangent to Γ at B. Thus
ABRB C is harmonic.
Symmetrical argument using ℓC and RC gives that ABRC C is harmonic.

Thus, ARB and ARC are symmedians of ABC with vertex A. Thus it follows that
RB = RC and thus BM and CN meet on Γ.

¶ Solution 2 (Barycentric Coordinates) - Evan Chen Since P B = c2 /a we have P =

(0 : a2 − c2 : c2 ), so M = (−a2 : −− : 2c2 ). Similarly N = (−a2 : 2b2 : −−). Thus

BM ∩ CN = (−a2 : 2b2 : 2c2 )

which clearly lies on the circumcircle.

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Prabodh Shejwalkar — 7 July 2026 Study Notes on Projective Geometry

§2.9 Shortlist 2004 G8 (Problem 9.48)

Problem Statement

Given a cyclic quadrilateral ABCD, let M be the midpoint of side CD, and let N
be a point on the circumcircle of triangle ABM . Assume the point N is different
AN AM
from the point M and satisfies BN = BM . Let E = AC ∩ BD and F = BC ∩ AD.
Prove that E, F , N are collinear.

Apply a projective transformation that fixes (ABCD) as a circle and sends the interior
point M of the circle to its center O. Let the transformation send X to X ′ . Let ω be
the circumcircle of ∆A′ B ′ M ′ . Then we see that ω is the nine-point circle of ∆C ′ D′ F ′ ,
and E ′ is its orthocenter.
Remark. Note that A′ C ′ and B ′ D′ are altitudes and thus E ′ is the orthocenter. Also as
M ′ is the center of the circle and C ′ D′ is the diameter the midpoint condition holds.

Let the midpoint of E ′ F ′ be R′ .

Claim — (A′ , B ′ ; M ′ , R′ ) = −1.

Proof. First, we show that M ′ R′ is perpendicular to A′ B ′ . Let Z ′ be the antipode of F ′ in

circle F ′ D′ C ′ . Indeed, note that F ′ Z ′ ⊥ A′ B ′ holds, as follows from trivial angle chasing.
Then, taking a homothety with ratio 12 centered at E ′ gives that M ′ R′ is perpendicular
to A′ B ′ as homothety sends lines to lines parallel to itself and M ′ is the midpoint of
E′Z ′.
Now, note that M ′ A′ = M ′ B ′ , and thus by symmetry in isosceles triangle A′ M ′ B ′ we have
that M ′ R′ is the M ′ symmedian as the symmedian and the median from the apex coincide.
As R′ lies on ω by the Nine Point Circle Theorem, we have that (A′ , B ′ ; M ′ , R′ ) = −1.

Now, note that the given ratios on N and the distinctness imply that (A′ , B ′ ; M ′ , N ′ ) = −1.
Thus we have that R′ = N ′ . As R′ lies on line E ′ F ′ , it follows that N ′ lies on line E ′ F ′ .
As projective transformations preserve collinearity and cross ratios it follows that N lies
on EF in the original problem as well, completing the solution

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Prabodh Shejwalkar — 7 July 2026 Study Notes on Projective Geometry

§2.10 Sharygin 2013 (Problem 9.49)

Problem Statement

The incircle of triangle ABC touches sides BC, CA, AB at point A′ , B ′ , C ′

respectively. The perpendicular from the incenter to the C median meets the line
A′ B ′ in point K. Prove that CK ∥ AB.

Proof. Introducing the projective plane!

Let M be the midpoint of AB, and let CM meet A′ B ′ at S and the incircle at R and
T , with R closer to C. Also let lines CK and AB meet at X (possibly at infinity).
Note that by definition of polar, K lies on the polar of C. Thus by La Hire’s Theorem,
C lies on the polar of K. As CM ⊥ KI, we see that the polar of K is exactly the C
median. Thus, KR is tangent to the incircle as K is outside the incircle. Now, note that
T B ′ A′ R is harmonic as CA′ and CB ′ are tangents. Thus,
R C
−1 = (T, R; A′ , B ′ ) = (S, K; A′ , B ′ ) = (M, X; B, A)

and as M is the midpoint of AB, we see that X is a point at infinity, forcing CK ∥ AB.

