Sources

During the medieval period the literary sources were the major source through which we are able to
know about the major historical events that took place during this time. The Indian historical
literature during the period from 7th-12th Century consists of historical biographies and chronicles. It
was in the 7th century that the tradition of writing historical biographies began. Most of the historical
biographies were written by court poets who composed genealogies, biographies of their patron
rulers and recorded historical events of the past. The tradition of writing history was introduced by
the Arab and Persian Scholars.

The literary sources during medieval period are divided as Persian Language sources, Indian
Language Source and European Language sources.

Persian language sources

1. *Chach-Nama
It was originally written in Arabic. Later translated into Persian by Muhammad Kufi. Gives
history of Conquest of Sind by Arab in 711-12. The book gives history of Chacha Dynasty
down to Arab conquest by Muhammad Qasim.

2. *Tahqiq- Hind / Kitab ul Hind

It was written by Al Beruni. He was foreigner (Uzbekistan) (1017) and he translated many
Sanskrit works into Persian and Arabic. His work gives account of literature, religion and
science of Hindus at the time of his visit to India. It also gives us information on condition of
India at the time of India’s invasion by Mahmud Ghazni.

3. Zain ul Akhbar

Was written by Abu Said. Gives information of Mahmud Ghazni and the data given by author is
accurate.

4. Tarikh-i- Masudi

Written by Abul Husain al Baihaqi. Deals with history of Mahmud of Ghazni. Gives us idea of
court life.

5. *Tabquat-i-Nasiri

Written by Minhaj us Siraj. Gives us first-hand account of conquest of India by Muhammad Ghori
and also the History of Delhi Sultanate up to 1260. The author was not impartial writer. He was
biased in favor of Mohammad Ghori, Iltutmish, and Balban.

[Link] ul Maier

By Hasan Nizami. It deals with events 1192-1228 A.D, Career of Aibak specially his early years of
Iltutmish. Work record minimum event with maximum description. Heroes are always brave,
victorious generous and cultured.

[Link]-Hikayat

Written by Nuruddin Aufi. Gives us details of the military operation that Iltutmish conducted against
Qubacha in 1227. Author was eye witness of those events.
 8.*Tarikh i-Muhammadi

By Muhammad Khani. Work deal with life of Prophet Muhammad, the Caliphs, Ummayyids,
Abbasids, Ghaznavids, Saljuqs, Sultans of Ghor and Ghazni etc. it also contains history of Delhi,
Timur, biographies of Sufi Saints. It is arranged in annals- year by year narration of events- Military.
(Life of Prophet and history of early Caliphs). Dynasty and reign- emphasis –military events.
Biographies of saints- in full praises

9. Tarikh-I Firozshahi

By Zia ud Din Barani. The aauthor was contemporary of Ghiyas ud din Tughlaq, Muhammad bin
Tughlaq and Firoz Tughlaq. Brings story from Balban till Firoz Tughlaq. Gives useful account of Slave
dynasty, the Khaljis, and the Tughlaq. Author held high position in the administration & therefore
possessed accurate information. Also gives in detail system of Revenue administration.

10. Futuh al Salatin

By Khwaja Isami. Author migrated from Delhi to Daulatabad during reign of Muhammad Tughlaq.
Work begins with Mahmud Ghazni and partially praises Ala ud din Khalji. Work is hostile towards
Muhammad Tuglaq.

11.*Kitab-ur -Rahlah

By Ibn Batuta. He was from Morocco, visited India in 1333 and remained in India for 9 years. He was
Appointed Qazi by Muhammad bin Tughlaq. His work is contemporary account. It gives first-hand
information about the affairs of Muhammad Tughlaq.

[Link]’in ul Futuh

By Amir Khusrav. He was contemporary of ruler of Delhi from Jalal-ud Din Khalji to Muhammad bin
Tughlaq. Author partially praises Ala ud din Khalji. Omits his faults and short comings. Since he was
eye witness this work is of great importance.

