AGGRESSION: ANTI-SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR

What is aggression

It is a behaviour intended to hurt or harm someone. This act can be extreme like murder while

others may be mild like quarrelling or exchanging bitter words.

Acts of aggression that are extreme are called violence while those which are mild are called

hostility. Hostility is very similar to prejudice in that it is a negative antagonistic attitude

towards another person. Aggression can take the form of physical or emotional harm.

There are two types of aggression: instrumental and emotional aggression. Note that

emotional harm is not the same as emotional aggression.

Instrumental aggression happens when harm is inflicted as a means to a desired end. For

example, when someone has been hired to kill another person (for personal gains/ or when

someone kills an attacker for self-defence.

Emotional aggression is inflicted for its own sake. For example, a jealous lover who hits a

rival with a stick or rival football fans fighting each other with stones and clubs.

Some causes of aggression

Several theories have been put forward to explain why people become aggressive towards

each other.
A. Biological theories

These are based on the promise that people are born with innate traits of aggression, some

people are aggressive by birth. They hold the view that human beings are genetically

programmed for aggression or violence. There are three related theories under this:

A1. The instinct theory

Sigmund Freud had a view that human violence stems from built-in tendencies to aggress

against others. He held the view that human aggression is instinctive. He believed that the

individual has two basic instinctive drives which are:

(i) Eros, also called libido or life instinct

(ii) Thanatos or death instinct

He called the instinct to live and obtain please libido or Eros and gave the name thanatos to

the death drive. When thanatos dominates the result is self-punishment suicide. According to

this viewpoint, aggression springs mainly from built-in fighting instinct that humans share

with many other species. Presumably, this instinct developed during the course of evolution

because it yielded many benefits

For example, fighting serves to disperse population over a wide area, thus ensuring maximum

use of available resources. And since it is often closely related to mating, such behaviour

often helps to strengthen the genetic makeup of species by assuring that only the strongest

and most vigorous individuals manage to reproduce.

Konrad Lorenz's view of instinct theory of aggression

Konrad who was the first to put up the instinct theory of aggression regarded aggression as an

innate and instinctive motivation where the will to live and the will to aggress are compatible

held the view that the instinct to aggress is common to many animal species. Lorenz however
differs from Freud as he states that aggressive behaviour will not occur unless it is triggered

by external cues.

Based on his observation of animals in their natural habitat, Lorenz argued that individuals

act aggressively towards others in order to survive in this very competitive world. So,

individuals harass each other to gain access to valuable resources like food, minerals,

territory, desirable mates, etc.

Genetically programmed perspective of aggression

That aggression can be inherited has been demonstrated in a number of studies. For example,

studies of identical twins have shown strong evidence of the role of genes in physical

aggression. Studies of adoptees have shown that the behaviour of adopted children resembles

the behaviour of their biological parents more than those of the adopters.

Instinct view rejected by social psychologists

Some social psychologists have rejected the instinctive view of human aggression. According

to them, it is difficult to give a genetic explanation of human aggression because aggression

in human beings is expressed in many different forms, how can such huge variations be

caused by genetic. Secondly the genetic theory of aggression is weak because all societies are

not equally aggressive. Several findings argue against the existence of universal innate

human tendencies toward aggression.

A2. Evolutionary perspective of aggression

Evolutionary perspective to a great extent believes that human aggression is adaptive in

nature and that aggressive acts help individuals to preserve their genetic material. Studies of

mate selection among human beings as well as aggression amongst animals have revealed
that aggression confers many evolutionary advantages among individuals of a given species

and helps them to successfully survive and adapt to their environment.

Under this theory, only those who survive are able to reproduce and therefore natural

selection would produce an aggressive instinct in human beings as well as in other animals.

In this case, the instinct theory is similar to the evolutionary theory.

B. Drive theories: The motive to harm others

Drive theories suggest that aggression originated from external conditions that give rise to the

motive to harm or injure others. In other words, drive theories suggest that various external

conditions (frustrations, physical pain, loss of face) serve to arouse a strong motive to engage

in harm-producing behaviour and such aggressive drive in turn leads to the performance of

overt assaults against others. One important drive theory of aggression was presented by

Dollard [Link], called the Frustration Aggression Hypothesis

The Frustration Aggression Hypothesis

Proposed by Dollard, et al (1939) at Yale University, the hypothesis states that aggression is

always a consequence of frustration and that frustration always leads to some kind of

aggression. It holds that frustrated people always engage in some type of aggression and that

acts of aggression result from some type of frustration.

