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MODULE 4 - Photonics

Interaction of radiation with matter – Einstein’s A and B coefficients, Prerequisites for lasing
actions, Types of LASER – Semiconductor diode LASER, Use of attenuators for single photon
sources, Optical modulators – Pockel’s effect, Kerr effect, Photodetectors – Photomultiplier
tube, Single Photon Avalanche Diode, Optical fiber, Derivation of Numerical aperture, V-
number, Number of modes, losses in optical fiber, Mach-Zehnder interferometer, Numerical
problems.

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Introduction: The word LASER was coined as an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation.

Laser is a device, which emits a powerful, monochromatic collimated beam of light. The
emitted light waves are coherent in nature. The first laser, ruby laser was invented by
[Link] in the year 1960. Since then, the development of lasers is extremely rapid. The
laser action is being demonstrated in many solids, liquids, gases and semiconductor.

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Characteristics of Laser beam:

Laser is a light source. Laser light has the following important characteristics

 Coherent
 High Monochromatic
 High Directionality
 Highly Intensity
 Divergence
i) Coherent: The Laser light is coherent. A Laser emits the light waves of same
wavelength and in same phase.
ii) Monochromatic: If the light coming from a source has only one frequency or single
wavelength is called monochromatic source and the light is called monochromatic
light. In case of Laser beam, it has the wavelength confirmed to very narrow range of
a few angstroms.
iii) Directionality: An ordinary source of light emits light in all directions. In case of

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Laser, the photons of a particular direction are only allowed to escape. Thus, the Laser
beam is highly directional.
iv) Intensity: The intensity of ordinary light decreases as it travels in the space. This is
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because of its spreading. The Laser does not spread with distance. It propagates in
the space in the form of narrow beam and its intensity remains almost constant over
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long distance.
v) Divergence: Divergence is the measure of its spread with distance. The angular
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spread in ordinary light is very high because of its propagation in the form of a
spherical wave front. The divergence in the Laser beam is negligible. A very small
divergence is due to the diffraction of Laser light when it emerges out from the
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partially silvered mirror.

Interaction of Radiation with Matter:

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We know that, when light is absorbed by the atoms 0r molecules, then it goes from the
lower energy level or ground state (E1) to the higher energy level or excited state (E2) and during
this transition from E2 to E1, the light is emitted from the atoms or molecules.

Let us consider an atom exposed to (light) photons of energy 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ℎ𝛾. Three distinct
process takes place,

i. Induced Absorption
ii. Spontaneous Emission
iii. Stimulated Emission

(i) Absorption or Stimulated Absorption:

Consider an atom initially in the ground state of energy 𝐸1. If an electromagnetic

radiation of frequency 𝜈 is incident on the atom, the atom absorbs energy hγ from the radiation
and move to the higher energy state 𝐸2, if hγ = E2 - E1. The process by which an atom in a lower

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energy state can be raised to a higher energy state by absorbing a photon of energy hγ is called
induced or stimulated absorption.

ATOM + PHOTON → ATOM*

The rate of induced/stimulated absorption

of radiation by atoms in the ground
state𝑅12 𝑖𝑠, proportional to the following factors,

𝑅12 𝛼 density of radiation energy incident ρ(ν)

𝑅12 𝛼 the number of atoms per unit volume in the lower level 𝑁1

𝑅12 𝜶 ρ𝒗 𝑁1

𝒐𝒓 𝑅12 = 𝑩𝟏𝟐 ρ𝒗 𝑁1 − − − − − (1)

Where, 𝐵12 is the proportionality constant called Einstein coefficient for induced absorption.

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(ii) Spontaneous Emission:

Consider the atom in the excited state of energy 𝐸2. The

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atom will remain in this state for a time of about 10−8 𝑠. The
atom will fall on its own (without external energy) to the
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ground state emitting radiation of energy hγ. The process by
which an excited atom jumps from a higher energy state to a lower energy state with emission
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of a photon is called spontaneous emission.

ATOM* →ATOM + PHOTON

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The rate of spontaneous emission of radiation by atoms due to transition from higher to lower
level is proportional to the number of atoms per unit volume in the higher-level 𝑁2 only.
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𝑅21 𝛼 the number of atoms per unit volume in the higher level 𝑁2

𝑅21 𝜶 𝑁2

𝑅21 = 𝑨𝟐𝟏 𝑁2 − − − − − (𝟐)

Where, A21 is the proportionality constant called Einstein coefficient for Spontaneous Emission.

(iii) Stimulated Emission:

Consider an atom in the

excited state of energy 𝐸2. If an
electromagnetic radiation of
frequency γ is incident on the atom, the atom moves to the ground state of energy 𝐸1 by emitting
a photon of energy hγ along with the incident photon of energy hγ. This stimulated emission is
possible only if the frequency γ of the radiation satisfies the relation,ℎ𝛾 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 . The process
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in which an atom in a higher energy state jumps to lower energy state with the emission of a
photon identical to the incident photon is called as stimulated emission.

ATOM* + PHOTON → ATOM + 2 PHOTONS

The rate of stimulated emission of radiation by atoms due to transition from higher to lower
level is proportional to, 𝑅12 𝛼 density of radiation energy incident ρ(ν)

𝑅21 𝛼 the number of atoms per unit volume in the lower level 𝑁2

𝑅21 𝜶 ρ𝒗 𝑁2

𝒐𝒓 𝑅21 = 𝑩𝟐𝟏 ρ𝒗 𝑁2 − − − − − (3)

Where, 𝐵21 is the proportionality constant called Einstein coefficient for Stimulated Emission.

Differences between Spontaneous and Stimulated emission: (Not included in syllabus)

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[Link] Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission

Instantaneous emission of light photon Emission of light photon with the help of
due to transition of an atom from another photon having energy same as the
1.
higher to lower energy level
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emitting photon due to transition of atom
from higher to lower energy level
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The emission has broad spectrum of The emission has monochromatic radiation
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2. radiation (many wavelengths)

(single wavelength)

Incoherent radiation (light photons of Coherent radiation (light photons of same

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3. different phases and different phase and same frequency)

frequencies)
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4. The light beam has less intensity The light beam has high intensity

Less directionality and more angular lamp High directionality and less angular
5. spread. e.g. Light from sodium or spread
mercury
e.g. Light from a laser source

Einstein’s A and B Coefficients:

Consider an atomic system present in a radiation field of Energy density (𝜈) under
equilibrium conditions. Let 𝐸1 and 𝐸2 be the energy levels of the atom with 𝐸2 > 𝐸1.

The number of atoms per unit volume in the two levels respectively are 𝑁1 and 𝑁2. The
photon emitted due to transition between the levels will have energy𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ℎ𝛾.

The rate of induced/stimulated absorption of radiation by atoms in the ground state𝑅12 𝑖𝑠,
proportional to the following factors,

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𝑅12 𝛼 density of radiation energy incident ρ(ν)

𝑅12 𝛼 the number of atoms per unit volume in the lower level 𝑁1

𝑅12 𝜶 ρ𝒗 𝑁1

𝒐𝒓 𝑅12 = 𝑩𝟏𝟐 ρ𝒗 𝑁1 − − − − − (1)

Where, 𝐵12 is the proportionality constant called Einstein coefficient for induced absorption.

The rate of spontaneous emission of radiation by atoms due to transition from higher to lower
level is proportional to the number of atoms per unit volume in the higher-level 𝑁2 only.
𝑅21 𝛼 the number of atoms per unit volume in the higher level 𝑁2 .