[Link] i-Mubarak Shahi

By Yahya Sarhindi. Gives us an account of reigns of Sayyid dynasty rulers. It contains morals in prose
and verse, warning mankind against snares and delusions of worldly success.

14. Tarik-i- Dauda

By Abdullah. It deals with Lodi and Sur Dynasty. It is lacking in dates and gives many anecdotes (short
accounts of an incident).

[Link] i- Sind

By Muhammad Masum. It deals with history of Sind- from Arab conquest till time of Akbar. He was
not a contemporary, mostly it is based on Chach- Nama. Gives accurate account of the conquest of
Sind by Arabs.
Shortcomings of Persian sources

Historians of this period only noted down the source and authority of the statements, they did not
discuss their reason and logic and made no scientific inquiry. Most of the Contents is limited to wars
and victories, appointment and dismissal of officers, birth and death, there is no emphasis on
science, literature, social conditions, effects of political circumstances. Historians are uncritical, they
wrote with the desire to win approval of their coreligionist, therefore ceased from criticizing the
Musalmans. Sought to gain favors from man in power.

Most Muslim chroniclers belonged to the class of Ulama/ Ulema. They were divided into 3
categories. First were Sufis, they were independent & wrote mostly unbiased history. Second were
flatters, they received royal patronage and third were Calumniators they rebuffed (express anger or
disapproval) in favour of their rivals

Other Persian sources during the 16th Century

Tarikh-i- Alfi of Mulla Daud, Ain-i-Akbari and Akbar Nama by Abul Fazl, Mutakhab-ut-tawarikh of
Baduani, Tabaqat-i- Akbari by Nizam-ul-Din Ahmed. Tuzuk-I Jahangiri by [Link] by
Abdul Hamid Lahori. Diwan-i- Makhfi by Zebunnissa ( daughter of Aurangzeb)

 Abdur Razzak- Abdur Razzak- Persian traveler & ambassador in the court of the king of
Vijayanagar from 1442-1443 - (Deva Raya II). Gives us an account of the political,
administrative, economic and cultural conditions of Vijayanagar.

Turkish

Babarnama by Babur. Humayun Nama by Gulbadan Begum gives us political history of Humayun as
well as glimpses of personal lives of the emperor.

Indian Language sources

Telgu

Amuktanialyada by Krishnadeva Raya.

Hindi

 Prithviraja Raso by Chand Bardai. The book describes the events and achievements of
Prithviraj Chauhan. Recent researchers have shown it is of not much historical value.

 Prithviraja Kavya- written during the lifetime of the Chauhan Prince is more dependable.

 Puratana Pravandha Samgraha and Aitihasik Jaina Kavya Samgraha were Jain writings. They
contain incidental notices of political affairs.

 Padmavat by Malik Mohammad Jayasi ,relates story of Padmani, the queen of Mewar.

 Sundra shringar by Sundra.

 Shivraja Bhusana, Chhatrasaldashaka and Shivavati --Bhusan patronized by Shivaji and

Chhatrasal Bundela. (glorified Hinduism and main purpose was to create a spirit of bravery
and fearlessness among Hindus).

Bengali

 Rasamala – stories – continuous official chronicle of the ruling family of Tipperah.

 Sanskrit

 Rajatarangini- by Kalhana (Kashmiri Brahman) in 1148 it is a historical chronicle of the North-

western Indian subcontinent particularly of Kashmir kings. This is considered as the most
significant historical work. It contains valuable information about the society, religion,
economy and culture. In this book, Kalhana made an attempt to critically examine the past
records and present objective history.

Foreign / European sources

 Marco Polo- visited southern India in 13th Century. (Pandya Kingdom). He has given his
accounts in his book The travels of Marco Polo.

 Nicolo de Conti- was Venician/Italian traveler (1420-1422). He visited Vijaynagar kingdom

during the reign of Deva Raya I. He gave an account of south India’s customs, manners and
conditions of the people of this period.

 Manucci - 1656-1687. He visited India during the reign of Aurangzeb. He recorded his
experiences in his Storia do Mogor, it’s a significant informative source of 17th century India.