According to this theory, just as food deprivation elicits a hunger drive, frustration elicits an

aggressive drive and just as the hunger drive prompts the search for food so the aggression

drive prompts the attempt to inflict harm.

However later review of the theory by Berberkowitze (1993) has put on a new perspective on

it. According to Berberkowitze, frustration is just but one of the many unpleasant experiences

that can lead to aggression by creating negative uncomfortable feelings. So according to him,
it is these negative feelings and not necessarily the frustration itself that can trigger

aggression.

Social cognition

Social cognition is defined as ways in which we interpret, analyse and use information about

the social world; how we think about other people, our relations with them and the social

environment on which we live. The way we process information about the social world,

positively or negatively can lead to what Leonard Berkowitze calls Cognitive Neoassociate

Analysis

This theory proposes that the feelings and thoughts interact and Berkowitze illustrates it as

follows: 'negative effects automatically stimulate various thoughts, memories and other

reactions that are relevant to two basic tendencies; fight and flight. These automatic thoughts

and reactions give rise to basic emotional experiences of anger and fear. How individuals

ultimately respond to these automatic thoughts and emotions is influenced by subsequent

higher order cognitive processing. People interpret the situation they are in(was that an insult

or a joke?), they think about how they feel (how angry am I), make causal attributions for

what let them to feel that way(Am I angry because of that remark) and weigh the

consequences of acting on their feelings(what would be the risk of retaliation?).

These thoughts produce more clearly differentiated feelings of anger or fear as well as

intentions to act.

There are many factors influencing higher cognition, however, for the purpose of illustration

and relevance to the school situation, we will look at the following two factors: consumption

of alcohol and provocation which are quite common problems in schools today.
• Alcohol consumption

This often increases aggressive and other risky behaviours. It has been proven that

even amongst individuals who are usually not aggressive, those who drink tend to

aggress more. Why and how?

a. alcohol reduces anxiety which in turn lowers people's inhibition against

aggression

b. drinking disrupts the way we process information. Intoxication causes alcohol-

mypia, the narrowing of people's focus of attention. Intoxicated people

respond to initial salient information about the situation, but often miss later

more subtle indicators. Alcohol mypia tend to lead to potentially destructive

behaviour such as engaging in risky sexual behaviour or even suicidal

attempts.

c. alcohol can also affect aggressiveness because of people's expectations about

its effects. When people expect alcohol to affect them and make them

aggressive the more likely it will have that effect on them.

• Provocation

Time and gain there are cries and counter cries from students that someone has

provoked them or has been provoked, consequently, retaliation ensues.

Most aggressive acts can be directly linked to some type of provocation. Provocation

takes the form of: expression or arrogance or disdain on the part of others; use of

harsh and unjustified criticism, especially criticism that attacks us rather than our

behaviour.

The negative effects caused by provocation plays a critical role in triggering

aggression. Reactions to physical pains, threat to self-esteem, feelings of jealousy,

social rejection, bad odour, heat, noise, overcrowding, having your team lose a game,
 teasing or bullying, all these can create negative feelings and thoughts thereby

increasing aggression

Aggression and Bandura social learning theory

-This is a popular theory of aggression

-It argued that aggression is mostly a learned behaviour and that it is learned through

observation especially if they are rewarded or punished (vicarious) for their

behaviour.

- Under this theory, models can influence both pro-social and anti-social behaviour.

- This theory argues that models who obtain desired goals through the use of

aggression and are not punished for their behaviour (vicarious disinhibition) are most

likely to increase aggression among followers/observers and the opposite tend to deter

aggressive behaviour among observers (vicarious inhibition).

The theory argues that people learn more than specific aggressive behaviour from aggressive

models, they also develop more positive attitudes and beliefs about aggression in general and

they construct schemas (scripts) that serve as guides for how to behave and solve social

problems.

These scripts are activated automatically in various situations leading to quick and often

unthinking aggressive responses that follow the scripts that they have learned.