𝑅21 𝜶 𝑁2

𝑅21 = 𝑨𝟐𝟏 𝑁2 − − − − − (𝟐)

Where, A21 is the proportionality constant called Einstein coefficient for Spontaneous Emission.

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The rate of stimulated emission of radiation by atoms due to transition from higher to lower
level is proportional to, C
𝑅12 𝛼 density of radiation energy incident ρ(ν)
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𝑅21 𝛼 the number of atoms per unit volume in the lower level 𝑁2
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𝑅21 𝜶 ρ𝒗 𝑁2

𝒐𝒓 𝑅21 = 𝑩𝟐𝟏 ρ𝒗 𝑁2 − − − − − (3)

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Where, 𝐵21 is the proportionality constant called Einstein coefficient for Stimulated Emission.

Under Thermal equilibrium:

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The absorption rate or the number of photons absorbed per second is equal to the sum of
the number of photons emitted per second by spontaneous and stimulated emissions

𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒓𝒑𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 (𝒔𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒐𝒖𝒔 + 𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅)

RHS of equation (1) is equal to sum of RHS of equations (2) and (3)

𝐵12 ρ𝑣 𝑁1 = 𝐴21 𝑁2 + 𝐵21 ρ𝑣 𝑁2

𝐵12 ρ𝑣 𝑁1 − 𝐵21 ρ𝑣 𝑁2 = 𝐴21 𝑁2

ρ𝑣 (𝐵12 𝑁1 − 𝐵21 𝑁2 ) = 𝐴21 𝑁2

𝐴21 𝑁2
ρ𝑣 =
(𝐵12 𝑁1 − 𝐵21 𝑁2 )

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𝐴21 𝑁2
ρ𝑣 =
𝑁
𝑁2 (𝐵12 𝑁1 − 𝐵21 )
2

𝐴21
ρ𝑣 = − − − − − (4)
𝑁1
(𝐵12 − 𝐵21 )
𝑁2

we know that, from maxwell − boltzmann distribution law,

−𝐸1 −𝐸2
𝑁1 = 𝑁0 𝑒 𝑘𝐵𝑇 Similarly, 𝑁2 = 𝑁0 𝑒 𝑘𝐵𝑇

Where, kB → Boltzmann constant, T →Absolute Temperature

N0 → Number of atoms at absolute zero.

At equilibrium condition we can write the ratio of population levels as follows, i.e.,

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𝐸2 −𝐸1
𝑁1
= 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 ∵ 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ℎ𝛾
𝑁2

ℎ𝛾
𝑁1
Then we get, 𝑁 = 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 − − − − − (5)
2
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𝐴21
Substitute eqn (5) in (4), ρ𝑣 =
N
ℎ𝛾
(𝐵12 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 −𝐵21 )
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𝐴21
ρ𝑣 = ℎ𝛾
𝐵12 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝐵21 ( 𝑒 −1)
𝐵21
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𝐴21 1
𝑜𝑟 ρ𝑣 = − − − − − (6 )
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𝐵21 𝐵12 𝑘ℎ𝛾𝑇

(𝐵 𝑒 𝐵 − 1 )
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The energy density of radiation at a given temperature as per Planck’s radiation formula is

8𝜋ℎ𝛾 3 1
ρ𝑣 = − − − − − − − (7)
𝑐3 ℎ𝛾
(𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 −1)

𝐴21 8𝜋ℎ𝛾 3
Comparison of equations (6) and (7), we get = − − − − − (8 )
𝐵21 𝑐3

𝐵12
= 1, 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝐵12 = 𝐵21 = 𝐵 − − − − − (9)
𝐵21

And taking 𝐴21 = 𝐴 − − − − − (10)

The constants A and B in equation (9) and (10) are called as Einstein coefficients

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Laser Action:

Consider a LASER system,Let

an atom in the excited state is
stimulated by a photon of right energy
so that atom makes stimulated
emission. Two coherent photons are
obtained. These two coherent photons
if stimulate two atoms in the exited
state to make emission then four
coherent photons are emitted. These four coherent photons stimulate 4 more atoms in the
excited state resulting in 8 coherent photons and so on. As the process continues number of
coherent photons increases. These coherent photons constitute an intense beam of LASER. This
phenomenon of building up of number of coherent photons so as to get an intense LASER beam
is called lasing action. LASER action could be achieved through the conditions population
inversion and meta-stable state.

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Principle of Laser:

The action of laser is based on stimulated emission and amplification of light. In producing
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laser, the following conditions must be satisfied.
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(1) State of population inversion,
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(2) Existence of metastable state and

(3) Confinement of emitted photons to achieve population inversion.

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Pre-requisites of LASER:

1. Energy Excitation Source: With the help of energy source, the system can be raised to
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an excited state. With the help of this source, the no. of atoms in higher energy state may be
increased and hence the population inversion is achieved. Therefore, energy source may also be
called as pumping device.

2. Active Medium or working substance: This working substance must have a metastable
state (lifetime ≈10-4 sec). Thus when excited by energy source it achieves population inversion.
This medium may be solid, liquid or gas.

3. Resonant Cavity: It is a specially designed cylindrical tube the ends of which are
silvered, one end being completely silvered while the other is partially silvered. Thus, the light
intensity can be increased by multiple reflections. The intense coherent beam can emerge out
from partially silvered mirror. The rough structure of resonant cavity is shown below:

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Conditions for Laser Action:

There are two conditions for the laser

 Population inversion
 Metastable state

Population inversion:

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Consider a sample having a number of atoms in thermal equilibrium at a certain
temperature. If the number N1 of these atoms are in the C
ground state of energy E1 and the number N2 are in a
state of higher energy E2 then,
N
𝐸2 −𝐸1
𝑁2
According to Boltzmann’s law = 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
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𝑁1

Thus N2< N1. There will always be less atoms in the excited state than in the ground state. The
number of atoms present in a given energy state of a substance at thermal equilibrium is called
population of that energy state.
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The condition when the number of atoms in an excited state is more than that in the
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ground state is called population inversion. The process of supplying energy from an external
source, to achieve population inversion in a sample, is called pumping.

Metastable State:

Consider a system of atoms that exist in three different energy states namely, ground
state (E1), excited state (E2) and metastable state (E3) as shown in the diagram. In the excited
state an atom can exist only for a time interval of 10 −8 s. In the metastable state an atom can
remain stable for a longer duration of time ( 5milliseconds).

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(a) The system of atoms in the ground state are illuminated by radiation such that they get
excited and move to excited state (E2) by absorbing photons of energy 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ℎ𝛾′ . This is
called optical pumping.

(b) Since the life of excited atoms is very small, they jump to metastable state (E 3) by non-
radiative transition. The atoms can remain in this metastable state for longer time. Thus, there
will be more atoms in metastable state than in the ground state. Thus, population inversion is
said to be achieved.

(c) The atoms in the metastable state are bombarded by photons each of energy 𝐸3 − 𝐸1 = ℎ𝛾.
The atoms make transition to the ground state by stimulated emission. This results in emission
of photons each of energy 𝐸3 − 𝐸1 = ℎ𝛾 . These photons along with the bombarding photons have
same energy and are in same phase. Thus, the number of photons is multiplied by a factor of
two. This process repeats and light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation or LASER
occurs.