 Russian

 Athnasius Nikitin- was a Russian trader. He visited Bahami sultanate during1470-1474. He

had described his experience in the travel notes, ‘The Journey Beyond Three Seas’

Portuguese*

 Batholomu Diaz (1503-1508)

 Domingo Paes- Portuguese traveler - (Krishna Deva Raya) – gives vivid description of
Vijayanagar empire.

 Duarte Barbosa – Portuguese traveler- (Krishna Deva Raya) (1516-1518)- Conditions

prevailing in Southern India and vijaynagar in particular.

 Nuniz-Portuguese Traveler- (Achyuta Deva Raya)

French

 Tavernier ( French jeweler) 1641-1687 visited during reign of Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb. He
was a French merchant and traveler. He was patronized by French government and left
account of his journey in India.

 Bernier (French doctor): he was a French physician and traveler. He was in Mughal court and
served as a physician there. His book ‘Travels in the Mughal Empire’, is mainly about the
reigns of Dara Shikoh and Aurangzeb.

 Jean Thevnot 1666-1668 (Aurangzeb): was a French traveler. He visited Mughal court and
other southern provinces and left his account.

English

 Captain Hawkins 1608-1613 ( Jahangir): he gave detailed account of Emperor Jahangir and
his court.
  Sir Thomas Roe – (English ambassador) (1612-1617): he arrived in 1613 in Mughal court as
an ambassador of King James I of England and has left vivid description of Mughal court in
his journal.

Islam in India.

Arabs and Turks played important role in spread of Islam. Arabs were responsible for the conquest
of Sindh in the beginning of 8th Century AD. However, they did not succeed in pushing it forward in
their conquest in to the interior of the country. This task was later accomplished by the Turks in the
12th and 13th Century.

Mopillas/ Mappilla Muslims

Before the arrival of the Islam in North India, it was already flourishing in south India. Islam was
introduced in south India by the Arab merchants that visited Kerala. Due to the inter-marriages
between the Indians and Arabs in south India. It gave the rise of Mopillas or Mappilla Muslim
community. This is found in Kerala, Lakshwadeep [Link] to some scholars, the Mappilas
are the oldest settled native Muslim community in South Asia. In general, a Mappila is either a
descendant of any native convert to Islam or a mixed descendant of any Middle Eastern Arab or non
Arab individual

The Mappila community originated primarily as a result of the West Asian contacts with Kerala,
which was fundamentally based upon commerce ("the spice trade").As per local
tradition, Islam reached Malabar Coast, as early as the 7th century AD. Before being overtaken by
the Europeans in the spice trade, Mappilas were a prosperous trading community, settled mainly in
the coastal urban centres of Kerala.

The continuous interaction of the Mappilas with the Middle East has created a profound impact on
their life, customs, and culture. Islam spread in North India after the conquest of Sindh by the Arabs.

Condition of India on eve of Arab conquest

Political situation

There were no very powerful kingdoms. India was composed of congeries of states, each one was
independent and sovereign.

Religious situation

Buddhism was on decline, but had its followers in Bengal and Bihar during the rule of Palas and
Senas. Jainism survived in south India. Hinduism was revived by Vaishnava and Saiva saints namely
Shankaracharya, Ramanujacharya and others. Most rulers were tolerant to all other religion.

Social condition

The Caste system, becoming more and more rigid. Untouchability was prevalent, Polygamy. Sati was
popular

Arab conquest of Sindh

In 712 AD Sindh is conquered by the Arabs. However Earlier efforts were made. In 636-37-naval
expedition was led to Thana Bombay but it failed. In 644, an attacked was launched by land through
the Makran Coast. Expedition sent under leadership of Mohamad bin qasim in 712. He captured
Brahmanabad, Multan. After capturing Multan- Qasim drew plan of conquering rest of [Link]
he could accomplish- died.

