American Journal of Applied Sciences 10 (8): 819-831, 2013

ISSN: 1546-9239
© 2013 M.H. Tanveer et al., This open access article is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution
(CC-BY) 3.0 license
doi:10.3844/ajassp.2013.819.831 Published Online 10 (8) 2013 ([Link]

Stabilized Controller
Design for Attitude and Altitude
Controlling of Quad-Rotor Under
Disturbance and Noisy Conditions
M. Hassan Tanveer, S. Faiz Ahmed,
D. Hazry, Faizan A. Warsi and M. Kamran Joyo
Centre of Excellence for Unmanned Aerial Systems (COEUAS), School of Mechatronics,
University Malaysia Perlis, Jalan Kangar Alor-setar 01000, Kangar Perlis, Malaysia

Received 2013-05-27, Revised 2013-06-06; Accepted 2013-07-09

ABSTRACT
This article presents a control approach to obtain the better stabilization in attitude and altitude of quad-rotor
under different disturbance conditions. In the standard Quad-rotor rotor type UAV, controlling of attitude and
altitude is one of the most critical tasks and appropriate controller for stabilization of UAV is essential and
necessary. These two controls under various conditions of disturbances was a field of research stimulating for the
researchers. The controller proposed is contingent on the PID feedback structure with Extended Kalman Filter
(EKF). From Lyapunov Stability Theorem, it is proved that quad-rotor proposed altitude control system is
asymptotic as well exponentially stability. Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) is used to filter out the sensors and
system noises. Finally, the simulations carried out on MATLAB and the result proved the effectiveness of
proposed recommended method for stabilization of attitude and altitude of quad-rotor.
Keywords: Quad-rotor, Takeoff/Landing and Altitude Control, PID, Lyapunov Stability Theorem,
Extended Kalman Filter

1. INTRODUCTION due to its small size, light weight, effortless assembling

of the mechanical structure and most importantly their
In the last decade, with the increase in technology the ability to complete the tasks efficiently and
demand of unmanned aerial systems has rapidly increased. autonomously. Its ability to Vertically Take-Off and
This is mainly because of the UAVs incredibly carryout a Land (VTOL) and hovering categorizes it into
wide range of applications at minimal cost and without helicopter UAVs. It is a distinctive type of UAV
endangering any risk to human life. UAVs are inherently because of its unique shape and functioning.
suitable for military applications such as Border patrolling, With its uniqueness, plenty of technical and
Security Intelligence, cartography, surveillance, cost guards, distinctive issues are associated to quad-rotor that
acquisition of targets. UAVs have also penetrated in civilian opened a way to a massive research work. A quad-
applications such as search and rescue missions, rotor system is a simple structure but nonlinear in
explorations, security and surveying of oil pipe lines, nature which makes the controls very complex and
Forests on fire, agricultural applications and power and difficult. Researchers have been facing issues with
nuclear plants inspection. controlling the altitude and tackling to the air
The quad-rotor is a famous type of UAV amongst disturbances while hovering which is the primary
the researchers. The extensive attention towards it is concern in this article.
Corresponding Author: M. Hassan Tanveer, Centre of Excellence For Unmanned Aerial Systems (COEUAS), School of Mechatronics,
University Malaysia Perlis, Jalan Kangar Alor-setar 01000, Kangar Perlis, Malaysia

