Unit 01

Introduction to Plain Cement Concrete & Its Constituent

Concrete technology is the study of concrete materials and concrete mix design used in the
construction industry. It includes laboratory and practical work related to concrete mixing, testing,
preparation, transportation, casting, compaction, and curing of fresh concrete.
Concrete and steel are the two most widely used structural materials. They may either complement
each other or be used independently, depending on the type and function of the structure. Concrete
is a commonly used man-made construction material produced by mixing cement, aggregates, and
water in proper proportions. This mixture is placed into formwork, where it hardens and gains
strength over time.
For good structural concrete, two important conditions must be satisfied:
• The concrete should perform well in its fresh state during mixing, transportation, placing,
and compaction.
• The hardened concrete should possess adequate strength and durability.
Fresh concrete should have proper consistency so that it can be compacted easily without excessive
effort. It should also remain cohesive during transportation and placing, without segregation of
materials. In its hardened state, concrete must provide sufficient compressive strength and long-
term durability.
The strength, durability, and overall performance of concrete depend on:
• The quality of its ingredients
• The mix proportions
• Methods of mixing and compaction
• Proper placing and curing practices
Concrete has high compressive strength but low tensile strength. Therefore, steel reinforcement is
added where tensile stresses are expected, forming Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC). Concrete
without reinforcement is known as Plain Cement Concrete (PCC).
Advantages
• Concrete has high compressive strength and good resistance to weathering and corrosion.
• Concrete is economical for construction because most of its ingredients are locally
available.
• Fresh concrete can be easily handled, moulded, and formed into almost any shape or size.
• Concrete is widely used in structural applications when combined with steel reinforcement.
• Concrete can be pumped easily, allowing it to be placed in difficult locations.
• It is durable and fire-resistant, requiring relatively low maintenance.
• Concrete can also be sprayed and used to fill cracks during repair works.
Disadvantages
• Concrete has low tensile strength and therefore develops cracks easily.
• Fresh concrete shrinks during drying and hardened concrete expands when wet.
• Concrete expands and contracts with temperature changes.
 • Efflorescence may occur on concrete surfaces.
• Under sustained loading, concrete may undergo creep.
• Concrete lacks ductility.

