LessonTwo:

Types ofDiodes

5. GunnDiodes

is a type of diode made from semiconductormaterials such as gallium

arsenide thatexhibits a negative resistance effect, allowing it to generate
microwave frequencies.
Unlike regular diodes,it does nothave a p-n junction; instead,it relies on the
Gunn effect, which occurs in materials with specific conduction band
properties.
The Gunn Effect is a special property of some materials like Gallium Arsenide
where applying a voltage makes the current start pulsating on its own,
producing microwave signals.
The internal structure of a Gunn diode consists entirely of N-doped
semiconductor material unlike other diodes with both P- and N-doped areas.
the diode can naturally generate high frequency waves

(a)Characteristic curve

(b) Applications:
Radar speed guns
Microwave relay data link transmitters.
Automatic dooropeners
(C) Properties of aGunn diode:

Negative differential resistance; Reliable oscillation

Microwave generation; compact size
Frequency tunability; less noisy

(d) Symbol:

6. Avalanche diodes:
- An avalanche diode is a semiconductor device designed to operate in
reverse breakdown mode
- it utilizes the avalanche breakdown effect to conduct large currents without
damage.
- It is primarily used forovervoltage protection and high-frequency
applications.

(a)Operation:

- The diode is connected in reverse bias, meaning the anode is connected

to the negative terminal and the cathode to the positive terminal of the
power source.

- Undernormal conditions, only a small leakage current flow.

 -As the reverse voltage increases beyond the breakdown voltage,the
electric field in the depletion region becomes strong enough to accelerate
free electrons.
-These high-energy electrons collide with bound electrons in the
semiconductor lattice, generating more free electrons through impact
ionization.
-This process continues exponentially, leading to a rapid increase in
current, known as avalanche multiplication.

(b)Characteristic curve:

(c) Properties of an Avalanche diode:

Avalanchebreakdown
- Operates in the avalanche breakdown region, high voltage
triggers impact ionization leading to rapid increase in current
Stable avalanche region
- The diode shows a stable and predictable avalanche breakdown
region which allows a controlled and reliable operation
High gain
-provides high multiple charge carries which lead to high current
gain during avalanche breakdown
Fast switching speed
-offers fastswitching speeds so it’s good forrapid change between
ON and OFF states
Noise generation
- It produces more noise.
Zenerbreakdown
 - Some avalanche breakdowns have Zener breakdown
characteristics.

(d ) Circuit symbol:

(e)Applications
Voltage reference; microwave frequency generators
Electronic protection; single photon avalanche detector
Radio frequency generators
Thyristors
1. SCR (silicon-controlled rectifier)
- is a semiconductor device used for switching and power control
applications.
- It operates as a controlled rectifier, meaning it can conduct
currentonly when a gate signal is applied, and it remains
conducting until the currentfalls below a certain threshold.

(a) Construction and symbol:

(b) Operating modes of an SCR:

1. Reverse blocking mode (off state)

- Anode (A) is negative relative to the Cathode (K) ( reverse bias).
- No gate current (G = 0A) applied.
- J2 is forward biased, j1 and j3 reverse biased

2. Reverse conducting mode (Breakdown mode) ON state

- Anode is negative relative to Cathode (reverse bias).

- Reverse voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage.
- If the reverse voltage is too high,the junction breaks down due to
excessive reverse voltage.
- A large reverse current flows, which can damage the SCR
permanently if not protected. (this type of mode is not mostly
used).
- J1 and J3 are forward biase; J2 is reverse biased

3. Forward blocking mode (Off state)

-Anode (A) is positive relative to the Cathode (K) ( forward bias).

No gate current (G = 0A) applied.
-The SCR remains OFF despite the forward voltage because no
gate currentis provided to trigger conduction.
- A small leakage current flows, but it does not conduct
significantly.
- J1 and J3 are reverse biased, J2 is forward biased

4. Forward conducting mode (ON state)

- Anode is positive relative to Cathode (forward bias).

- A gate pulse is applied (small positive currentat Gate).
- The SCR switches ON and remains conducting even if the gate
signal is removed.
- It behaves like a diode, allowing currentto flow freely from Anode
to Cathode.
 - The SCR turns OFF only when the current through it drops below
a threshold (called holding current).

(c ) Two methods of turning On the SCR

1. Gate turn on:

- The Anode is made positive relative to the Cathode (forward
bias).
-A small positive currentis applied to the Gate (G) terminal.
-This triggers the SCR into conduction, allowing a large currentto
flow from Anode to Cathode.
-Once turned ON,the SCR remains conducting even if the gate
signal is removed,provided the current through the SCR stays
above the holding current level.

2. Breakover voltage turn on:

- When the Anode-to-Cathode voltage exceeds the Breakover
Voltage the SCR enters avalanche breakdown, causing itto turn
ON.
- This occurs even without a gate signal due to excessive junction
breakdown.
- The SCR stays ON until the currentdrops below the holding
current.