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1.1. Related Work by changing the combination and speed of the quad-
rotor motors described in following section.
Generally quad-rotor carries several uncertainties,
To perform hovering, take-off or landing all four
such as air disturbances and mainly due to nonlinearity
propellers rotate with same speed. For take-off the
of the system may remarkably disturb the flight and
rotation of the propellers must be higher to produce a
lead to undesired movement. To avoid these types of
lifting force greater than the total quad-rotor weight,
movements a suitable control algorithm is required for
while for landing, the rotation of the propeller speed
attitude and altitude control for hover. However In the
gradually decreased to let the quad-rotor getting
recent years, altitude and attitude controlling of quad-
landed on the ground. The hovering can be achieved
rotor has remained an issue due to the constraints and
by producing the lifting force that equal to the total
unstable kinematics and dynamics. Some of the
quad-rotor weight. The relation of the movement can
techniques already have been developed for these
be written as:
controls mentioned.
Gotbolt et al. (2013) used Model based PID control
U1 = ±ω1 2 ± ω2 2 ± ω3 2 ± ω4 2
for Autopilot design for Helicopter, this article only
focused on software framework optimization. The PD
control technique was used for tilt rotor UAV where, ω12 , ω22 ω32 , ω42are angular velocity or propeller
stabilization in year 2012 (Chowdhury et al., 2012). In speed produced by motor 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively.
the year 2011 active disturbance rejection controller For pitch movement, the speeds of motor 1 and 3 are
was proposed by Hua et al. (2011) only for attitude changed conversely to perform forward and backward
controlling of quad-rotor. H-inf control technique was movement while other two motors speed must maintain
introduced by Jiao et al. (2010) for trajectory tracking constant to stabilize the quad-rotor. To move forward,
of quad-rotor. Lee et al. (2011) used Dynamic Surface the speed of motor M3 must be greater than the speed of
Control (DSC) method for altitude control. This study motor 1 and vice versa for backward move. The relation
presents the modeling of a quad-rotor and a technique of the movement can be written as:
based on PID controller for altitude and attitude
stabilization. Simulation is done on (MATLAB). In a U2 = ±ω1 2 m ω32
real-time system, sensors and measurement devices
provide a noisy data. A filter must be introduced into The method to perform roll movement is same as pith
the system in order to reject noise. Kalman filter except that in roll movement the speeds of the motor 2
might be a decent filter for this system. Since the
and 4 are changed for right and left movement. The
quad-rotor system is non-linear in nature, an ordinary
relation of the movement can be written as:
KF cannot be used. The extended version of the
Kalman filter is extended kalman filter that is
U3 = ±ω2 2 m ω4 2
specially designed for non-linear systems.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS To perform the yaw movement, the speeds of the
motors in pairs (motor 1 and 3) and (motor 2 and can be
2.1. Modeling of Quad-Rotor written as:
2.1.1. Quad-Rotor Kinematics U4 = ±ω1 2 ± ω32 m ω2 2 m ω4 2
UAV quad-rotor comprises of four motor out of
which two moves clockwise and remaining two moves To perform the yaw movement, the speeds of the
anticlockwise as shown in (Fig. 1). Different pairs of motors in pairs (motor 1 and 3) and (motor 2 and 4) are
propellers attach on the tip of each motor. The rotation changed conversely. To rotate the quad-rotor body to the
of these propellers generate vertical upward lifting right, the speeds of motors 2 and 4 must be greater than
force that lifts the quad-rotor body in the air and it can the speeds of motors 1 and 3 while to rotate it to left, the
moves in pitch, roll, yaw, hover, take-off and landing speed configuration is inverted. The relation of the
positions. These different movements can be achieved movement can be written as:

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Fig. 1. Quad-rotor UAV with its dimensions

2.2. Dynamics of Quad-Rotor 2.3. Newton-Eular Method

2.2.1. B.L.D.C. Dynamics Newton Euler technique can be used to derive the
quad-rotor 6 DOF equation. From the (Fig. 2), two
As discussed earlier that quad-rotor comprises of
frames earth and body frame have been given.
four motors which are used to control 6 DOF, so we
Equation 3 describes the kinematics of a generic 6
need to understand its motor dynamics. The
DOF rigid body:
parameters in Equation (1) can be calculated by
geometric, dynamic and aerodynamic evaluation of ξ& = J Θ V (3)
the mechanic structure:
where, ‘ ξ& ’ and ‘v’ are generalized velocity vector with
ω& = A ω + BV + C (1)
respect to E-frame (Earth Fixed Frame) and B-frame
(Body Fixed Frame) respectively.
where, “A” is the linearized propeller’s speed ‘JΘ’ is a generalized matrix.
coefficient, “B” is the linearized input voltage For quad-rotor linear ‘ΓΕ’ and angular ‘ΘΕ’ position
coefficient, “C” is the linearized constant coefficient, vectors with respect to E frame ‘ξ’ and B frame ‘v’ can be
“ω” is the propellers’ speed vector, “ ω
& ”is the propeller’s defined as in Equation (4) and (5) respectively:
acceleration vector and “V” is the inputs voltage vector.
ξ = Γ E  E  = [ X Y Z pq r ]
T T
The motor with propeller dynamics is identified and (4)
validated in (Becker et al., 2012). A first-order transfer
v =  V B ω  = [ u v w φ θ ψ ]
B T T
function is sufficient to present the dynamics of rotor (5)
used in quad-rotor type unmanned systems Equation (2):
The rotation RΘ matrix can be defined according to
Equation 6:
0.936
G(s) = (2)
0.178S + 1  c ψ c θ − s ψ c φ + c ψ s θs φ s ψ s θ + c ψ s θ c φ 
 