Effects of Arab Conquest

Arab conquest of Sindh was only an episode in the history of India and of Islam. It affected only a
small area. It introduced Islam which was destined to dominate the greater part of India for almost
500 years. When Arabs settled in Sindh- dazzled by ability of Indians they translated into Arabic.A
large number of persons in Sindh were converted to Islam proved to be permanent footing.

The Entry of Christianity

There were established trade routes between the West Asia and India. There are two views among
scholars regard the entry of Christianity in India. According to the first view, the tradition holds that
two apostles of Jesus- St. Thomas and St. Bartholomew preached the message of Christ on the
Malabar coast. According to second view, the Merchants and Missionaries from Eastern Persia
spread the message of Christianity.

However, tradition holds that St. Thomas, an apostle of Jesus following well established trade route
reached South India around 52 C.E. He preached in Malabar Coast, Palayur, Quilon. He visited
Coromandal Coasts. It is said that he converted some high class Hindus to Christianity. In the end he
suffered Martydom and was buried in Mylapore.

Community of St. Thomas Christians (Syrian Christians) bear testimony to his work in India. The
community is mostly found in Kerala. Local rulers granted privileges to St. Thomas Christians. There
were written on copper plates in old Malayalam language. Some dated 774 A.D.

Arrival of European

The discovery of sea route to India via Cape of Good Hope later led to Portuguese conquest of Goa in
1510. In the 17th century we have arrival of other European powers such as British, Dutch, French,
Danish to India for trade. Many Catholic religious orders came to India- Jesuits, Franciscans,
Augustinians, Dominicans etc. besides that Protestant missionaries also came to [Link] the
arrival of the Portuguese and other Europeans, Christianity spread faster in India

Conclusion

Christianity came to India in the 1st century C.E. St. Thomas, an apostle of Christ brought Christianity
into [Link], the missionaries from European nations also helped in the spread of Christianity.

Rajputs

Political Confusion at Kanauj After Harsha's Death (647)

The death of Harsha-Vardhana in 647 A.D. was followed immediately by the political confusion at
Kanauj and the consequent lethal blow to the political unity of Northern India, achieved under him.
A number of states sprang into existence in Northern India, leading to a struggle for supremacy
among them, particularly among Kanauj, Kashmir, Magadha and the Rashtrakutas.

Rise of Rajputs

Another characteristic feature of this period was the rise of the Rajputs, who dominated the politics
of Northern India, after the death of Harsha in 647 A.D. The Rajputs came to exercise sovereign
authority over a number of states. it is from them that the Muslims conquered Northern India.
  Controversy around the Origins of the Rajputs

1. Rajputs as Descendants of the Kshatriyas of the Vedic Period

A lot of controversy revolves round the origin of the Rajputs. The matter has become more
complicated due to the fact that the Brahmans and the bards (poets) have constructed lofty line of
descendants) of the Rajputs. The Rajputs claimed to be the lineal descendants of the Kshatriyas of
the Vedic period, tracing their pedigrees from the Sun and the Moon;. and some of them believed in
the famous theory of Agnikula.

2. Rajputs as Ilegitimate Sons of Jagirdar

In certain regions of Rajasthan, the word Rajput is used to denote the illegitimate son of a Kshatriya
chief or Jagirdar. The word "Rajput is the corrupted form of the Sanskrit word 'Rajputra' meaning"
scion or son of the rоyal blood ".

3. Rajputs as Descendants of Foreign Barbarian Tribes

It is generally believed that most of the Rajрut clans, like the Gujaras, descended from the Hunas
and other barbarian tribes, like Sakas (Shakas), Kushanas and Gujaras, who invaded India during the
fifth and sixth centuries AD and ultimately merged in the indigenous population bу marrying Indian
women of upper class and came to be known as the Rajputs, while the lower classes were called
Jats, Ahirs, Gonds, Bhars, etc.