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TYPES OF LASERS:

Based on the type of active medium, Laser systems are broadly classified into the
following categories.
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1) Solid State Laser:

The solid-state laser is a type of laser where the medium used is solid. The solid material
used in these lasers is either glass or crystalline materials. Glass or crystalline materials used
in a solid-state laser are used as impurities in the form of ions along with the host material.
Doping is the term used for describing the process of addition of impurities to the substance.

2) Gas Laser:

A gas laser is a laser in which an electric current is sent through a gas to generate light
through a process known as population inversion. Gas lasers are of different types: they are,
Helium (He) – Neon (Ne) gas lasers, argon ion lasers, carbon dioxide lasers (CO2 lasers), carbon
monoxide lasers (CO lasers) are molecular gas, excimer lasers, nitrogen lasers, hydrogen lasers,

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etc. The type of gas used to construct the laser medium can determine the lasers wavelength or
efficiency.

3) Liquid Lasers or Dye lasers:

Liquid lasers are also known as dye lasers. This is a type of laser in which liquids are
used as an active medium. The active material used in the liquid laser is known as a dye and
the commonly used dyes are sodium fluorescein, rhodamine B and rhodamine 6G.
4) Semiconductor laser:

It is specifically fabricated p-n junction diode. This diode emits laser light when it is
forward biased, it causes electrons and holes to recombine at the junction, releasing energy as
photons. These photons then stimulate further photon emissions, resulting in a directional and
monochromatic laser source. The semiconductor laser is a type of laser that is small in
appearance and size. The operation of this laser is similar to LED but the characteristics of the
output beam are of laser light.

There are two types of semiconductor lasers. They are,

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1. Homo-junction Semiconductor laser

2. Hetero-junction Semiconductor laser

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1. Homo-junction Semiconductor laser: Definition: If the p-n junction is formed in a single
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crystalline material, then it is called as homo-junction laser. Ex: Single crystal of Gallium
Arsenide (GaAs).
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2. Hetro-junction semiconductor laser: Definition: If the p-n junction is made up of the

different material with two regions, n-type and p-type is called as hetero-junction laser. Ex:
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hetero-junction laser can be formed between GaAs and GaAlAs.

Semiconductor Diode Laser: Principle, Construction, Working, & Applications:

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Definition:
It is specifically fabricated p-n junction diode. This diode emits laser light when it is
forward biased.
Principle:
When a p-n junction diode is forward biased, the electrons from n – region and the holes
from the p- region cross the junction and recombine with each other.
During the recombination process, the light radiation (photons) is released from a certain
specified direct band gap semiconductors like Ga-As. This light radiation is known as
recombination radiation.
The photon emitted during recombination stimulates other electrons and holes to
recombine. As a result, stimulated emission takes place which produces laser.

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Construction:
Figure shows the basic
construction of semiconductor laser.
The active medium is a p-n junction
diode made from the single crystal of
gallium arsenide. This crystal is cut
in the form of a platter having
thickness of 0.5μmm.
The plates consists of two
parts having an electron conductivity
(n-type) and hole conductivity (p-
type).
The photon emission is stimulated in a very thin layer of PN junction (in order of few microns).
The electrical voltage is applied to the
crystal through the electrode fixed on the

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upper surface.
The end faces of the junction diode
are well polished and parallel to each C
other. They act as an optical resonator
through which the emitted light comes
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out. Figure shows the energy level
diagram of semiconductor laser.
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When the PN junction is forward

biased with large applied voltage, the
electrons and holes are injected into
junction region in considerable
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concentration
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The region around the junction contains a large amount of electrons in the conduction
band and a large amount of holes in the valence [Link] the population density is high, a
condition of population inversion is achieved. The electrons and holes recombine with each
other and this recombination’s produce radiation in the form of light.
When the forward – biased voltage is increased, more and more light photons are emitted
and the light production instantly becomes stronger. These photons will trigger a chain of
stimulated recombination resulting in the release of photons in phase.
The photons moving at the plane of the junction travels back and forth by reflection between
two sides placed parallel and opposite to each other and grow in strength.
After gaining enough strength, it gives out the laser beam of wavelength 8400Å . The
wavelength of laser light is given by
𝑐 ℎ𝑐
𝐸𝑔 = ℎ𝛾 = ℎ 𝜆 Or 𝜆=𝐸
𝑔

Where, Eg is the band gap energy in joule.

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CHARACTERISTICS:
1) Type: It is a solid-state semiconductor laser.
2) Active medium: A PN junction diode made from single crystal of gallium arsenide is used
as an active medium.
3) Pumping method: The direct conversion method is used for pumping action
4) Power output: The power output from this laser is 1mW.
5) Nature of output: The nature of output is continuous wave or pulsed output.
6) Wavelength of Output: Gallium Arsenide laser gives infrared radiation in the
wavelength 8300 to 8500Å.
ADVANTAGES:
1. It is very small in dimension. The arrangement is simple and compact.
2. It exhibits high efficiency.
3. The laser output can be easily increased by controlling the junction current
4. It is operated with lesser power than ruby and CO2 laser.
5. It requires very little auxiliary equipment

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6. It can have a continuous wave output or pulsed output.
DISADVANTAGES:
1) It is difficult to control the mode pattern and mode structure of laser.
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2) The output is usually from 5 degree to 15 degree i.e., laser beam has large divergence.
3) The purity and monochromacity are power than other types of laser
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4) Threshold current density is very large (400A/mm2).
5) It has poor coherence and poor stability.
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APPLICATIONS:
1) It is widely used in fiber optic communication
2) It is used to heal the wounds by infrared radiation
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3) It is also used as a pain killer

4)It is used in laser printers and CD writing and reading.
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Attenuators:

An attenuator is a device or circuit that reduces the power of a signal without distorting
its waveform, acting as the opposite of an amplifier. It is a passive, two-port electronic
component designed using resistors to control the signal's strength, typically measured in
decibels. Attenuators are used to prevent high-power signals from overwhelming sensitive
circuits, ensure proper signal levels for devices like antennas, and provide isolation between
components in a system.

Single-photon source – Definition: A single-photon source is a light source that

emits light as single particles or photons. Single-photon sources are distinct from coherent light
sources (lasers) and thermal light sources such as incandescent light bulbs.

Use of Attenuators for Single Photon Sources:

Attenuators are used with single photon sources to reduce the signal power to a level
manageable and detectable by the sensitive, but often saturated, single-photon detectors. By

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blocking a controlled fraction of photons, an attenuator dynamically extends the
detector's operating range, allowing for accurate measurements even when the raw signal is
too intense.

This is crucial for testing photodetector linearity, calibrating single-photon experiments,

and performing other tasks at the few-photon level that would otherwise be impossible due to
detector saturation.

Attenuators are used to extend the effective range of detectors, allowing them to be
calibrated and used in situations where the signal is too strong for their normal operating
range.

Optical Modulators:

Optical modulators convert data from the electrical to the optical domain by altering
light's properties, such as amplitude, phase, polarization, or frequency. They are classified by
the effect used (e.g., electro-optic, acousto-optic) or the property altered (e.g., amplitude,

.IN
phase). Common types include electro-optic modulators for phase/polarization changes
and acousto-optic modulators for amplitude/frequency shifts, used in communications and laser
control.
C
Electro-optic modulator (EOM):
N
Electro-optic modulator (EOM) is an optical device in which a signal-controlled element
exhibiting the electro-optic effect is used to modulate a beam of light. The modulation may be
SY

imposed on the phase, frequency, amplitude, or polarization of the beam. Modulation

bandwidths extending into the gigahertz range are possible with the use of laser- controlled
modulators.
U

The electro-optic effect is the change in the refractive index of a material resulting from
VT

the application of a DC or low frequency electric field. This is caused by forces that distort the
position, orientation, or shape of the molecules constituting the material.