For determining dynamics of Quad-rotor, we need R Θ =  s ψ c θ c ψ c φ + s ψ s θs φ − c ψ s φ + s ψ s θ c φ  (6)
 
to understand Earth Inertial frame (E frame) and quad-  −sθ cθ sφ cθ cφ 
rotor fixed-body frame (F frame). The frames are
shown in (Fig. 2). Where the notations:
The Quad-rotor orientation (φ,θ,ψ) and position (x, y, c = cos
z) can be defined by Newton Euler Method. s = sin

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Fig. 2. Quad-rotor Body and Earth Inertial Frame

The Quad-rotor system is composed of linear  U1 = b(ω12 + ω 2 2 + ω 3 2 + ω 4 2 )

equations with respect to E-frame and angular equations 
 U 2 = lb ( − ω 2 + ω 4 )
2 2
with respect to B-frame. Therefore the quad-rotor  (9)
generalized velocity vector can be expressed in the new  U 3 = lb ( ω1 + ω 3 )
2 2

frame called H-frame shown in Equation 7: 

 U 4 = d( − ω1 + ω 2 − ω 3 + ω 4 )
2 2 2 2

ζ = Γ& E ωB  =  X
& Y & φ θ ψ T
& Z (7)
 where, ‘l’, b and d are the arm length, thrust constant and
drag constant respectively.
By contributing the effect of gyroscope, gravitational
vector and quad-rotor movement vector (Becker et al., 2.4. Proposed Controller Design
2012) we can calculate the quad-rotor system dynamic as In this study PID controller technique is proposed
define in Equation 8: for appropriate altitude and attitude controlling of
quad-rotor under the disturbance condition. Besides
&& = ( sin ψ sin φ + cos ψ sin θ cos φ ) U1 that EKF is also proposed to filter out the noises
X
m caused by sensor and system.
Figure 3 shows the overall block diagram of
Y&& = ( − cos ψ sin φ + sin ψ sin θ cos φ ) U1 Proposed Control Algorithm and the plant dynamics are
m presented in Equation (10) for altitude and attitude
U controlling of quad-rotor. For smooth controlling of
Z = −g + ( cos θ cos φ ) 1
&&
m quad-rotor Altitude, z-axis equation will be used and for
&& I − I J U attitude controlling all three angles which are roll, pitch
φ = YY ZZ θψ − TP θ ω + 2 and yaw will be used in controller designing:
IXX I XX IXX

&& I −I J U U
θ = ZZ XX θ ψ − TP θ ω + 3 Z = −g + (cos θ cos φ) 1
&&
IYY IYY IYY m
IXX − I YY U && I I J U
φ = YY ZZ θψ − TP θΩ + 1 2
ψ
&& = θψ − 4 (8)
I ZZ I ZZ I XX l XX l XX

&& l l J U
θ = ZZ XX θψ − TP θΩ + 1 3
where, U1, U2, U3 and U4 are the movement vector lYY lYY I YY
components define in Equation (9). Their relation with
lXX lYY U
the propellers’ speeds comes from aerodynamic ψ
&& = θψ − 1 4 (10)
calculus (Lee et al., 2011): l ZZ lZZ

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The main objective of this research is to design Pk +1 = A k (1 − K k Ck )Pk (17)

Controller which makes quad-rotor stable under the
circumstances of disturbance. In order to deal with where, ‘K’ is the correction Kalman gain vector and ‘Ak’
this major issue an appropriate PID Controller is and ‘Ck’ cannot be used directly. With this type of
presented in this study for making the system stabilize limitation either Taylor series is applied or Jacobian is
under the disturbance condition. The PID control is used. The Jacobians are defined as Equation (18 and 19):
tuned by auto-tuning method and its range between 0
to1for all parameters. A k = f ′(xˆ k ,u k ) (18)
The other common problem in quad-rotor is that
basically during sensor data is distorted due to noise;
Ck = h′(xˆ k ) (19)
to overcome this problem hence Extended Kalman
Filter is introduced.
where, f(.) can be evaluated as in the Equation 20:
2.5. EKF for Noise Rejection
 df1 df 
Quad-rotor UAV are non-linear systems, so for the  L L L LLLL L 1 
estimation of the true system output and filter out the  dx1 dx n 
noises Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) technique can  ⋅ 
 