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§2.11 Shortlist 2004 G2 (Problem 9.50)

Problem Statement

Let Γ be a circle and let d be a line such that Γ and d have no common points.
Further, let AB be a diameter of the circle Γ; assume that this diameter AB is
perpendicular to the line d, and the point B is nearer to the line d than the point A.
Let C be an arbitrary point on the circle Γ, different from the points A and B. Let
D be the point of intersection of the lines AC and d. One of the two tangents from
the point D to the circle Γ touches this circle Γ at a point E; hereby, we assume that
the points B and E lie in the same halfplane with respect to the line AC. Denote
by F the point of intersection of the lines BE and d. Let the line AF intersect the
circle Γ at a point G, different from A.

Prove that the reflection of the point G in the line AB lies on the line CF .

Let G′ be the reflection of G in the line AB. Then, we contend:

Claim — GE and BC meet on d.

Proof. We apply Pascal’s Theorem on the cyclic hexagon AGEEBC. Then we have that

AG ∩ BE, GE ∩ BC, EE ∩ AC

are collinear, which implies that GE ∩ BC lies on line DF , which is precisely the line
d.

Now, note that as G′ is the reflection of G over BC, GG′ is perpendicular to AB and as
AB is the diameter of Γ, GG′ is parallel to the tangent at Γ at B. Thus, we now apply
Pascal’s Theorem to the cyclic hexagon CG′ GEBB to get that

CG′ ∩ BE, G′ G ∩ BB, GE ∩ BC

are collinear, and thus CG′ ∩ BE lies on the line through ∩BC parallel to d, which is d.
As BE meets d at the unique point F , it follows that G′ lies on CF .

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Prabodh Shejwalkar — 7 July 2026 Study Notes on Projective Geometry

§2.12 USA January TST for IMO 2013 (Problem 9.51)

Problem Statement

Let ABC be an acute triangle. Circle ω1 , with diameter AC, intersects side BC
at F (other than C.) Circle ω2 , with diameter BC, intersects side AC at E (other
than C). ray AF intersects ω2 and K and M with AK < AM . Ray BE intersects
ω1 at L and N with BL < BN . Prove that lines AB, M L, N K are concurrent.

Let AL and BM meet at Q and let BK and AN meet at R. Let D be the foot of C
onto AB which lies on both ω1 and ω2 . Let H be the orthocenter of ABC.

Claim — K, L, M , N lie on a circle with center C.

Proof. By Power of a Point, we have that

HL · HN = HD · HC = HK · HM

and note that H lies on both segments KM and N L. Thus by Converse of Power of a
Point, we have that K, L, M , N lie on a circle.
Now, note that the perpendicular bisectors of N L and M K meet at C, because N , L
and M , K are reflections of each other across CA, BC respectively. Because ABC is
acute, AK < AM , BL < BN , we have that K, L, M , N lie on the circle in that order
and thus the perpendicular bisectors are distinct. Thus, this proves that C is indeed the
circumcenter. Forthwith we call the circle (KLM N ) as Γ, and all poles and polars are
now with respect to Γ.

Thus, note that as ∡BKC = ∡BM C = ∡ALC = ∡AN C = 90◦ , we have that BK, BM ,
AL, AN are all tangents to Γ.

Claim — Points Q, H, R are collinear.

Proof. First, apply Pascal’s Theorem on the degenerate cylic hexagon M M KLLN to
get that
Q, H, KL ∩ M N
are collinear. Then, apply Pascal’s Theorem to the degenerate cyclic hexagon KKLN N M
to get that
R, KL ∩ M N, H
are collinear, and thus the claim is established. (Note that KL ∩ M N is distinct from H,
Q, R).