Explanation:

Generally, a nonlinear optical material (organic polymers have the fastest response
rates, and thus are best for this application) with an incident static or low frequency optical
field will see a modulation of its refractive index The simplest kind of EOM consists of a crystal,
such as lithium niobate, whose refractive index is a function of the strength of the local electric
field. That means that if lithium niobate is exposed to an electric field, light will travel more
slowly through it. But the phase of the light leaving the crystal is directly proportional to the
length of time it takes that light to pass through it.

Therefore, the phase of the laser light exiting an EOM can be controlled by changing the
electric field in the crystal Note that the electric field can be created by placing a parallel plate
capacitor across the crystal. Since the field inside a parallel plate capacitor depends linearly on
the potential, the index of refraction depends linearly on the field (for crystals where Pockels

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effect dominates), and the phase depends linearly on the index of refraction, the phase
modulation must depend linearly on the potential applied to the EOM. The voltage required for
inducing a phase change of is called the half-wave voltage ( ). For a Pockels cell, it is usually
hundreds or even thousands of volts, so that a high-voltage amplifier is required. Suitable
electronic circuits can switch such large voltages within a few nanoseconds, allowing the use of
EOMs as fast optical switches

Pockels effect:

Discovered by Friedrich Pockels in 1893, the effect requires non-centrosymmetric

materials and is used in devices like Pockels cells to modulate light for high-speed optical
communication and laser intensity control.

The Pockels effect is a phenomenon in certain crystals where an applied electric field
changes the material's refractive index linearly. This change in refractive index leads to
optical birefringence, allowing for the manipulation of light's polarization and phase.

.IN
C
N
SY

Kerr effect:
U

The Kerr effect is a nonlinear phenomenon where the intense light of the signal itself
VT

changes the fiber's refractive index, leading to distortions like self-phase modulation (SPM),
cross-phase modulation (XPM), and four-wave mixing (FWM). This intensity-dependent
refractive index alters the speed of light within the fiber, causing signal degradation and
limiting the capacity and reach of long-haul communication systems, especially at high data
rates and power levels.

The Kerr effect is a phenomenon that occurs when a material's refractive index changes
in response to an electric field. A Scottish physicist named John Kerr in 1875 discovered the
Kerr effect and it was named after him. This effect is a type of electro-optic effect, which refers
to the interaction between light and an electric field.

When a strong electric field is applied to a transparent substance in a direction

transverse to the beam of light, double refraction is induced in it. So, the refractive index of the
material is varied with the electric field and it behaves like a crystal with its optic axis parallel
to the electric field.

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In general, the Kerr effect can be observed in all materials. But some liquids tend to

exhibit a stronger Kerr effect compared to others. The material that exhibits the Kerr effect is
called the Kerr cell, also known as the Kerr electro-optical shutter. It employs the Kerr effect
to interrupt a light beam up to 1010 times per second. The working of the Kerr cell is shown in
Figure 1.

.IN
Photodetectors:

A photodetector can be defined as a device

C
that is used to detect light radiations by
N
absorption. It converts light pulses (or
radiations) energy into electrical signals in the
SY

form of current & voltage. Sometimes, it is also

called photosensors. As the name implies, it
detects incident photons or radiations by
absorbing the incident lights. The principle
U

behind this process is known as photo

detections.
VT

Working:

When photons (light particles) hit the photodetector's semiconductor material, they are
absorbed. The absorbed energy excites electrons, causing them to jump to a higher energy
band (conduction band), leaving behind a positively charged "hole" in the lower energy band
(valence band). These newly created electron-hole pairs are then separated by an internal
electric field. The separation of these charge carriers results in a measurable electric current,
or photocurrent, which is proportional to the intensity of the incident light.

Applications:
 Fiber Optic Communication: Detecting light signals transmitted through optical fibers.
 Consumer Electronics: In remote controls to detect infrared signals from a device.
 Safety & Security: Used in various sensor systems for detection and monitoring.

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 Scientific Instrumentation: Essential for process control, environmental sensing, and
light measurement.
 Imaging: Found in image sensors like CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide-
Semiconductor) to capture images electronically.
Photomultipliers:
A photomultiplier tube (PMT) is an extremely sensitive vacuum tube that detects very
faint light by converting photons into an electrical current. It works by using a photocathode to
convert incoming photons into electrons, then amplifying these electrons through a series
of dynodes via secondary emission to create a strong, measurable electrical signal at
the anode. PMTs offer high sensitivity, low noise, and fast response times, making them useful
in applications like spectroscopy, radiation detection, and astronomy for sensing even single
photons.

.IN
C
N
Working:
Light enters the PMT and strikes the photocathode, a photo emissive surface. When a
SY

photon hits the photocathode, it ejects one or more electrons, known as photoelectrons. These
photoelectrons are then accelerated by an electric field to a series of positively charged
dynodes. Each time an accelerated electron strikes a dynode, it causes the dynode material to
U

emit multiple secondary electrons. This process repeats through the entire chain of dynodes,
resulting in an "electron avalanche" and an enormous amplification of the initial signal. The
VT

amplified cloud of electrons is collected at the anode, creating a measurable electrical current
or pulse.

Applications:

PMTs are used in a wide range of scientific and industrial fields:

 Life Sciences: Fluorescence spectroscopy and microscopy.

 Astronomy: Detecting faint celestial objects.
 Radiation Detection: In scintillation detectors to detect radiation particles like gamma
rays or beta particles.
 Industrial Inspection: X-ray inspection in industries like automotive and security.
 Spectroscopy: Measuring light intensity in various analytical applications.

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Single-Photon Avalanche Diode (SPAD):
A single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) works by operating a p-n junction in Geiger
mode, biased above its breakdown voltage, to create an intense electric field. A single incident
photon generates a carrier, which, under the high electric field, triggers a self-
sustaining impact ionization avalanche of current.

.IN
Working:
A SPAD is a semiconductor diode (a p-n junction). It is reverse-biased with a voltage that
C
exceeds its breakdown voltage. This creates an extremely high electric field within the
depletion layer. A single photon hitting the SPAD's depletion layer generates a primary charge
N
carrier (an electron or hole). This carrier is accelerated by the intense electric field. As the
carrier accelerates, it gains enough energy to collide with the semiconductor lattice
SY

atoms. These collisions cause impact ionization, creating more electron-hole pairs.
This process continues, leading to a cascade or "avalanche" of carriers, which produces a
detectable, macroscopic current pulse. The avalanche current would continue to flow
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indefinitely if not interrupted. A quenching circuit (often a resistor or more complex active
circuit) is used to reduce the voltage across the SPAD. When the voltage drops below the
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breakdown voltage, the electric field is no longer strong enough to sustain the avalanche, and
the current ceases. After quenching, the bias voltage is restored by the circuit, allowing the
SPAD to be ready for another photon detection. The time during which the SPAD is unable to
detect another photon is known as the "dead time".