(d ) Operation of a Two Transistor analogy:

1. When No Gate Current is Applied (SCR OFF)

- In the forward blocking state, both transistors are in cutoff mode
(high resistance).
- Only a small leakage current flows due to junction leakage.
- The SCR remains OFF as there is no regenerative action.

2. When a Gate Pulse is Applied (SCR Turns ON)

- A small gate current (I_G) is injected into the base of Q2 (NPN

transistor).
- This causes Q2 to turn ON, allowing currentto flow from collector
to emitter.
- The emitter current of Q2 acts as base currentfor Q1, turning Q1
ON as well.
- The collector current of Q1 furtherfeeds back into the base of
Q2, reinforcing conduction.
- This regenerative feedback continues until the SCR is fully ON,
allowing a large anode-to-cathode currentto flow.

3. Holding current
- Is the smallestamountof current required to keep an SCR turned
ON.

( e) SCR Characteristic curve:

(f) Applications for an SCR:

Relay controls
Time delay circuits
Regulated power supply
Static switches
Motor control
Heatercontrollers
Battery charging

SCR used to regulate the motion of a small motor:

See p.g 126 Fig: 3.18

Operation:

During (+) half cycle of the input signal SCR turns on when gate pulse is
applied.
During (-) half cycle of the input signal SCR turn off automatically in the
negative half cycle.
A diode ensures only (+) pulses reach the SCR gate.
A variable resistor Rv adjusts the conduction angle, controlling motor
speed.

2 . Diacs:

- is a two-terminal semiconductor device used primarily in AC power control

applications.

-It behaves like a switch, allowing current to flow in both directions once its breakover
voltage is exceeded.

- DIACs are commonly used in combination with TRIACs in circuits like light dimmers
and motor speed controls.
-They help trigger the TRIAC by providing a sharp switching action when the voltage
reaches a certain threshold.

-The DIAC turns on at a specific voltage level, and once it is conducted, itremains on
until the current drops below a certain value, typically during the zero-crossing point
of the AC signal.

(a) Construction; symbol; equivalent circuit

(b )Characteristic curve

(c ) Applications:

Used for triggering Triacs in AC circuits

Light dimmers
Motor speed control

3 . Triacs

-A TRIAC (Triode for Alternating Current) is a three-terminal semiconductor device

used to control the power flow in an AC circuit.

- It can conduct currentin both directions, making it ideal for alternating current
applications.
- The three terminals are the anode, cathode, and gate.

-The TRIAC behaves as a switch: when a small current is applied to the gate, itturns
the device on, allowing the current to flow between the anode and cathode.

-Once it is on, the TRIAC stays on until the current through it drops below a certain
threshold (zero crossing point of the AC signal).

(a) Construction: Pg 128 Fig: 3.21 (a)

(b) circuit symbol: Pg 129 Fig 3.21 (b)

(c ) Characteristic curve : Pg 129 Fig 3.21 (c )

(d )Applications:

-Phase Control: TRIACs are used in phase control circuits to regulate the amount of
power delivered to a load in AC systems by switching it ON orOFF during (+) and (-)
half cycles of the inputsinusoidal input.

Pg 130 Fig 3.22

4 . Quadracs

-is a type of four-terminal semiconductordevice that combines the functions of two

TRIACs in a single package.

- It is used forcontrolling powerin AC circuits, like how a TRIAC works but with the
ability to control two separate loads or phases in a more compact design.

(a)Symbol: Pg 130 Fig 3.23(a)

(b)Applications

AC motor speed control

Lighting control e.g light dimmers
Temperature modulation control e.g heat control
Quadrac used to control AC motors. pg 130 Fig 3.23 (b)
 5 . LASCR (light- activated SCRs)

-Is a conventional SCR that may be turned ON when incidentlight falls on the gate
region.

The work principle is the same as that of a normal SCR except that itis activated by
light. The LASCR has a gate terminal which allows it to be triggered by lightusing
typical SCR methods.

-
(a) Circuit symbols:
Pg. 131 Fig 3.24 (a)
(b) Equivalent circuit
Pg. 131 Fig 3.24 (b)

(c ) Applications

Optical light control

Relays
Phase control
Motor control
Computer applications
Used for logic circuits pg 132 Fig 3.25 (a)
Used in optocouplers pg 132 Fig 3.25 (b)

Open / closed loop systems

Open loop systems= system not monitored or controlled. No feedback connected.

Simple block diagram of an open loop system. Pg 132 Fig 3.26

Block diagram= pg 133 Fig 3.27 with SCR trigger circuit

Closed loop systems = when feedback is connected.

Simple block diagram of closed loop system. Pg 133 Fig 3.28

Block diagram= pg 134 Fig 3.29 with SCR trigger circuit.