Now, from the duality of La Hire’s Theorem, it follows that the polars of Q, H, R are
concurrent. The polar of Q is line LM . The polar of R is line KN , as follows from
tangency.

Claim — AB is the polar of H.

Proof. As H lies on the polar AM of B, by La Hire’s Theorem B lies on the polar of H.

As H lies on the polar BN of A, A lies on the polar of H. As the polar of H is a line,
that line must be line AB, as required.

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As the polars from Q, H, R are concurrent it follows that AB, M L, N K are concurrent.

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§2.13 Brazillian Olympiad 2011/5 (Problem 9.52)

Problem Statement

Let ABC be an acute triangle with orthocenter H and altitudes BD, CE. The
̸ A. Prove that the angle
circumcircle of ADE cuts the circumcircle of ABC in F =
bisectors of ∠BHC and ∠BF C meet on line BC.

Let M be the midpoint of BC which is the circumcenter of [Link] H ′ be the

reflection of H over BC which lies on the circumcircle of BAC. F is the Miquel point of
complete cyclic quadrilateral BEDC. Brocard’s Theorem states that F lies on the polar
of H, and further, it is a deep fact about complete cyclic quadrilaterals that the Miquel
point F is the inverse of H with respect to inversion around the circle BEDC. Thus, F ,
H, M are collinear.

Remark. Another way to prove this is to use the fact that ∡HF A = 90◦ and use the fact
that the reflection of H over the midpoint of BC is the antipode of A in the circumcircle of
ABC.

Now, we have that

∡M F C = 90◦ − ∡CF A = 90◦ − ∡CBA = ∡BAH = ∡BAH ′ = ∡BF H ′

and thus F H ′ is a symmedian of ∆F BC. It is a fundamental property of Symmedians

BH ′
that FF B
C = CH ′ , and from reflections we have that

BH BH ′ BF
= ′
=
HC CH FC
Now, let the angle bisector of ∠BF C meet BC at K and the angle bisector of ∠BHC
meet BC at L. Then by the angle bisector theorem,
BK BF BH BL
= = =
KC FC HC LC
and the acute condition ensures that both K, L lie on segment BC. Thus K = L and
the proof is established.

Remark. Note that if the angle bisectors coincide the statement is vacuous.

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§2.14 ELMO Shortlist 2013 (Problem 9.53)

Problem Statement

In ∆ABC, a point D lies on the line BC. The circumcircle of ABD meets AC at F
(other than A) and the circumcircle of ADC meets AB at E (other than A). Prove
that as D varies, the circumcircle of AEF always passes through a fixed point other
than A, and that this point lies on the median from A to BC.

√
We invert around A with radius AB · AC. As usual we denote the inverse with a star.
Note that AB ∗ = AC and AC ∗ = AB and thus ABC and AC ∗ B ∗ are similar. Thus
the median AM of ABC transforms into the symmedian AM ∗ of AB ∗ C ∗ . Let Γ be the
circumcircle of AB ∗ C ∗ , all pole and polar arguments are to be with reference to this
circle.
We see that D∗ is an arbitraty point on the circumcircle of AB ∗ C ∗ and E ∗ = B ∗ D∗ ∩AC ∗
and F ∗ = C ∗ D∗ ∩ AB ∗ . Note that as D∗ varies, the point X = AD∗ ∩ B ∗ C ∗ lies on
a fixed line, namely B ∗ C ∗ . By Brocard’s Theorem on cyclic quadrilateral AB ∗ C ∗ D∗ ,
E ∗ F ∗ is the polar of X. And thus, By La Hire’s Theorem, line E ∗ F ∗ passes through a
fixed point, say Y ∗ .
By the duality of La Hire’s Theorem, we see that B ∗ C ∗ is the polar of Y ∗ , which implies
that Y ∗ is the intersection of the tangents at B, ∗C ∗ to Γ. Thus, line AY ∗ is a symmedian
of AB ∗ C ∗ .
Now, inverting back, we see that the circumcircle of AEF passes through a common
point Y that lies on the A median, as required.