Use of Concrete in Structures

At present, concrete is one of the most widely used construction materials in the world. Its annual
consumption is extremely high because of its versatility, ease of use, and broad range of
applications in both structural and non-structural works. The use of concrete in construction
continues to increase rapidly. Some major applications are listed below:
• Buildings: Used in both structural and non-structural components.
• Bridges: Used in piers, decks, and superstructures.
• Steel Structures: Used as foundation bases for steel frameworks.
• Tunnels: Used in underground construction works.
• Slope Stabilization: Used for shotcreting and retaining structures.
• Offshore Structures: Used in marine and oil extraction structures.
• Nuclear Structures: Provides excellent protection against radiation.
• Refractory Applications: Suitable for high-temperature conditions.
• Fireproofing: Commonly used for protecting steel structures from fire.
• Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete: Modern construction technologies have expanded
the use and popularity of concrete.
Constituents of Concrete
Concrete is a composite material made up of a binder and fillers. The binder, known as cement
paste, holds the fillers together to form a solid mass. Therefore, concrete mainly consists of two
components:
1. Aggregates
2. Cement paste
The cement paste is formed by mixing cement and water. This paste binds the aggregates, such as
sand, gravel, or crushed stone, into a hard rock-like mass through the chemical reaction between
cement and water. Chemical admixtures may also be added to improve the properties of concrete.
These materials influence both the fresh and hardened properties of concrete. A well-designed
concrete mix provides the necessary durability and strength once hardened. A typical mix contains
(10–15)% cement, (60–75)% aggregate, and (10–15)% water by weight. Producing strong,
durable, and uniform concrete depends on careful control of these components.
Cement
Cement is one of the most important binding materials in construction. It is adhesive and cohesive
— it bonds materials together when mixed with water. Cement is a compound mixture produced
by burning limestone and clay at very high temperatures, between 1400°C and 1600°C.
Production of Portland Cement
The process begins with quarrying limestone (CaCO₃). Modern Portland cement — also called
Ordinary Portland Cement — closely resembles the quality of Portland Stone found in Dorset, UK.
Huge crushers break the blasted limestone into small pieces. The crushed limestone (calcareous,
containing calcium carbonate or lime chalk) is then mixed with clay (argillaceous/siliceous,
containing alumina) and ground together into a fine, homogeneous powder — though this powder
remains microscopically heterogeneous.
The mixture is heated in long rotating steel kilns, up to 6 meters in diameter and 180 meters in
length, mounted on an incline. Raw materials enter at the high end and slowly move downward
as the kiln rotates. At the low end, fuel is injected and burned to provide the necessary heat. The
process can take up to 2 hours, depending on the length of the kiln.
As the mixture travels down the kiln, it passes through four stages of transformation:
1. Evaporation — Free water is removed.
2. Calcination — Bound water and carbon dioxide are released.
3. Clinkering — Calcium silicates are formed.
4. Cooling — The final stage before collection.
The marble-sized pieces produced are called clinker. The clinker is cooled, ground, and mixed
with a small amount of gypsum (3–5%) — which regulates setting — to produce general-purpose
Portland cement.
Manufacturing of Cement
Dry Process
In the dry process, raw materials are proportioned and mixed/ground in dry conditions. The blend
is then corrected for composition. About 12% water is added to convert the blended mass into
pellets, which allow airflow and heat exchange in a rotary kiln. The pellets are charged into the
kiln at 1400–1600°C to form clinker. The clinker is then dropped into a cooler and stored in silos
or bins, before being ground to the required fineness in a ball mill with 3–5% gypsum added.
The dry process is more economical and energy-efficient than the wet process, which is why most
plants today are upgrading to this method.
Wet Process
In the wet process, limestone quarried from mines is first crushed into smaller fragments and fed
into a ball mill, where it is mixed with clay or shale and converted into a slurry — a creamy liquid
— by adding 35–50% water.
The chemical composition of the slurry is checked and corrected to meet required standards. It is
then sprayed onto the hot surface of hanging chains inside a rotary kiln. As the slurry dries, it
undergoes a series of chemical changes. The material fuses at high temperature and is converted
into nodular pieces of 3–20 mm in size, called clinker.
The clinker is dropped into a cooler and stored in silos or bins. It is then ground to the required
fineness in a ball mill, with 3–5% gypsum added to regulate the setting time of the final cement
product.
Element and Compound Composition of Portland Cement
The oxide and Bogue compounds of cement are considered its major constituents. The key oxides
and their approximate composition limits in ordinary Portland cement are listed below.