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Superconducting nanowire single photon detectors (SNSPD’s):
Superconducting nanowire single photon detectors (SNSPD’s) are the advanced devises
for single photon detection. They work on the principle that when a photon is incident it breaks
cooper pairs and reduces the local critical current. By measuring, the changes in the current
can detect the photon.
Construction:
The SNSPD consists of a thin and narrow superconducting wire. The wire is arranges in
a curved fashion (called Meander geometry) to achieve high detection efficiency. The wire is
kept at a temperature below the critical temperature and connected to DC source. The biasing
current (IB) in the wire is maintained just below its critical current (IC). The whole arrangement
is connected to a special type of electronic circuit called as readout.
Working:
When a photon is incident on the wire, it breaks the cooper pairs and local critical current
decreases (fig i). If the critical current decreases below the bias current then the
superconductivity is spoiled and a local non-superconducting region or ‘Hotspot’ is created. The

.IN
resistance of the hotspot is larger than the resistance of the readout (about1Kilo-ohm). As a
result bias current flows through the readout. (In fact the readout acts as a shunt for the
current). This produces a measureable voltage pulse (fig ii) such that one photon pulse. By
C
measuring this voltage, we can detect the incident photon.
With most of the bias current flowing through the readout, the non superconducting
N
region rapidly cools and returns to the superconducting state, ready to detect another photon.
(fig iii).
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U
VT

Advantages:
SNSPD’s offers many important advantages over SPADs. Some of them are
1. Unparalleled detection efficiency and timing precision.
2. Negligible intrinsic dark counts.
3. Ultrafast detection rates.
4. Broadband operation.
Uses:
They are becoming more popular in the applications of bio photonics, quantum optics and
quantum computing.

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Introduction: FIBER OPTICS

Optical fibers are the light guides used in optical

communications as wave-guides. They are thin, cylindrical,
transparent flexible dielectric fibers. They are able to guide
visible and infrared light over long distances. The working
structure of optical fiber consists of three layers.

Core: the inner cylindrical layer that is made of glass or

plastic.

Cladding: which envelops the inner core. It is made of the

same material of the core but of lesser refractive index than core.

The core and the cladding layers are enclosed in a polyurethane jacket called sheath
which safeguards the working structure of fiber against chemical reactions, mechanical
abrasion and crushing etc.

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Propagation mechanism in Optical fibre:

In optical fibres light waves can be guided

through it, hence are called light guides. The
C
cladding in an optical fibre always has a lower
N
refractive index (RI) than that of the core. The
light signal that enters into the core can strike the
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interface of the core and the cladding at angles

greater than critical angle of incidence because of
the ray geometry. The light signal undergoes
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multiple total internal reflections within the fibre core. Since each reflection is a total internal
reflection, the signal sustains its strength and also confines itself completely within the core
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during propagation. Thus, the optical fibre functions as a wave-guide.

Propagation mechanism:

 The cladding in an optical fiber always has a lower refractive index than that of the core.
 The light signal which enters into the core and strikes the interface of the core and
cladding with an angle greater than the critical angle will undergo total internal
reflection.
 Thus the light signal undergoes multiple reflections within the core and propagates
through the fiber.
 Since each reflection is a total internal reflection, there is no absorption of light energy
at the reflecting surface
 Therefore the signal sustains its strength and also confines itself completely within the
core during the propagation.

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 After series of such total internal reflection, it emerges out of the core. Thus the optical
fiber works as a waveguide. Care must be taken to avoid very sharp bends in the fiber
because at sharp bends, the light ray fails to undergo total internal reflection.

Total Internal Reflection:

When a ray of light travels from denser

to rarer medium it bends away from the
normal.

As the angle of incidence increases in

the denser medium, the angle of refraction
also increases. For a particular angle of
incidence called the “critical angle” (θc), the
refracted ray grazes the surface separating
the media or the angle of refraction is equal
to 90°.

.IN
If the angle of incidence is further increased beyond the critical angle, the light ray is
reflected back to the same medium. This is called “Total Internal Reflection”.
C
In total internal reflection, there is no loss of energy. The entire incident ray is reflected
N
back.

Let XXl is the surface separating medium of refractive index n 1 and medium of refractive
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index n2, n1 > n2. AO and OAl are incident and refracted rays. θ1 and θ2 are angle of incidence
and angle of refraction, θ2 > θ1. For the ray BO, θc is the critical angle. OBl is the refracted
ray which grazes the interface. The ray CO incident with an angle greater than θc is totally
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reflected back along OCl .

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From Snell's law, 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 𝜃1 = 𝜃𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃2 = 90°

𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐 = 𝑛2 (∵ sin90° = 1)
𝑛2
𝜃0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1
𝑛1

Expression for Numerical aperture and condition for propagation:

Consider a light ray AO incident at an angle ‘θ 0’ enters into the fiber. Let ‘θ1’ be the angle
of refraction for the ray OB. The refracted ray OB incident at a critical angle (90˚- θ1) at B
grazes the interface between core and cladding along BC. If the angle of incidence is greater
than critical angle, it undergoes total internal reflection. Thus θ 0 is called the waveguide
acceptance angle and sinθ0 is called the numerical aperture.

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Let n0, n1 and n2 be the refractive indices of the surrounding medium, core and cladding
respectively.

Applying Snell’s law at O⇾A,

.IN
no sinθ0 = n1 sinθ1
𝑛1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
𝑛0
C
Applying Snell’s law at A⇾B,
N
n1 sin (90-θ1) = n2 sin90°
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n1 cos θ1 = n2 (∵ sin90° = 1)
𝑛2
⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)
𝑛1
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𝑛1
From expression (1) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 = √1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 θ1
𝑛0
VT

Substituting for 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 from (2)

𝑛1 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 = √ 1 − [ 𝑛2 ]
𝑛0 𝑛1

𝑛1 𝑛12−𝑛22
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 = √
𝑛0 𝑛12

𝑛1 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 = × 𝑛 √𝑛12 − 𝑛22
𝑛0 1

1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22
𝑛0

If 𝑛0 = 1 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑓 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑖𝑟

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22

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Where, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 is called numerical aperture

𝑁𝐴 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 − − − −(3)

𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (3) 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒.

𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒, 𝜃0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 √𝑛12 − 𝑛22

Condition for propagation:

If θi is the angle of incidence of the incident ray, then the ray will be able to propagate,

if 𝜃𝑖 < 𝜃0

⇒ 𝑖𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑖 < 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃0

𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑖 < √𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2

.IN
𝑖.𝑒. , 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑖 < 𝑁. 𝐴

Acceptance angle is defined as the maximum angle that a light ray can have relative to the axis
C
of the fiber and propagate through the fiber.
N
Numerical aperture indicates the ability of the optical fiber to accept light i.e. the light
gathering capability of the optical fiber. The sign of the acceptance angle also called numerical
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aperture.

Fractional index change (Δ):

U

The ratio of the difference in refractive index of core and cladding to the refractive index
of core of an optical fiber.
VT

𝑛1 −𝑛2
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝛥 = 𝑛1

Mode of Propagation:

The number of light signals passing through an optical fiber is called mode of propagation.
If only one light wave passing through an optical fiber then it is single mode fiber, if more than
one light wave passing through an optical fiber then it is call multimode fiber.

V- Number:

The number of modes supported for propagation in the fiber is determined by a

parameter called V-number. If the surrounding medium is air, then V-number is given by,

𝜋𝑑
𝑉 = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22
𝜆

Where, d is the core diameter,

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𝑛1 and 𝑛2 are refractive indices of core and cladding respectively,

λ is the wavelength of light propagating in the fiber.

Attenuation in optical fibers: (Losses)

Attenuation is the loss of optical power suffered by the optical signal as it propagates
through a fiber also called as the fiber loss.