4. Rajputs as Pure Aryans and not the Descendants of Foreign Barbarian Tribes

The theory of Agnikula and the theory of Tod that the Rajputs are the descendants of the
foreign barbarian tribes, like Hunas, Sakas, Kushanas, Gujaras, etc. are accepted by European
scholars but not by Indian scholars like C.V. Vaidya and Gaure Shankar Ojha. According to
them, tradition, ethnology and probabilities all point to a conclusion that the Rajputs were pure
Aryans and not the descendants of the foreign barbarian tribes. Ojha points out that no striking
similarities of the customs, conventions, and manners of the Rajputs and the Hunas, the Sakas
and such other foreign tribes, have been detected.

5. Rajputs as a Mixed Race

Dr. V.A. Smith propounds a theory, according to which, the Rajputs are a mixed race. He is of
the view that some of the Rajput clans were the descendants of foreigners such as the Hunas,
Sakas, Kushanas etc. other Rajputs belong to the old kshariya tribe. Initially the two groups were
opposed to each other , In course of time they got mixed.

Three lineages of Rajputs

 Suryavanshi
 Chandravanshi
 Agnivanshi

 Suryavanshi-Trace their lineage to the Vedic Sun (Surya).Lord ram was born in this Lineage
They ruled over Mewar, Marwar, Amber etc.

Chandravanshi/Somvanshi:- Rajputs that descended from Som (the vedic deity Soma or
[Link] and Jaisalmer was ruled by Chandravanchi Rajputs.
 Agnivanchi:- They have a mythological believe that they originated from fire. Bundi, kotah,
Jalore, Delhi were ruled by Agnivanshi [Link] rajputs are also a sub division of
Suryavanshi and Chandravanshi rajputs.

 Vansha is divided into many kula. Each kula is further divided into many shakha.

Some ruling dynasties

 Four clans of agnikula rajputs:- Pratiharas, Parmars, Chalukyas and Chauhans. They occupied
premier position among the ruling chiefs of central and western India.

Pratiharas
 Belonged to the gujar tribes

Parmars
 Were feudatories of gujars-pratiharas. Important ruler was Bhoja, he is famous for his
military power, scholarship and patronage of art and literature. He is known to Muslim
chronicles as parmardeo because when he heard of Mahmud's invasion of Somnath, he
marched out his capital with a large force to stop the invader.

Chalukayas
 Also known Solanki [Link] part of the gujar immigrants from central Asia.
Indianised and became famous as one of the four agnikula rajputs.

Chauhans
 Chief Samanta founded the kingdom of sambhar. Chauhans of sambhar (later ajmer) stood
forth as defense against the penetration of muslims into the heart of India & maintained the
struggle with vigor.

The Rajput Society

1. High Rajput Character

The Rajputs were very proud of themselves; and their character was marked by a set of certain
outstanding qualities, such as, the spirit of chivalry, a burning passion for war, high courage, high
sense of patriotism, high sense of honour, hospitality, simplicity, straight- forwardness, loyalty,
respect for truth, refraining from whole-sale massacre of their enemies, even in the event of their
victories, honouring women, love for opium water (Kusumba), high standard of chastity for the
Rajput women including "Jauhar" ie, a mass suicide by the Rajput women to save their chastity from
its violation, at the hands of the foreign victors and the dislike for a female new-born baby.

2. Dominance of Typical Indian Caste System

Four-Fold Caste System: The typical Indian caste system dominated the Rajput society, in which, the
Brahmans occupied the most privileged position. They were called the priests and philosophers and
enjoyed a number of privileges, including exemption from capital punishment. The Kshatriyas were
the Rajput rulers and soldiers. The Vaishyas took to business, trade and money-lending occupations;
and the Shudras followed the references of agriculture and artisans served the three higher castes.
The fifth caste of untouchables like scavengers, executors, etc. lived outside the village, or the town.
 3. Emergence of Sub-Castes on Several Bases:

The beginning of the Rajput period witnessed the elasticity of the caste system permitting inter-caste
marriages. However, in the later Rajput period, the Brahmans enforced the rigidity by the caste
system. During this period, numerous new castes and sub-castes were created on the bases of birth,
occupation, place of residence, customs, religious prаctices, food differences, [Link] sub-castes
became prominent especially among the Brahmans, the Kshatriyas, and the Vaishyas, such as,
Kanauj Brahmans, Gaur Brahmans, Malvi Brahnans, Telugu Brahmans, Konkan Brahmans , etc.