Function of Each Oxide Compound

Lime (CaO) Lime is one of the most critical ingredients in cement. It governs the strength
characteristics of the final product. Too much lime makes cement unsound, causing expansion and
disintegration during setting and hardening. Too little lime reduces strength.
Silica (SiO₂) Silica combines with calcium oxide to form C₂S and C₃S, the compounds primarily
responsible for cement's strength. An excess of silica increases strength but significantly prolongs
the setting time.
Alumina (Al₂O₃) Alumina governs the setting action of cement. A higher alumina content
accelerates setting but weakens the overall strength of the cement.
Iron Oxide (Fe₂O₃) Iron oxide is responsible for the characteristic grey colour of cement. It also
contributes to increasing the strength of cement.
Sulphur Trioxide (SO₃) Sulphur trioxide is responsible for soundness, compactness, and
crystalline formation after setting.
Magnesia (MgO) In small quantities, magnesia imparts hardness, colour, and strength to cement.
However, a larger amount makes the cement unsound.
Alkalies (Soda & Potash) Excess alkalies in cement cause efflorescence — the appearance of
white salt deposits on the surface of hardened cement or concrete.
The identification of major compounds in cement is largely based on R.H. Bogue's work. It is
also called Bogue's compound. The equations used to determine the quantity of these
compounds from oxide composition of raw material are called Bogue's equations.
Set of Bogue's Equations
• C₃S = 4.07(CaO) − 7.60(SiO₂) − 6.72(Al₂O₃) − 1.43(Fe₂O₃) − 2.85(SO₃)
• C₂S = 2.87(SiO₂) − 0.754(3CaO·SiO₂)
• C₃A = 2.65(Al₂O₃) − 1.69(Fe₂O₃)
• C₄AF = 3.04(Fe₂O₃)
Where: C = CaO, S = SiO₂, A = Al₂O₃, F = Fe₂O₃, S̄ = SO₃
Basic Properties of Cement Compounds
Tricalcium Silicate (C₃S)
• Mainly contributes to the early strength of cement.
• Produces a high heat of hydration.
 • The quality/density of C–S–H gel produced from this compound is slightly inferior to
that from C₂S.
• Produces more Ca(OH)₂ than C₂S.
Dicalcium Silicate (C₂S)
• Mainly contributes to the later strength of cement.
• Produces a low heat of hydration.
• The C–S–H gel produced from this compound is dense.
• Produces less Ca(OH)₂ than C₃S.
Tricalcium Aluminate (C₃A)
• Strength contribution of this compound is negligible.
• Produces a very high heat of hydration.
• Characterized by its very fast reaction, which can lead to flash setting of concrete; to
control this, gypsum is added to cement.
• Produces C₃AH₆ (cubical compound) after hydration.
• Harmful for durability — highly susceptible to sulphur attack.
Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite (C₄AF)
• Strength contribution of this compound is negligible.
• Produces high heat of hydration.
• Produces C₃FH₆ after hydration.
• Shows more resistance to sulphate attack than C₃A.

Aggregate

• Aggregates are chemically inert, solid bodies held together by cement. They come in
various shapes, sizes, and materials — ranging from fine particles of sand to large coarse
rocks. The selection of an aggregate is determined, in part, by the desired characteristics
of the concrete. For example, the density of concrete is determined by the density of the
aggregate. Soft, porous aggregates can result in weak concrete with low wear resistance,
while hard aggregates can produce strong concrete with high resistance to abrasion.
• Aggregates should be clean, hard, and strong. The aggregate is usually washed to
remove dust, silt, clay, organic matter, or other impurities that could interfere with the
bonding reaction with cement paste. It is then separated into various sizes by passing the
material through a series of screens with different size openings.
• The choice of aggregate is determined by the proposed use of the concrete. Normally,
sand, gravel, and crushed stone are used to make concrete. The aggregate should be well-
graded to improve packing efficiency and minimize the amount of cement paste needed,
which also makes the concrete more workable.

Classification of Aggregates
Classification Based on Geological Origin
Natural Aggregate
Natural aggregates are derived from natural sources and may have been naturally reduced to size,
or may require reduction by crushing. River deposits are the most common and one of the best
quality sources. The second most common source is quarried rock, which is reduced to size by
crushing. Natural aggregates are classified according to their geological mode of formation into
three types:
• Igneous rock
• Sedimentary rock
• Metamorphic rock
Igneous Rock
Normally, all types of aggregate from igneous rock sources are considered suitable for concrete.
Metamorphic Rock
Aggregate from metamorphic rock sources shows weak planes of foliation and is generally not
considered very suitable. However, aggregates like quartzite and gneiss still produce good
quality concrete of their class.
Sedimentary Rock
The quality of aggregate from sedimentary rock sources varies considerably, depending upon the
pressure under which the original rock was compacted and the cementing material within it.
Normally, limestone and siliceous sandstone can produce good quality concrete.
Within any group, the quality of aggregate may vary from place to place due to changes in
structure and texture of the parent rock. Many properties of aggregate — such as chemical and
mineral composition, specific gravity, hardness, strength, and physical and chemical stability —
entirely depend on the quality of the parent rock. Aggregate from igneous rock makes highly
satisfactory concrete compared to sedimentary and metamorphic rock.