In the same way that aggressive models influence aggressive behaviour in observers, the

opposite is true. Non aggressive models decrease aggressive behaviours. Observing a non

aggressive response to a provocative situation teaches a peaceful alternative and strengthens

existing restraints against aggression. Moreover, observing someone who is calm and

reasonable may help an angry person to settle down rather than strike out.
Cultural perspectives of aggression

Cultural factors greatly influence aggression. Certain cultural practices with respect to ,

sexuality, use of media both electronic and written among others are filled with violence and

aggression.

a. Gender differences

There are sex differences in aggression. Males tend to be more aggressive than females.

Research has shown that males are more likely to be arrested than females for violent

conduct.

Harris (1994) noted that:

Males engage in various forms of aggression including kicking, punching, hitting and using

weapons while females are found mostly to indulge more in verbal assaults. Harris found that

females engage in forms of aggression that make it difficult for the victims to identify the

aggressor or even to realise that they have been the target of the aggressive behaviour.

Males and females also differ with respect to one form of aggression called sexual coercion.

It involves words and deeds designed to overcome a partner's objection to engage in sexual

behaviour and they can range from verbal tactics such as false statements of love to threats of

harm and actual physical force. It has been found that males are far more likely to indulge in

sexual coercion than females (Mussweiler and Forster, 2000, Hogben et. al, 2001).

Research indicates that males are more likely than females to engage in various forms of

direct aggression, actions aimed at the target and which clearly stem from the aggressor, e.g.

physical assaults, pushing, shoving, throwing something at another person, shouting, making

insulting remarks. Females on the other hand were found to indulge more in indirect forms of

aggression, actions that allow the aggressor to conceal their identity from the victim and
which in some cases make it difficult for the victim to know that they have been the target of

intentional harm doing. Such actions include spreading vicious rumours about the target

person, gossiping behind this person back, telling others not to associate with the intended

victim and making up stories to get them in trouble.

b. Sexual jealousy

Sexual jealousy is a potential cause of aggressive behaviour. Sexual jealousy can be defined

as the perception of a threat to a romantic relationship by a rival for one's partner.

Research studies by Buss, et. al (1992), Parrot, (1991) and Sharpsteen, (1991) demonstrate

that individuals who feel that their lover has wronged them by flirting with another person

often experience strong feelings of anger and frequently think about or actually engage in

actions designed to punish their lover, the rivals or both. Some studies found that most of the

blame is on one’s lover rather than the rival.

c. Exposure to media violence

Exposure to media violence increases aggression in individuals. Research (Parrot, 1991),

found that exposure to aggressive models stimulate similar behaviour among observers.

Similarly, research studies have also concluded that exposure to violence in the mass media

(TV and movies) increases aggression

Some important findings of the various research studies with respect to exposure to media

violence and aggression are as follows: research on exposure to violent television, movies,

video games and music indicates that such material significantly increases the likelihood of

aggressive behaviour. Similarly, a large number of research studies also indicate that violent

pornography leads to aggressive behaviour. Exposure to violent pornography increases the

tendency of male learners to aggress against female learners. Watching movies about school

violence can also increase violence in schools that are peaceful.

Aggression in the long-term relationship

Aggression in the long-term relationship includes that which involves family members,

schoolmates, friends and co-workers and at times with people with whom we have intimate

relationships and can take many different forms such as child abuse, marital cruelty and

domestic violence among others. It can range from verbal abuses to physical fights and even

murderers. In the school set up we will focus on two which are: bullying in schools and

workplace aggression

Bullying in schools

One common type of aggression in school is bullying. It refers to a pattern of behaviour in

which one individual or more are chosen as the target of repeated aggression by one or more

others.

It is common among adolescent learners. The target person (victim) generally has less power

than the bullies(aggressors). The target of bullying are less able to stand up for themselves

and bring bullying to an end and bullies often behave in ways in which others have treated

them before.

Ways of reducing the occurrence of bullying

1. Training children to intervene rather than to simply stand by and watch

Bullying can be reduced if children are trained to intervene rather than to simply stand by

when bullying occurs. Various studies (O’Moore, 2000) show that girls are more willing to

intervene as compared to boys.

2. Providing direct means of dealing with the bullies

Potential victims must be provided with direct means of dealing with bullying. They must be

told precisely what to do and who to see when bullying occurs. Details of the contact person
including their numbers should be prominently displayed and distributed among students.