Attenuation Co-Efficient
The attenuation of a fiber optic cable is expressed in decibels.
10 P 
i.e.,   log  out  dB
km
L  Pin 

The main reasons for the loss in light intensity over the length of the cable is due to light
absorption, scattering and due to bending losses.

.IN
Attenuation takes place through three mechanisms.

(i) Absorption losses:

(ii) Scattering losses:
(iii) Radiation losses:
C
N
(i) Absorption losses:

Absorption of photons by impurities like metal ions such as iron, chromium, cobalt and
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copper in the silica glass of which the fiber is made of. During signal propagation photons
interact with electrons of impurity atoms and the electrons are excited to higher energy levels.
Then the electrons give up their absorbed energy either in the form of heat or light energy. The
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re-emission of light energy will usually be in a different wavelength; hence it is referred as loss
of energy.
VT

The other impurity such as hydroxyl (OH) ions, which enters into the fiber at the time of
fabrication, causes significant absorption loss. The absorption of photons by fiber itself
assuming that there are no impurities and in-homogeneities in it is called as intrinsic
absorption.

(ii) Scattering losses:

Scattering of light waves occurs whenever a light

wave travels through a medium having scattering
objects whose dimensions are smaller than the
wavelength of light.

Similarly, when a light signal travels in the fiber,

the photons may be scattered due to the sharp changes in refractive index values inside the
core over distances and due to the structural impurities present in the fiber material.

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This type of scattering is called as Rayleigh scattering. Scattering of photons also takes place
due to trapped gas bubbles, which are not dissolved at the time of manufacturing. A scattered
photon moves in random direction and leaves the fiber.

(iii) Radiation losses:

Radiation losses occur due to macroscopic bends and microscopic bends.

Macroscopic bending:

All optical fibers are having critical radius

of curvature provided by the manufacturer. If
the fiber is bent below that specification of
radius of curvature, the light ray incident on
the core cladding interface will not satisfy the
condition of total internal reflection. This
causes loss of optical power.

.IN
Microscopic bending:

Microscopic bends are repetitive small scale

fluctuations in the linearity of the fiber axis.
C
They occur due to non-uniformities in the
N
manufacturing and also lateral pressure built
up on the fiber. They cause irregular reflections
SY

and some of them leak through the fiber. The

defect due to non-uniformity (micro-bending)
can be overcome by introducing optical fiber
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inside a good strengthen polyurethane jacket.

VT

Mach-Zehnder Interferometer:
In the Michelson and Twyman–Green interferometers, the same beam splitter is used to
first split the incident beam and then to combine the split beams after introducing the desired
path difference between them. The Mach–Zehnder interferometer, on the other hand, uses two
beam splitters – one for splitting the incident beam and the other for combining the split-beams
(Fig.).
Mirrors M1 and M2 steer the beams appropriately. The centers of the beam splitters and
mirrors lie on the corners of a parallelogram. The split-beams travel widely separated paths
before they are combined by the second beam splitter. This interferometer is particularly useful
for plasma diagnostics and gas flow studies (in a wind tunnel, for example).
One arm of the interferometer contains the test chamber and compensating elements
(not shown in the figure) are kept in the other arm to equalize the optical path lengths. The
refractive index changes associated with the density changes in the test chamber can be
accurately determined in terms of the fringe displacements. The contours of the fringes
determine local density changes within the test chamber under different experimental

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conditions. The fringes can be localized at any convenient region in the test chamber by
appropriately tilting one of the mirrors.

.IN
C
N
SY
U
VT

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MODULE 3 – PHOTONICS (LASER AND OPTICAL FIBER)
LASER:
1. A pulsed laser emits photon of wavelength 780nm with 20mW average power/pulse.
Calculate the number of photons contained in each pulse if the pulse duration is 10 ns.
(Jan 2019-18S)
Data: Wavelength of photon, λ = 780nm = 780 × 10−9 𝑚
Power of each pulse 𝑃 = 20𝑚𝑊 = 20 × 10−3 𝑊
Duration of Each Pulse, 𝑡 = 10𝑛𝑠 = 10 × 10−9 𝑠𝑒𝑐
To find: No. of photons in each pulse, N=?
Solution: wavelength of photon, λ = 780nm = 780 × 10−9 𝑚
ℎ𝑐 6.63 × 10−34 × 3 × 108
∴ 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠, ∆𝐸 = = −9
= 2.55 × 10−19 𝐽
𝜆 780 × 10
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝐸 = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 × 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒
𝐸 = 𝑃 × 𝑡 = 20 × 10−3 × 10 × 10−9 = 2 × 10−10 𝐽
If N is the number of photons (each of energy∆𝐸) in the pulse, then 𝑁 × ∆𝐸 = 𝐸

.IN
𝐸 2 × 10−10
∴𝑁= = −19
= 7.86 × 108
∆𝐸 2.55 × 10
∴ 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒉 𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒔𝒆 𝒊𝒔 7.86 × 108 .
2. The average output of laser source emitting a laser beam of wavelength 632.8nm is 5mW.
C
Find the number of photons emitted per second by the laser source. (July 2019 | Aug
2021 |Feb 2022–18S)
N
Data : Wavelength of laser, λ = 632.8nm = 632.8 × 10−9 𝑚
SY

Power of each pulse 𝑃 = 5𝑚𝑊 = 5 × 10−3 𝑊

To find : No. of photons in each pulse, N=?
𝐸 ℎ𝑐
Solution: we have 𝑁 = ∆𝐸
(∴ 𝐸 = 𝑃 × 𝑡, ∆𝐸 = 𝜆
)
U

𝑃×𝑡 𝑃×𝑡×𝜆 5 × 10−3 × 632.8 × 10−9

𝑁= 𝑜𝑟 𝑁 = = = 1.59 × 1016
ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐 6.63 × 10−34 × 3 × 108
VT

𝜆
∴ 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒉 𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒔𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝟏. 𝟓𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔
3. The ratio of population of two energy levels is 1.059x10 -30. Find the wavelength of light
emitted by spontaneous emission at 330K. (Jan 2020, Feb 2021 |
July 2022-18S)
Data: The ratio of population, (N2/N1) = 1.059x10-30
Ambient temperature, T = 330K
To find : Wavelength of light emitted,, λ = ?
−∆𝐸
𝑁
Solution: we have Boltzmann factor, 𝑁2 = 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
1

By Taking natural log on both sides, we have

𝑁2 −∆𝐸 −ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐 1
𝐼𝑛 ( )= = = −( )( )
𝑁1 𝑘𝑇 λ𝑘𝑇 𝑘 λ𝑇
−34
ℎ𝑐 6.63 × 10 × 3 × 108
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 ( ) = = 0.014413
𝑘 1.38 × 10−23

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ℎ𝑐 1 0.014413
λ= − ( )( )= = 632 × 10−9 𝑚 = 632𝑛𝑚
𝑘 𝑁2 𝐼𝑛 (1.059x10−30 ) × 330
𝐼𝑛 (𝑁 ) 𝑇
1
∴ 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒔𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝟔𝟑𝟐𝒏𝒎.
4. A pulse from laser with power 1mW lasts for 10nS, if the number of photons emitted per
pulse is 3.491x107. Calculate the wavelength of the laser. (Mar 2022–18S)
Data: Power per pulse 𝑃 = 1𝑚𝑊 = 1 × 10−3 𝑊
No. of photons in each pulse, N= 3.491x107
Duration of Each Pulse, 𝑡 = 10𝑛𝑠 = 10 × 10−9 𝑠𝑒𝑐
To find: wavelength of laser, λ =?
𝐸 ℎ𝑐
Solution: 𝑁 = ∆𝐸
(∴ 𝐸 = 𝑃 × 𝑡, ∆𝐸 = 𝜆
)
𝑃×𝑡 𝑃×𝑡×𝜆
𝑁= 𝑜𝑟 𝑁=
ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
𝜆
𝑁×ℎ×𝑐 3.491x107 ×6.63×10−34 ×3×108
Rearranging this, we get 𝜆 = = = 6943 × 10−10 𝑚 = 6943Å