Artificial Aggregate
Artificially made aggregates used for special concrete or produced as industrial by-products.
Examples include broken bricks, blast furnace slag, and steel shots.
Clean Broken Bricks: Obtained by cleaning broken bricks. Not suitable for wear and tear
surfaces; can be used in low to medium strength concreting. Brick aggregate is not suitable for
waterproof, coarse, or reinforced concrete work if the crushing strength of the brick is less than
30–35 MPa.
Blast Furnace Slag: A by-product of pig iron production in a blast furnace.
Steel Shots: Steel aggregate used for high-density concrete. It is used in nuclear power plants.

Classification Based on Size of Aggregate

Fine Aggregate
Aggregate passing through a 4.75 mm IS sieve is considered fine aggregate. IS 383:1970 further
classifies fine aggregate into various zones depending on its fineness.
Coarse Aggregate
Aggregate retained on a 4.75 mm IS sieve. Coarse aggregate may be:
• Crushed gravel
• Uncrushed gravel
 • Partially crushed gravel
All-in Aggregate
Sometimes combined aggregates are available in nature, comprising different fractions of fine
and coarse aggregate — known as all-in aggregate. This type of aggregate is not suitable for
high quality concrete work.
Single Size Aggregate
Aggregate containing a higher quantity of one particular size type is called single size aggregate.

Classification Based on Mineralogical Composition

Calcareous — Containing calcium minerals.
Siliceous — Containing silica minerals.

Classification Based on Density

Light Weight
Light weight aggregates have a specific gravity of less than 2.5 (< 2.5). Used to produce
concrete with a unit weight of up to 1200 kg/m³.
Medium Weight
Medium weight aggregates have a specific gravity between 2.5–2.7. Commonly used in
construction. Used to produce concrete with a unit weight of 2300–2600 kg/m³.
Heavy Weight
Heavy weight aggregates have a specific gravity of greater than 2.7 (> 2.7). Normally used in
radiation shielding. Examples include ferro-phosphorus, magnetite, and iron shots, having
specific gravities of 5.8–6.8, 4.2–5.2, and 6.2–7.8 respectively.

Classification Based on Shape of Aggregate

Rounded
Aggregate with round particles, directly obtained from rivers or quarries without any processing.
Due to its minimum surface area, this type of aggregate:
• Gives good workability with a lower W/C ratio
• Requires minimum cement paste for bonding
• Percentage of void varies from 33–38%
• Has less interlocking, resulting in poor bond — unsuitable for high strength concrete
and pavement
Irregular
Irregular aggregates fall between rounded and angular aggregate. Normally obtained from
natural quarries. Key characteristics:
• Workability and interlocking properties lie between round and angular aggregate
• Percentage of void varies from 33–38%
• Has better interlocking than rounded aggregate
• However, still considered unsuitable for high strength concrete
Angular
Aggregate with angular particles, obtained by manual or machine crushing. Key characteristics:
• Angular and rough surface provides good interlocking bond
• Percentage of void varies from 38–40%
• Has less workability and requires more cement paste due to greater surface area
• Suitable for high strength concrete

Flaky

• Flaky aggregate has its least dimension less than 0.6 times its mean dimension. It
relatively comprises thin particles. Due to its poor bonding and low strength, it is not
considered suitable for medium or high strength concrete.

Elongated

• Elongated aggregate has its larger dimension greater than 1.8 times its mean dimension.
It relatively comprises long particles. Due to its poor bonding characteristics, it is not
considered suitable for medium or high strength concrete.

Some Key Terminologies

Specific Gravity

Specific gravity is the ratio of the mass of a solid in a given volume of sample to the mass of
an equal volume of water at the same temperature.