be to used. EKF lies on the principles of linearization  ⋅ 
of the current estimation error mean and covariance  ⋅ 
(Zhang et al., 2011). f ′(x)   (20)
Considering a standard state space model of a  ⋅ 
 
nonlinear system:  ⋅ 
 ⋅ 
X k +1 = f (x k ,u k ) + w k (11)  
 df n df n 
 dx dx n 
y k = h(x k ) + v k (12)  1

where, ‘xk’ is a state vector in Equation (11), ‘ y k ’ is a 2.6. Attitude Stabilization Controller
measured process output in Equation (12), ‘wk' and ‘vk’ The EKF filtered feedback signal combined with
are the process and measurement noises respectively. reference signal and produces error signal which goes to
F(.) and h(.) are generic nonlinear functions. PID control block as shown in (Fig. 3). For Quad-rotor
The extended Kalman filter is used to estimate attitude controlling only orientation angles i.e., pith, roll
unmeasured states and the actual process outputs. and yaw are controlled. The Block diagram of PID
Likewise the standard kalman filter, the EKF also controller based Attitude controller for quad-rotor is
uses two step prediction and correction algorithm. The illustrated in (Fig. 4). The quad-rotor dynamics must be
time update equations of EKF are: simplified while hovering. There are some of the terms
that can be neglected which are gyroscopic torque and
xˆ k +1 = f (xˆ k , u k ) (13) Coriolis-centripetal as mentioned in (Ryll et al., 2012).
After neglecting the terms in Equation (10), the
Pk +1 = A k Pk A k T + Q (14) equation becomes simpler as Equation (21):

L 
where, ‘ x̂ k +1 ’ is prior state estimate in Equation (13).  u2 
I
The time update equations project the state and covariance φ   xx 
&&
estimate ‘Pk+1’ from previous time step ‘k’ to the current &&   L 
θ  =  u 3  (21)
ψ  I yy 
time step ‘k+1’ Equation (14) (Zhang et al., 2011). && 
The measurement update equations of EKF are    1 
 u 
Equation (15-17):  I ZZ 
4

K k = Pk Ck T (C k Pk Ck T + R) −1 (15) By applying Laplace Transform on Equation (21), the

transfer function of quad-rotor plant’s attitude which is
xˆ k +1 = f ( xˆ k ,u k ) + K k  yk − h(xˆ k ) (16) roll, pitch and yaw obtained separately as Equation 22:

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Fig. 3. Proposed control system

Fig. 4. Block diagram of attitude controller

φ(s) L For Roll angle controlling, following equation will be

= take in account:
u 2 (s) 1XX s 2
θ(s) 1
= (22) 1U 2
u 3 (s) I 2 φ(s) = (23)
yyS I XXS2
ψ (s) 1
= After evaluating roll angle with rotor dynamics given
u 4 (s) I 2
ZZS in Equation 23 the above equation becomes Equation (24):

So for its controller designing, the error signals eφ, eθ, (0.9362 )l
φ(s) = U (24)
eψ will be: 1XX s2 (1.78S + 1)2

where,  (0.936 )l  is constant and can be taken equal

2
e φ = φref − φ
 I XX 
e θ = θref − θ
to Ka. The difference between rotor is given by U
e ψ = ψ ref − ψ Equation (25):

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Ka ez = Zref − Z
φ(s) = U (25)
S (1.78S + 1)2
2

and PID controller will become Equation (29):

Ka
φ(s) = U Ki
3.16S4 + 3.5S3 + S2 U(s) = K pe(s) + e(s) + K dSe(s) (29)
S
The PID equation is Equation (26):
Kp, Ki and Kd can be selected by Auto tuning method:
Ki
PID = K P e(s) + e(s) + SK de(s) (26)  0.3S2 + 3.5S + 4.46  K 
S Z(S) =  2 
K p e(s) + i e(s) + SK d e(s) 
 0.03S + 0.35S + S 
4 3
S 
After applying PID to the system the equation for
attitude stabilization of roll becomes Equation (27): Let:

φ = e(s) K1 = 0.3K d = 1
 S2 K d K a + SK P K a + K i K a  (27) K 2 = (3.5K d + 0.3K P ) = (2b + 2a)
 U
 3.16S + 3.5S + S + S K d K a + SK p K a + K i K a
5 4 3 2
 K 3 = (0.3K p + 0.3K i + 4.46K d ) = (b 2 + 4ab + a 2 )
K 4 = (0.3K i + 4.46K p ) = (2ab 2 + 2a 2 b)
Similarly for other angles of attitude (i.e., pitch K 5 = 4.46 K i = a 2 b 2
and yaw), can obtain by same above mentioned
proposed method. Therefore close loop transfer function for the
2.7. For Altitude Stabilization complete system will become:

For achieving stabilized altitude of Quad-rotor we Y(s)

have to work on quad-rotor Z axis and all axes remaining =
R(s)
constant. So we select Only Z axis equation form (30)
K1S4 + K 2S3 + K 3S2 + K 4S + K 5
Equation (10), as show in following: e(s)
S5 + (K d + 1)S4 + (K p + K d + 1)S3 + K 3S2 + K 4S + K 5
U1
&&z = g − (cos ∅ cos θ)
m
2.8. Controller Stability Analysis
In above equation g = 9.86 and m = 9.68, where with Illustrating the parameters of Equation 30 and simplify it
respect of time φ and θ must be considered as 0 for for proving stability through lyapunov theorem.
hovering condition, change their values and giving a Taking it can be considered as Equation (31):
U1
constant value at a particular time &&z = 9.86 − . After => (S + a) 2 (S + b) 2 = 0
m (31)
evaluating rotor dynamics in plant equation will become: => (S2 + 2as + a 2 )(S2 + 2bs + b 2 ) = 0

2
 0.936   1  Solving Equation 30 in stipulations of above equation
&&z = 9.86 −    × 4
 0.178S + 1   0.65  for proving stability, we get:

Using laplace Transform, system will become (S2 + 2as + a 2 ) = 0

Equation (28): K AS2 + K BS + K C = 0

0.3S2 + 3.5S + 4.46

Z(s) = (28) Converting above equation to time domain:
0.03S4 + 0.35S3 + S2

So the error signals E for PID control is: K A&&e + eK

& B + eK C = 0 (32)

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Solving Equation (32) as state space representation it The derivative of Lyapunov will become:
can be written as Equation (33):
& = eK
V e + eK Ce& + ∈ K A e& 2 + ∈ eK A&&
& A&& e (39)
 e& 
d e   
  =     (33)
dt  e&   −  C  e −  B  e& 
K K
 K 
Solving Equation 39 now Equation 40:
  A   KA  
& = (−K + ∈ K )e& 2 + ∈ (−K e 2 − K ee)
V & (40)
Define x = (e, e)
& as the state of the system. Since this B A C B

system is a linear system, we can determine stability by

examining the poles of the system. Wang et al. (2011), The function V& can be made negative definite for ∈
the Jacobian matrix for the system is Equation (34): chosen sufficiently small and hence we can conclude that
system satisfies exponential stability (Wang et al., 2011).
 0 1  From Equation 32, 41 and 42:
 
A =   KC  K  (34) K A&&e + K C e = u(t), u = K Be& (41)
− −  B 
 K  
  A  K A 
K A = K A T > 0,K C = −K C T > 0, K B = K B T > 0 (42)
which has a characteristic equation:
Letting x1 = e, x 2 = e,
& we have
KB K
λ2 + λ+ C =0
KA KA
x& 1 = x 2 x& 2 = −K A −1K C x1 − K A −1K B x 2
The solutions of the characteristic Equation (35) are:
Let Equation 43:
−(K B ) ± (K B ) 2 − 4(K C )(K A )
λ (35) 2 2 1
2(K A ) V = e& T K A e& +& eT K Ce =  x 2T x 2T 
z z 2
(43)
Which always have negative real parts and hence the  K C 0   x1 
    > (x ≠ 0)
system is (globally) exponentially stable.  0 KA  x 2 
We now try to apply Lyapunov’s direct method to
determine exponential stability. The “obvious” This is a radially unbounded pdf. Then Equation 44:
Lyapunov function to use in this context is the energy of
the system Equation (36): & = e& T (K &&e +& K e) = −e& T K e& =
V A C B

