Metalworking Processes
Chapter 4
AMT 4136 – Aircraft Mechanical Processes
Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Sherwin R. Trinidad, LPT, MEAM
Session Objective
At the end of the session, you will be able to:
a. explain the principles and applications of hot working, cold
working, and extrusion in aviation;
b. describe the methods and benefits of annealing, normalizing,
hardening, and tempering; and
c. discuss the critical properties of metals used in aviation and
evaluate different quenching media.
Metalworking Processes
SLIDE 2
Introduction
In aviation, materials must be lightweight,
strong, and durable enough to withstand the
extreme stresses of flight. Metalworking
and heat treatment processes are vital in
transforming raw metals into highly
reliable aircraft components. These
processes are designed to improve the
strength, toughness, and fatigue
resistance of metals while minimizing risks
such as brittleness and corrosion.
Metalworking Processes
SLIDE 3
Metalworking
It is the process of shaping
and reshaping metals to create
individual parts, assemblies, or
large structures.
Three methods of
metalworking:
1. Hot Working
2. Cold Working
3. Extrusion
Metalworking Processes
SLIDE 4
Hot Working
It involves shaping metals at temperatures
above their recrystallization points, making the
material more malleable and less likely to crack.
Process:
• Steel is typically hot worked from ingots.
• When stripped from its mold, an ingot has a
solid surface but a molten interior.
• Ingots are placed in soaking pits to equalize
temperature and solidify the interior.
• After soaking, ingots are rolled to
intermediate sizes for easier handling.
Metalworking Processes
SLIDE 5
Hot Working
When Rolled:
• Bloom: Square section with dimensions 6
inches × 6 inches or larger.
• Billet: Square section with dimensions less than
6 inches × 6 inches.
• Slab: Rectangular section with width greater
than twice its thickness.
Applications: These shapes are further rolled
into various uniform cross-sectional shapes like
sheets, bars, channels, angles, and I-
beams.
• Hot-rolled materials are often finished by cold
rolling or drawing for precise dimensions and
smooth surfaces.
Metalworking Processes
SLIDE 6
Hot Working
When not rolled:
Forging: Performed at temperatures above the
critical range to shape the metal.
• Pressing: Used for large, heavy parts. slow-
acting, uniformly transmits force, affecting both
interior and exterior grain structure.
• Hammering: Suitable for small pieces. Quick
force application, affecting only a small depth.
Requires heavy hammer or repeated blows for
thorough working.
• Smith Forging: Produces small, high-grade parts.
Operator controls pressure and finishing
temperature. Saves machining time and material.
Metalworking Processes
SLIDE 7
Hot Working
After hardening:
Tempering: Involves heating steel to a
specified temperature and cooling it in air,
oil, water, or special solutions.
• Relieves internal strain and reduces
brittleness.
• Enhances hardness and toughness.
Metalworking Processes
SLIDE 8
Hot Working
If it’s too hard:
Annealing: Involves heating to a
prescribed temperature, holding, and slow
cooling.
• Relieves internal stresses, softens metal,
increases ductility, and refines grain
structure.
• Maximum softness achieved by very slow
cooling; some metals require furnace
cooling, others air cooling.
Metalworking Processes
SLIDE 9
Hot Working
For iron base metals:
Normalizing: Involves heating to the proper temperature,
holding, and cooling in still air.
• Used to relieve stresses in metals.
Metalworking Processes
SLIDE 10
Cold Working
Cold working takes place below the
recrystallization temperature, resulting in
harder, stronger metals with improved
surface finishes.
Benefits: Increases tensile strength and
improves fatigue resistance, essential for
components subjected to repeated stress,
such as aircraft fuselage and wings.
Limitations: Excessive cold working can
make metals brittle, which may necessitate
additional heat treatment to relieve stresses
Metalworking Processes
SLIDE 11
Extrusion
A process where metal is pushed
through a die to produce long, continuous
sections of a fixed cross-sectional shape.
Applications: Used to create
components like tubes and channels that
are lightweight but durable, vital for
aircraft construction
Metalworking Processes
SLIDE 12
Heat Treatment
Heat treatment is essential for adjusting
the mechanical properties of metals, such
as hardness, toughness, and ductility.
The process involves heating and cooling
metals under controlled conditions to
optimize their performance.
Broadly includes processes like
annealing, normalizing, hardening,
and tempering for steels.
Metalworking Processes
SLIDE 13
Heat Treatment
Problem:
• Subjected to shock and fatigue stresses.
• Fatigue occurs from frequent reversals of
loading or repeated loads, leading to cracks
and eventual failure.
• Resistance to shock and fatigue is crucial
for critical parts..
Metalworking Processes
SLIDE 14
Heat Treatment
Purpose:
• Change mechanical properties to make
metals more useful, serviceable, and safe.
• Can make metals harder, stronger, more
impact-resistant, or softer and more ductile.
• No single heat-treating operation can
produce all desired characteristics; some
properties improve at the expense of others
(e.g., hardening can make metal brittle).
Metalworking Processes
SLIDE 15
Heat Treatment
Restrictions:
• Heat treatment results depend on
metal structure and changes during
heating and cooling.