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Prabodh Shejwalkar — 7 July 2026 Study Notes on Projective Geometry

§2.15 APMO 2008/3 (Problem 9.54)

Problem Statement

Let Γ be the circumcircle of triangle ABC. A circle passing through points A and C
meets the sides BC and BA at D and E, respectively. The lines AD and CE meet
Γ again at G and H, respectively. The tangent lines to Γ at A and C meet the line
DE at L and M , respectively.
Prove that the lines LH and M G meet at Γ.

Introducing. . .
The projective plane!
Let AD ∩ CE = R and let BR ∩ AC = T . Then, we consider a projective transformation
that preserves Γ and sends T to the center of the circle Γ”. We denote the transformed
image of X by X”. Then we have that A”C” is the diameter of Γ”.Also, B”T ” is a
median and thus by Ceva’s Theorem, we get

A”T ” C”D” B”E” C”D” E”A”

= 1 =⇒ = =⇒ D”E” ∥ A”C”
T ”C” D”B” E”A D”B” B”E”
As A”C” is the diameter, the quadrilateral A”C”L”M ” is thus a rectangle. Let L”H”
and G”M ” meet at X”. Then, note that A”L”H”E” and G”D”M ”C” are cyclic from
the right angles

∡A”L”E” = ∡A”H”E = ∡D”G”C = ∡D”M ”C” = 90◦

Thus, we have that

∡H”X”G” = ∡L”X”M ” = ∡L”M ”X” + ∡X”L”M ” = ∡D”M ”G” + ∡H”L”E”

= (∡C”M ”G” − 90◦ ) + (∡H”L”A” − 90◦ ) = ∡C”M ”G” + ∡H”L”A”

= ∡C”D”G” + ∡H”E”A” = ∡B”D”A” + ∡C”E”B”
= (90◦ − ∡D”A”B”) + (90◦ − ∡C”E”B”) = ∡B”A”D” + ∡E”C”B”
= ∡B”A”G” + ∡H”C”B” = ∡H”A”G”
and thus T ” lies on Γ”. As our projective transformation insured that for all points X
on Γ, X” lies on Γ” and projective transformations are bijective and preserve collinearity,
we have that LH and M G meet at X on Γ as desired.

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Prabodh Shejwalkar — 7 July 2026 Study Notes on Projective Geometry

§2.16 Brianchon’s Theorem (Problem 9.55)

Problem Statement

Let ABCDEF be a hexagon circumscribed about a circle ω. Prove that AD, BE,
CF are concurrent.

Let sides AB, BC, CD, DE, EF , F A be tangent to ω at P , Q, R, S, T , U respectively.

By Pascal’s Theorem on hexagon U P QRST , we have that

P U ∩ RS, P Q ∩ ST, QR ∩ T U

are collinear. Now, note that the pole of AD is the intersection of the polars of A and D
by the duality of La Hire’s Theorem. Thus, the pole of AD is

P U ∩ RS

By symmetry, the poles of BE, CF are

P Q ∩ ST

and
QR ∩ T U
As they are collinear, we have that by the duality of La Hire’s Theorem, the polars AD,
BE, CF are concurrent.

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Prabodh Shejwalkar — 7 July 2026 Study Notes on Projective Geometry

§2.17 ELMO Shortlist 2014 (Problem 9.56)

Problem Statement

Suppose ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral inscribed in circle ω. Let E = AB ∩ CD

and let F = AD ∩ BC. Let ω1 , ω2 be the circumcircles of triangles AEF , CEF
respectively. Let G and H be the intersections of ω and ω1 , ω and ω2 , respectively,
with G ̸= A and H ̸= C. Show that lines AC, BD, GH are concurrent.

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