.IN
𝑃×𝑡 1×10−3 ×10×10−9
∴ 𝑾𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒓, 𝛌 = 𝟔𝟗𝟒𝟑Å
5. How many photons of yellow light of wavelength 5500x10 -10m constitutes 1.5J of energy.
C
Data: 𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑦𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝜆 = 5500 × 10−10 𝑚 (Aug 2022–21S)
Energy, E = 1.5J
N
To find: No of photons n =?
SY

𝑁×ℎ𝑐 𝐸× 𝜆 1.5×5500×10−10
Solution:𝐸 = 𝜆
𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑁 = ℎ𝑐
= 6.63×10−34 ×3×108
= 4.1478 × 1018 .
𝟏𝟖
𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑵 𝒊𝒔 𝟒. 𝟏𝟒𝟕𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎 .
U

6. A He-Ne laser is emitting a beam with an average power of 4.5mW. Find the number of
photons emitted per second by the laser. The wavelength of the light is 6328Å.
VT

(Refer problem no.2 same type) (𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝑵 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 )

7. A Ruby laser a pulse of 20ns duration with average power per pulse being 100KW. If the
number of photons in each pulse is 6.981 × 1015 . Calculate the wavelength of photons.
(Refer problem No.4 same type) (𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫 λ = 𝟔𝟗𝟒𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 𝒎)
8. Find the ratio of population of two energy levels in a laser if the transition between them
produced a wavelength of 694.3nm. Assume the ambient temperature is 27°C.
Data: wavelength of light emitted,, λ = 694.3nm 𝑜𝑟 λ = 694.3 × 10−9 𝑚
Ambient temperature, T = 27ºC or (27+273) = 300K
To find: The ratio of population, (N2/N1) =?
−∆𝐸
𝑁
Solution: we have Boltzmann factor, 𝑁2 = 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 (note: use [shift + In] for 𝒆 in calculator)
1

𝑁2 −ℎ𝑐 −6.63×10−34 ×3×108

( )
( )= 𝑒 λ𝑘𝑇 = 𝑒 694.3×10−9 ×1.38×10−23 ×300 = 8.87 × 10−31
𝑁1
𝑵𝟐
∴ 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒐𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, ( ) = 𝟖. 𝟖𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟏
𝑵𝟏

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9. A laser beam at thermal equilibrium temperature 300K has two energy levels with a
wavelength separation of 1µm. find the ratio of population densities of the upper and
lower levels. (Jan 2018-17S)
𝑵𝟐
(Refer problem no.8 same type) (𝐀𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫 (𝑵𝟏) = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟔𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟏 )

10. A semiconductor has a peak emission radiation of wavelength 0f 1.24µm. what is the
band gap energy value in eV?
Data: wavelength of light emitted,, λ = 1.24µm 𝑜𝑟 λ = 1.24 × 10−6 𝑚
To find : Band gap value 𝐸𝑔 = ?
ℎ𝑐
Solution: Band gap value 𝐸𝑔 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ℎ𝛾 = 𝜆
−34
6.63 × 10 × 3 × 108
𝐸𝑔 =
1.24 × 10−6
𝐸𝑔 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽 = 1. 𝑒𝑉
∴ 𝑩𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒈𝒂𝒑 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝑬𝒈 𝒊𝒔 𝟏. 𝒆𝑽

.IN
FIBER OPTICS

11. The refractive indices of core and cladding are 1.50 and 1.48 respectively in an optical
C
fiber. Find the numerical aperture and angle of acceptance.
(Jan 2019-18S)
N
Data: 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 , 𝑛1 = 1.50
SY

𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 , 𝑛2 = 1.48

To find: Numerical aperture, N.A=? and Angle of acceptance, θ =?
Solution: 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑁. 𝐴 = √(𝑛12 − 𝑛22 ) = √1.502 − 1.482 = 0.244
U

𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 , 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 √(𝑛12 − 𝑛22 ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (0.244) = 14.1°

∴ 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝒐𝒇
VT

𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒𝟒 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟏𝟒. 𝟏° 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒚.

12. An optical fiber has core of refractive indices and cladding are 1.50 and 1.45
respectively in an optical fiber. Find the numerical aperture and angle of acceptance.
(Sep 2020-18S) (Refer problem no.11 same type)
13. Calculate the refractive indices of core and cladding of a given optical fiber with
numerical aperture of 0.22 and fractional index change variation 0.012.
Data : Numerical Aperture , NA=0.22 (Aug 2022–21S)
Fractional index change, ∆ = 0.012
To find: 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 , 𝑛1 =?
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 , 𝑛2 =?
Solution: 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑁. 𝐴 = 𝑛1 √2∆
𝑁𝐴 0.22
𝑜𝑟 𝑛1 = = = 1.42
√2∆ √2 × 0.012
𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑁. 𝐴 = √(𝑛12 − 𝑛22 )
𝑜𝑟 (𝑁𝐴)2 = 𝑛12 − 𝑛22

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𝑂𝑟 = 𝑛22
− (𝑁𝐴)2 𝑛12
𝑛22 = 1.42 − (0.22)2 2

𝑛22 = 1.968 𝑜𝑟 𝑛2 = 1.40

∴ 𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆 , 𝒏𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆 , 𝒏𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟎
14. The acceptance angle of an optical fiber is 30° when kept in an air find the angle of
acceptance when it is in a medium of refractive index 1.33. (Jan 2018-17S)
Data: ′
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 , 𝑛0 = 1.33
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 , 𝜃 = 30°
To find: Angle of acceptance while the fiber is in the refracting medium, 𝜃0′ = 1.33
√(𝑛12−𝑛22)
Solution: we have the equation, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃0 = 𝑛0′
………………………………….(1)
When the surrounding medium is air, then 𝑛0 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃0 = 30°
𝑠𝑖𝑛30° = √(𝑛12 − 𝑛22 )
0.5 = √(𝑛12 − 𝑛22 )………………..(2)

.IN
When the surrounding medium is of the refractive index 1.33, let 𝜃0′ be the acceptance angle.

√(𝑛12 −𝑛22) √(𝑛12−𝑛22)

Now eqn(1) becomes, sin 𝜃0′ = =
𝑛0′
C 1.33

1.33 sin 𝜃0′ = √(𝑛12 − 𝑛22 ) ……………………(3)

N
∴ 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(2)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (3) , 1.33 sin 𝜃0′ = 0.5
SY

0.5
𝜃0′ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( ) = 22°
1.33
U

∴ 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙 𝟏. 𝟑𝟑 𝒊𝒔 𝟐𝟐°
15. Calculate the V-number for a fiber of core of diameter 40μm and with refractive indices
VT

of 1.55 and 1.50 respectively for core and cladding. When the wavelength of the
propagating wave is 1400nm. Also calculate the number of modes that the fiber can
support for propagation. Assume that the fiber is in air. (July 2019– 18S)
Data: 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 , 𝑛1 = 1.55
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 , 𝑛2 = 1.50
𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 , 𝑑 = 40μm = 40 × 10−6 𝑚
𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝜆 = 1400𝑛𝑚 = 1400 × 10−9 𝑚

To find: Numerical aperture, N.A=? and V-number , V=?