Regular seminars and workshops and the involvement of peer groups in tackling bullying can

go a long way in reducing this problem.

3. Using teachers to enhance learner’s self-esteem

Bullying can also be reduced with the help of teachers. One recent study, (O’Moore, 2000)

found that teachers should be made by teachers to enhance children’s feelings of self-worth

and this can help in reducing bullying.

4. Using parents and parent-teacher associations to deal with the vice.

As reported in Norway (Rowland, 2000) and Netherlands (Limper, 2000) help can be sourced

from parents through the Parent’s Association as well as the help of outside experts such as

counselling psychologists and others to reduce bullying.

Workplace aggression

Also called workplace violence, workplace aggression is defined as aggression occurring in

workplace settings. It is a form of behaviour through which individuals seek to harm others in

their workplace (Neuman and Baron, 1998).

Research suggests that workplace violence is covert rather than overt in nature.

Covert aggression is very much similar to indirect aggression. It is relatively subtle in nature

and allows aggressors to harm others while simultaneously preventing them from being

identified as the source of the harm. Such violence has been increasing at a higher rate.

Some convert types of aggression

1. Expression of hostility: Hostility expressed through verbal and symbolic behaviour such

as belittling others opinions, talking behind their backs and others are common in workplaces

.
2. Obstructionism: in this form of behaviour attempt is made to obstruct or impede the

targets performance. It can take many different forms, some of which are as follows: failure

to return phone calls, failure to respond to memos, letters and failure to provide or transmit

needed information.

Some overt aggression

Though rare it does occur in workplaces. It includes physical assault, theft or destruction of

property, threats of physical violence and murder. At times it may includes incivility which is

low-intensity deviant behaviour with ambiguous intent to harm the target. This form of

aggressive act violates workplace norms for mutual respect. It includes the following:

a. Sending rude emails

b. Excluding someone from a meeting

c. Giving hostile looks or stares

d. Addressing a coworker inappropriately or unprofessionally

Causes of workplace aggression

1. Perceived unfairness: Workplace violence occurs when individuals perceive unfairness

(Neuman and Baron, 1997). When individuals feel that they have been treated unfairly either

by the organisation or its members, they experience intense feelings of anger and resentment

and often seek to settle their scores by harming the people they hold as responsible for their

problems.

2. Structural changes: Workplace aggression has also been attributed to many structural

changes that are taking place in organisations. These structural changes include; downsizing,

payoffs, increased use of part-time employees and others. The greater the number of such

changes happening, the greater the aggression occurring in such workplaces.

3. Abusive supervision: Abusive supervision involves a continued pattern of aggression by

bosses towards their subordinates. It is one form of workplace aggression in which the
supervisor or immediate boss often shouts at subordinates, ridicules their work, always seems

to be in an irritable mood and seemingly evaluates subordinates' work in a totally

unpredictable and unfair manner. Abusive supervision has damaging consequences in that

among others, it creates an unpleasant work environment which can influence efficiency and

productivity.

Techniques for preventing and controlling aggression in society

since aggression originates from a complex interplay of external events, cognition and

personal characteristics, it can be prevented or reduced. Some of the techniques for

preventing and controlling aggression are as below:

1. Punishment

Punishment can be defined as the delivery of aversive consequences. It is a major technique

for reducing aggression. The following things are done to people who are given punishment:

✓ Made to pay fines

✓ Put in prison

✓ Placed under solitary confinement

✓ Receive physical punishment

It is a common belief among the members of society that those individuals indulging in acts

of aggression need to be punished. The following considerations must be made in

administering punishment:

• The amount of punishment people receive should be matched to the magnitude of the

harm they have caused. For example, breaking someone’s arm should be subjected to

less punishment compared to someone who has permanently harmed someone

including killing. Additionally, the magnitude of the punishment should take into

account the extenuating (mitigating or justifying) circumstances. For example, was

 there some good reason for indulging in aggressive actions such as self-defence or

was it an act of hostile aggression? The main aim of punishing the individual who has

indulged in acts of aggression is to deter him or her or the would-be aggressors from

engaging in such acts in future.