Many new occupational castes, such as, those of the weavers, smiths (iron-smiths, gold-smiths, etc.)
fishermen, oil men, cowherds, brewers. carders, carpenters, etc. A new caste called the Kayasthas
also appeared, they were members of lower civil services.

Position of the Rajput Women

On the positive side,

Women's Freedom and Education: the Rajput loved as well as honoured their women-folk, who
observed no purdah system, but rather enjoyed a considerable amount of freedom, including the
right of selecting their own husbands. References have been made to the holding of svayamvaras
for the selection of husbands by the Rajput women.

Women were mostly educated and participated actively in public life. They were also taught the fine
arts like painting portraits and performing arts, like dance, drama and music. Some of the women
had earned high reputation for their scholarship and wide learning. It is said that the famous Advait
philosopher Shankaracharya was temporarily silenced by a Brahman lady, the wife of Mandan
Mishra, in discussion. Awanti Sundari, the wife of Raja Shekhar, the famous Sanskrit poet, had
earned a great rotation for her scholarship.

High Standard of Chastity and Honour: The Rajput women were well-known for their high standard
of chastity and high sense of honour. The Rajput history is full of incidents of women, willingly
jumping into fire or water, only to save their honour. "Jauhar" was a significant event of a mass
suicide by the Rajput women to save their honour from the cruel hands of the foreign victor / Sati
was normally observed in case of husband's death, while fighting on the battle-field.

On the negative side,

il) Miserable Plight of Women: re- marriage of widows was not permitted, as a result of which,
many young widows had to live a miserable life. Polygamy was the order of the day; birth of a
female baby was most disliked and, many a times, the newly born female children were put to
death, at the time of their birth. The condition of an average woman had highly deteriorated,
especially in the later Rajput period, when she was made more and more dependent either on her
father, or male relatives, or on her husband.

Other practices

Jauhar- Committed by Rajput women and children. Brahmin priest would chant Vedic mantras.
Rajput women wearing their marriage dresses along with their young children embraced
sandalwood flames.
Saka- The next morning (of Jauhar) after taking a bath, the men would wear kesariya and apply the
ash from the maha samadhi of their wives and children on their [Link] Tulsi leave in their
mouth.

Only committed when Rajputs fought with foreigners and people of other faith. When hindus fought
against other hindus there were never any Jauhar or saka. Because the defeated were treated with
dignity.

Rajput economy

Agriculture was the main occupation of the people. The Rajputs built several irrigation works-
reservoirs, tanks, well and canals. In times of drought , famine the farmer received-all help from
government.

Trade and commerce

Big cities were linked by roads, brisk trader and commerce enabled trader and merchant to amass
great wealth .Their fame for wealth invited and attracted the muslim invaders love.

Rajput belief and practices

Hinduism was the pre-dominant religion of the Indians and was inform. Islam was confined to the
states of Sindh and Multan. Buddhism was a discontinued, Buddhist masses in northern and central

India were gradually being assimilated within the fold of hindu society. The population of Bihar and
Bengal was found to be pre-dominantly Buddhist even in the beginning of 13 th century. The rajputs
were devout Hindus they worshipped various mythical gods and goddesses like Vishnu, Siva and
Durga/Shakti. Cult of bhakti had made it’s appearance in the north

Rajput culture

Rajput society was feudal in the organisation set up. Split into various clans under many hereditary
ruling about 40. All land was supposed to belong to the ruling chief who parceled it among his
lieutenants. The latter paid a fixed revenue or tribute and rendered military service to the king in
return for the lands granted to them.

Village communities were governed by panchayat and they had autonomy in their internal affairs.
There was no written law of land.

Rajput states were run on local customs and traditions. Feudal administration set up was usually not
very elaborate in most cases it was not stable.