Solution: 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑁. 𝐴 = √(𝑛12 − 𝑛22 ) = √1.552 − 1.502 = 0.3905
𝜋𝑑
𝑉 − 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 , 𝑉 = √(𝑛12 − 𝑛22 )
𝜆
𝜋 × 40 × 10−6
𝑉= × 0.3905 = 35
1400 × 10−9
𝑽𝟐 𝟑𝟓𝟐
∴ 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕, 𝑵 = = = 𝟔𝟏𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
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16. Estimate the attenuation in an optical fiber of length light 500m when a light signal of
power 100mW emerges out of fiber with a power 90mW.
(Jan 2020,Sep 2020, Aug 2021,Mar 2022–18S)
Data: 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟 = 500𝑚 = 𝑜. 5𝑘𝑚
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 , 𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 100𝑚𝑊 = 100 × 10−3 𝑊.
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 , 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 90𝑚𝑊 = 90 × 10−3 𝑊.
To find: 𝐹𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝛼=?
10 𝑃
Solution: 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝛼 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦, 𝛼 = − 𝐿
𝐿𝑜𝑔10 ( 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) dB/km
𝑖𝑛
10 90×10−3
𝛼= − 𝐿𝑜𝑔10 ( ) = 0.915 𝑑𝐵/𝑘𝑚
𝐿 100×10−3
∴ 𝑭𝒊𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝑨𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟏𝟓 𝒅𝑩/𝒌𝒎
17. Calculate the number of modes that can propagate inside an optical fiber with the given
data below. Refractive of index of core is 1.53 and cladding is 1.50. Radius of core is 50μm.
Wavelength of the light propagating through the optical fiber is 1μm. (Feb 2021-18S)
Data: 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 , 𝑛1 = 1.53

.IN
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 , 𝑛2 = 1.50
𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑑 = 2 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠, 𝑖. 𝑒. , = 2 × 50μm = 100μm = 100 × 10−6 𝑚
𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, = 1μm = 1 × 10−6 𝑚
To find: Numerical aperture, N.A=? And V-number, V=?
C
Solution: 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑁. 𝐴 = √(𝑛12 − 𝑛22 ) = √1.532 − 1.502 = 0.3014
N
𝜋×𝑑
𝑉 − 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 , 𝑉 = √(𝑛12 − 𝑛22 )
𝜆
SY

𝜋 × 100 × 10−6
𝑉= × 0.3014 = 94.63
1 × 10−6
𝑽𝟐
∴ 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕, 𝑵 =
𝟐
U

𝟗𝟒. 𝟔𝟑𝟐
𝑵= = 𝟒𝟒𝟕𝟖. 𝟑
𝟐
VT

∴ 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕, 𝑵 = 𝟒𝟒𝟕𝟖. 𝟑

18. The attenuation of light in an optical fiber is 3.6 dB/km, what fraction of its initial
intensity remains after: i) 1 km ii) 3km? (Dec 2014,Aug 2022-18S)

Data: 𝐹𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝛼=3.6 dB/km

𝑃
To find: (i) 𝐴𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 1 𝑘𝑚 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, ( 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) =?
𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
(ii) 𝐴𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 3 𝑘𝑚 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, ( 𝑃 ) =?
𝑖𝑛
10 𝑃
Solution: we have, , 𝛼 = − 𝐿
𝐿𝑜𝑔10 ( 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 )
𝑖𝑛

Where, L the length of the fiber is expressed in km.

𝑃 𝛼𝐿
∴ 𝐿𝑜𝑔10 ( 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) = − ( 10 )
𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝛼𝐿
−( )
𝑜𝑟 ( ) = 10 10
𝑃𝑖𝑛
3.6
𝑃
(𝒊) 𝑨𝒕 𝟏𝒌𝒎 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 , 𝑳 = 𝟏 ( 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) = 10−( 10 ) = 0.436
𝑖𝑛

RAFEEQUE AHMED K, ASST. PROF., CONTACT: +919940800551 (WHATSAPP: +918431526189) KNSIT,BENGALURU-64 30

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 2025 SCHEME KNSIT CSE & ECE STREAM
3.6×3
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 −( )
(𝒊) 𝑨𝒕 𝟑𝒌𝒎 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 , 𝑳 = 𝟑 ( 𝑃 ) = 10 10 = 0.0832
𝑖𝑛
𝑷
∴ (𝒊)𝑨𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝟏 𝒌𝒎 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆, ( 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 ) = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟑𝟔
𝒊𝒏
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝒊𝒊)𝑨𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝟑 𝒌𝒎 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆, ( ) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟑𝟐
𝑷𝒊𝒏
19. Calculate the NA, Relative RI, V number and the number of modes in an optical fiber of
core diameter of 50μm and the core and cladding R.I are 1.41 and 1.40 respectively. Given
wavelength of source 820nm. (Mar 2022–18S)
Data: 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 , 𝑛1 = 1.41
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 , 𝑛2 = 1.40
𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 , 𝑑 = 50μm = 50 × 10−6 𝑚
𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝜆 = 820𝑛𝑚 = 820 × 10−9 𝑚
To find: Numerical aperture, N.A=? and V-number , V=?
Solution: 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑁. 𝐴 = √(𝑛12 − 𝑛22 ) = √1.412 − 1.402 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝟕𝟔
𝑛1 −𝑛2 1.41−1.40
Relative refractive index, ∆= = = 0.00709

.IN
𝑛1 1.41
𝜋𝑑
𝑉 − 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 , 𝑉 = √(𝑛12 − 𝑛22 )
𝜆
𝜋 × 50 × 10−6
𝑉=
C
× 0.1676 = 32
820 × 10−9
𝑽𝟐 𝟑𝟐𝟐
N
∴ 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕, 𝑵 = = = 𝟓𝟏𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
20. The attenuation of light in an optical fiber is estimated at 2.2db/Km. What fractional
SY

intensity remains after 2Km and 6Km?

Data: 𝐹𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝛼=2.2 dB/km

𝑃
U

To find: (i) 𝐴𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 2 𝑘𝑚 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, ( 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) =?

𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
(ii) 𝐴𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 6 𝑘𝑚 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, ( 𝑃 ) =?
VT

𝑖𝑛
10 𝑃
Solution: we have, , 𝛼 = − 𝐿
𝐿𝑜𝑔10 ( 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 )
𝑖𝑛

Where, L the length of the fiber is expressed in km.

𝑃 𝛼𝐿
∴ 𝐿𝑜𝑔10 ( 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) = − ( 10 )
𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝛼𝐿
𝑜𝑟 ( ) = 10−(10 )
𝑃𝑖𝑛
2.2×2
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
) = 10−( )
(𝒊) 𝑨𝒕 𝟏𝒌𝒎 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 , 𝑳 = 𝟐 ( 10 = 0.363
𝑃𝑖𝑛
2.2×6
𝑃
( 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) = 10−( )
(𝒊) 𝑨𝒕 𝟑𝒌𝒎 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 , 𝑳 = 𝟔 10 = 0.0478
𝑖𝑛
𝑷
∴ (𝒊)𝑨𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝟐 𝒌𝒎 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆, ( 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 ) = 0.363
𝒊𝒏
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝒊𝒊)𝑨𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝟔 𝒌𝒎 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆, ( ) = 0.0478
𝑷𝒊𝒏

RAFEEQUE AHMED K, ASST. PROF., CONTACT: +919940800551 (WHATSAPP: +918431526189) KNSIT,BENGALURU-64 31

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