• Secondly, aggressive acts which are hard to detect, for example, that which involve

hidden or convert forms of harming others, should be strongly punished because only

strong punishment will deter people from engaging in actions they believe they can

get away with. Overt forms of aggression tend to have long-lasting harmful effects on

the dignity of the victim and therefore require a stiffer punishment.

Common sense suggests that either punishing the aggressors for their violent

behaviour or merely threatening to do so may be a highly effective means of

preventing these persons from engaging in such activities, on the basis of such a

general belief, most societies have established severe punishments for murder, rape,

2. Self-regulation
Self-regulation refers to internal mechanisms for controlling aggression. It involves
displaying self-control and resistant. It refers to our capacity to regulate many aspects
of our behaviour including display of overt aggression. Self-regulation involves the
use of cognitive effort to control aggression. Changing one’s cognition and
attributions about a given event can lead to reduction in aggressive behaviour.

3. Forgiveness
Forgiveness can be defined as giving up the desire to punish someone who has hurt us
and seeking, instead, to act in a kind and helpful ways towards them. Forgiveness
helps to reduce subsequent aggression and retaliation.

4. Non-violence
It is an important principle of peace that has been a part of the Indian philosophy and
has been advocated by Lord Buddha, Mahatma Gandhi and others. Non-violence
helps to reduce aggressive acts. In public life, especially protests against the
authorities, non-violence plays an important role.

5. Exposure to nonaggressive models

Aggression results due to exposure to aggressive models. Similarly, exposing
individuals to non-aggressive models can lead to a decrease in aggression. Studies by
Baron and associates (1972) have shown that individuals exposed to actions of non-
aggressive models later demonstrate lower levels of aggression than persons not
exposed to such models. Research has shown that it is very useful to plant
nonaggressive models in tense and threatening situations. Their presence will help
reduce aggression and violence.

6. Training in social skills

One of the reasons individuals indulge in aggression in that they lack some form of
social skills. The result is often a communication breakdown. Research has shown
that individuals who lack the social skills of communication and self-expressions, are
insensitive to the feelings and emotions of others and are likely to become aggressive.
Helping such individuals to learn appropriate communication skills, to learn
expressive modes of frustration and to become sensitive to emotional feelings of
others will consistently help reduce aggression.

7. Legislation
Making stricter rules and regulations can help curtail aggression. Two experts on
criminal homicide have estimated that probably less than 5% of all killings are
premeditated, planned or intentional (Wolfgang & Ferracuti, 1967. p.189). the other
95% occur in the heat of passion or as a result of one’s personal intention to harm but
not to kill another person. The availability of a gun makes it easier for an individual to
use the weapon impulsively. These feelings suggest the need for stricter gun
legislation, especially the regulation of handguns. In further support of this proposal,
it has been found that some countries with stringent gun control laws have much
lower homicide rates than countries like the United States of America where gun laws
are not strict. In Japan for example, it is illegal for any resident except members of
researchers and sporting marksmen to own handguns. Laws concerning the use of
guns are carefully regulated. Although there are many differences between Japanese
and American society, which might account for the differences in homicide rates,
police officials in Japan feel that their gun laws, coupled with their stringent drug
laws have significantly reduced incidences of homicide.

8. Decreasing anonymity
Urban living arrangement foster anonymity. City residents who live in high-rise
apartments may neither know nor want to know their neighbours. Although the values
and traditions of the group foster this kind of impersonal anonymity, so do the
physical arrangements of the apartments. Lack of anonymity leads to a lack of identity
which leads to aggressive behaviour. Decreasing anonymity can help to control
crimes. Most violent acts by learners in school are through perceived anonymity.

9. Prison reform
Does prison sentence deter and therefore reduce aggression and crime? Zimbardo’s
experiment reported that 70% of prison inmates released return to patterns of crime
and their crimes are more violent after imprisonment than they were before
(Zimbardo, 1971). This fact makes it very clear that the current prison system is
failing to rehabilitate prisoners. Instead, the prisons seem to be training grounds for
crime and aggression. How could the prisons be improved? The social psychologist
who performed the prison experiment and who has had extensive contact with several
ex-convicts has made several suggestions that if implemented can help reduce
aggression and crime. In Malawi, urgent prison reforms are needed so that prisoners
are rehabilitated.