Absolute Specific Gravity

Absolute specific gravity refers to the volume of solid material excluding voids. If the volume
of aggregate includes the voids, it is called the apparent specific gravity.
 • The specific gravity of aggregate provides valuable information about its quality and
value. Higher specific gravity indicates harder and stronger concrete.

Bulk Density

Bulk density clearly depends on how densely the aggregate is packed. For a material of given
specific gravity, bulk density depends on the size distribution and shape of particles.

Voids

The empty space between aggregate particles is called voids. It is the difference between the
gross volume of aggregate and the volume occupied by solid particles alone.

Void ratio = 1 − (Bulk Density / Apparent Specific Gravity)

Water

Water is the key ingredient which, when mixed with cement, forms a paste that binds the
aggregate together. It causes the hardening of concrete through a process called hydration.
Hydration is a chemical reaction in which the major compounds in cement form chemical bonds
with water molecules and become hydrates or hydration products.

Water needs to be pure in order to prevent side reactions that may weaken the concrete or
interfere with the hydration process. The role of water is important because the water-to-cement
(W/C) ratio is the most critical factor in producing "perfect" concrete. Too much water reduces
concrete strength, while too little makes it unworkable. A careful balance must be maintained so
that concrete is both strong and workable.

Purposes of Water in Concrete Construction

• Water for mixing or preparing concrete

• Water for washing fine and coarse aggregate
• Water for curing

Water for Making Concrete

Mixing water should not contain undesirable organic or inorganic constituents in excessive
proportion. It should be free from injurious amounts of deleterious materials. The strength and
durability of concrete is reduced by impurities present in water:
 • Excessive dissolved impurities (salts) reduce compressive strength by 10–30%
• Large quantities of chloride tend to cause persistent dampness, surface efflorescence, and
increased corrosion of reinforcing steel

Water for Cleaning Aggregates

Washing aggregate with impure water may deposit silt, clay, or organic matter on the surface of
the aggregate due to concentration of deleterious coating, which is harmful and may affect the
bond between cement paste and aggregate. Water brought in by the aggregate should also be free
from harmful materials.

Water for Curing

Curing is done either by ponding or by covering with jute bags wetted with water. The curing
water penetrates the cement element. If curing water contains various harmful ingredients, these
easily penetrate inside and cause deterioration of concrete. So, water suitable for mixing is also
used for curing.

Admixture

An admixture is defined as a material other than cement, aggregate, and water that is used as
an ingredient of concrete. It is added to the concrete mix immediately before or during mixing to
achieve a specific modification to the properties of ordinary cement concrete.

Concrete is now being used for a wide variety of purposes. In these conditions, ordinary concrete
may fail to exhibit the required quality, performance, or durability. Admixtures are therefore
used to enhance the properties of ordinary concrete so as to make it more suitable for any
situation.

Benefits of Admixtures

• Used to modify the properties of concrete

• Used to reduce the cost of concrete construction
• Modify the performance of hardened concrete
• Ensure the quality of concrete during mixing, transporting, placing, compacting, and
curing

Admixtures are generally added in relatively small quantities. To ensure proper functioning, a
degree of control is necessary — excess quantity may be detrimental to the concrete's properties.
Admixtures are either supplied in ready-to-use liquid form or pigment form. The effectiveness of
an admixture depends on the type and quantity of cement, water content, mixing time, slump,
and temperature of the concrete.

Classification of Admixtures
Admixtures are broadly classified into 2 categories:

A: General Purpose Admixtures

• Accelerating admixture (accelerators)

• Retarding admixture (retarders)
• Air entraining admixture
• Water reducing admixture

B: Speciality Category Admixtures

• Grouting admixture
• Air detraining admixture
• Gas forming admixture
• Corrosion inhibiting admixture
• Fungicidal, germicidal, or insecticidal admixture
• Colouring admixture or pigments
• Bonding admixture
• Shrinkage reducing admixture
• Water or damp proofing and permeability reducing admixture
• Concrete surface hardening admixture