1 1  0 0   x1  (44)
V(x, t) = K A e& 2 + K C e2 (36) −  x1 T x 2 T     ≤ 0
2 2 0 K B   x 2 

Taking derivative of V Equation (37):

Hence, x = 0 is a stable equilibrium. It is in fact
& = K ee
V &&& + K C ee& = K Be& 2 (37) globally asymptotically stable.
A

The function − V& is quadratic but not locally positive 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
definite because it depends upon e., so for that here
For simulation quad-rotor system parameters are
slightly skew being made so that the flow of system
crosses the level surface transversely. chosen as given in (Table 1). The simulation result
∈ Introduces here showing small positive constant presented exposes the effectiveness of controller to
and shows that V is still positive definite Equation 38: stabilize the quad-rotor attitude and altitude under
disturbance conditions. The closed loop system
1 1 behaviors are analyzed while hovering in the presence of
V(x, t) = & A e& + eK C e + ∈ eK
eK & Ae (38)
2 2 unknown disturbance injected on attitude of quad-rotor.

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Fig. 5. Altitude controller

Fig. 6. Disturbance and its effect on roll angle

Fig. 7. Attitude Control (Roll angle)

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Fig. 8. Disturbance and its effect on pitch angle

Fig. 9. Attitude control (pitch angle)

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Fig. 10. Disturbance and its effect on yaw angle

Fig. 11. Attitude control (Yaw angle)

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Fig. 12. Noise signal

Fig. 13. Noise rejection by using EKF

Table 1. Parameters of Quad-rotor

Parameter Name Symbol Value Unit
Rotational Inertia
along Z-axis Izz 0.0017 kg.m2
Rotational Inertia Ixx 0.0021 kg.m2
along X-axis
Rotational Inertia Iyy 0.0021 kg.m2
along X-axis
Total Mass m 0.65 kg
Thrust Constant b N.s2 N.s2
Drag Constant d 7.50e-7 N.s2
Arm Length ι 0.23 m

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During simulation in proposed PID controller, 0  set Chowdhury, A.B., A. Kulhare and G. Raina, 2012. A
points is set for each attitude angle (Yaw, Pitch and Roll) generalized control method for a Tilt-rotor UAV
for maintaining Quad-rotor attitude under disturbance stabilization. Proceedings of the IEEE International
and noisy conditions. Figure 5 shows, the simulation Conference on Cyber Technology in Automation,
results of quad-rotor while hovering in Z position with Control and Intelligent Systems, May 27-31, IEEE
amplitude of 10. The altitude controller quickly stabilize Xplore Press, Bangkok, pp: 309-314. DOI:
the quad-rotor and only takes settling time of 3.8 second 10.1109/CYBER.2012.6392571
when PID controller is auto-tuned with parameter of Kp Gotbolt, B., N.I. Vitzilaios and A.F. Lynch, 2013.
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Figure 6, 8 and 10 demonstrates that the disturbance Design using Model-Based PID Control. J. Intell.
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Figure 7, 9 and 11 shows the simulation results of Hua, X., Y. Ruyi, Y. Jianqiang, F. Guoliang and J.
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and quickly stabilized the quad-rotor attitude. The auto- Conference, Jul. 22-24, IEEE Xplore Press, Yantai,
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Figure 12 shows the effect of Gaussian noise (with feedback control for UAV maneuver trajectory
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4. CONCLUSION Choi, 2011. Modeling and altitude control of quad-
rotor UAV. Proceedings of the 11th International
This study presents the successful simulation Conference on Control, Automation and Systems,
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stabilization of Quad-rotor UAV system under 1897-1902.
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stable. The parameters of proposed PID controller are tilting propellers. Proceedings of the IEEE
selected by PID auto-tune method. Finally EKF is International Conference on Robotics and
introduced by which the estimates of parameters could Automation, May 14-18, IEEE Xplore press, Saint
converge successfully with their right value at the time Paul, MN., pp. 4606-4613. DOI:
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difficulties due to the noise. According to simulations, Wang, Z., A. Behal, B. Xian and J. Chen, 2011.
there is evidence that the effectiveness of the control Lyapunov-based adaptive control design for a class
method is verified that the controller has offered to of uncertain MIMO nonlinear systems. Proceedings
return the entire system to stabilize the situation where of the IEEE International Symposium on Intelligent
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