• Pure metals cannot be hardened by
heat treatment due to minimal
structural change.
• Alloys respond to heat treatment as
their structures change with heating
and cooling.
Metalworking Processes
SLIDE 16
Heat Treating Equipment
Requires close control over
heating and cooling factors.
Proper equipment selection
is crucial (furnace size/type,
quenching equipment,
handling/cleaning/straightening
tools).
Furnace atmosphere affects
heat-treated parts.
Metalworking Processes
SLIDE 17
Furnaces
Various types and sizes designed for specific
temperature ranges.
Using furnaces beyond rated temperatures can
reduce lifespan and require repairs.
Fuel-fired furnaces need air for combustion;
usually muffler type to avoid direct flame
impingement.
Electric furnaces use wire or ribbon heating
elements; additional elements at high heat loss
points.
Common maximum temperatures: electric
furnaces up to 2,000°F, resistor bar furnaces
up to 2,500°F.
Metalworking Processes
SLIDE 18
Salt Baths
Salt baths for tempering or hardening;
temperature range 325°F to 2,450°F.
Lead baths temperature range: 650°F to
1,700°F.
Faster heating in lead or salt baths
compared to furnaces.
Metalworking Processes
SLIDE 19
Pyrometers
Pyrometers measure furnace temperature
using thermocouples.
Pyrometer components: thermocouple,
extension leads, meter.
Furnaces for tempering may have
gas/electric heating and fans for hot air
circulation.
Thermocouples: copper-constantan (up to
700°F), iron-constantan (up to 1,400°F),
chromel-alumel (up to 2,200°F), platinum-
rhodium alloys (up to 2,800°F).
Metalworking Processes
SLIDE 20
Pyrometers
Thermocouple life affected by maximum
temperature and furnace atmosphere.
Encased in metallic/ceramic tubes to
protect from furnace gases.
Accurate control requires placing
thermocouple close to the work.
Automatic controllers help maintain
desired temperature.
Metalworking Processes
SLIDE 21
Pyrometers
Indicating type: direct temperature reading.
Recording type: permanent temperature
record via inked stylus on calibrated
paper/chart.
Metalworking Processes
SLIDE 22
Heating
Objective: Transform pearlite to austenite by heating steel
through the critical range.
Requires slow heating to prevent rapid transition.
Cold steel inserted at 300°F to 500°F below hardening
temperature.
Temperature estimation methods: commercial crayons,
pellets, paints, or observing color changes.
Steel color changes with temperature: dull red at
1,000°F, progressing to white.
Protect steel from oxidation and decarburization using
atmosphere control or covering with cast iron
borings/chips.
Vacuum furnaces used for annealing to maintain non-oxidized
surfaces.
Metalworking Processes
SLIDE 23
Soaking
Maintain constant furnace temperature
during soaking.
Soaking temperatures vary by steel type and
part size.
Small parts soaked at lower range, heavy
parts at upper range.
Typical soaking period: 30 minutes to 1
hour.
Metalworking Processes
SLIDE 24
Cooling
Cooling rate through critical range
determines steel’s final form.
Cooling media: still air (slow), liquids
(fastest).
Common quenching liquids: brine
(strongest), water, oil (least strong).
Oil quench for alloy steels, brine or water for
carbon steels.
Metalworking Processes
SLIDE 25
Quenching Media
Quenching solutions cool steel without
chemical action.
Common media: water, inorganic salt
solutions, oils.
Cooling rates: rapid in brine, less rapid in
water, slow in oil.
Brine: 5-10% salt solution, effective in
removing scale.
Metalworking Processes
SLIDE 26
Quenching Media
Water and brine should be kept cold (below
60°F).
Quenching oils: straight mineral oil with
Saybolt viscosity of about 100 at 100°F.
Oils have greatest cooling velocity at 100-
140°F.
Metalworking Processes
SLIDE 27
Quenching Process
Film forms on hot steel surface, reducing
heat abstraction.
Agitation or pressure spray quench
needed to dislodge vapor films.
Recommendations to reduce warping:
1. Avoid throwing parts into quenching bath.
2. Agitate parts to destroy vapor coating.
3. Immerse irregular parts with heavy end first.
Metalworking Processes
SLIDE 28
Quenching Equipment
Properly sized quenching tank with
circulating pumps and coolers.
Maintain constant temperatures during large-
scale quenching.
Rapid transfer from furnace to quenching
medium is crucial.
Use guard sheets to retain heat during
transfer.
Rinse tank to remove salt after quenching.
Metalworking Processes
SLIDE 29
References
Aircraft Systems. (n.d.). Metalworking Processes and Heat Treatment of Metals.
The Piping Mart. (2024). Heat Treatments for Aviation Parts and Tools.
Aviation Metals. (n.d.). Metal Treatment and Services.
Metalworking Processes
SLIDE 30
THANK YOU FOR
LISTENING!
PREPARED BY:
Asst. Prof. Sherwin R. Trinidad, LPT, MEAM
(02) 8872-7041 or (02) 8871-0639 loc. 103/216
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