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Topic 7 Bio

Topic 7 Bio notes for Edexcel IAL

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Topic 7 Bio

Topic 7 Bio notes for Edexcel IAL

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Basics Info : Respiration : the process by which food molecules are broken down to generate ATP. ‘Types of Cellular Respiration (Two Types) Aerobic respiration - is the set of chemical rxns that take place inside the cell, in the presence of oxygen and releases energy stored in glucose. @ The end product of aerobic respiration are COz, H2O and 36 ATP molecules. CcH1O¢ + 602 + 36ADP + 36Pi ——————> 6CO2+ 6H.0 + 36ATP @ Anaerobic respiration - the set of chemical rxns that take place inside the cell, in the absence of oxygen and releases energy stored in glucose. CcH2O¢+ 2ADP + 2Pi —————> 2C2H3OH + 2CO2+ 2ATP (in plants and yeast) (ethanol) HpOc+ 2ADP + 2Pi ———>_ 23H,03+ 2ATP (in mammals) (lactic acid/ lactate) Structure of Mitochondria © They are relatively large organelles with a complex internal structure. © Function site where ATP is produced in respiration © Low energy requirement cells, eg, fat storage cells, have a few mitochondria, while high energy requirement cells eg. liver and muscle cells, contain many mitochondria crag ‘nner manrane stoked patios ‘oar meenbeane 1 They havea double membrane, Inner membrane is folded to form cristae, Inner membrane being folded provides a large SA for attachment of enzymes involved in respiration 2. The mitochondrial matrix contains the enzymes involved in Krebs cycle and cristee contains stalked particles involved in ATP synthesis. 3. Intermembrane space is site of accumulation of protons (pumped into it from the matrix). Basics Info(2) “Aerobic respiration occurs in 2 distinct phases. 1. Glycolysis - takes place in cytoplasm - doesn't require oxygen 2, Kreb's cycle - takes place in the mitochondrial matrix = requires oxygen - The link reaction (which also takes place in the matrix) transports the product of glycolysis into the kreb’s cycle. ** Hydrogen Acceptors Most of the ATP is made in a series of oxidation and reduction reactions in the electron transport chain. = During cellular respiration, hydrogen is removed from a compound (as its oxidised) and then accepted by a hydrogen acceptor, which is therefore reduced. = The accepted hydrogen is split into @ proton (H*) and an electron. The electrons are then passed along an electron transport chain in a series of oxidation and reduction reactions, each releasing small amounts of energy for synthesis of ATP > NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) is the most common hydrogen acceptor. It also a coenzyme, that assists in enzyme-catalysed reactions > FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide) is another hydrogen acceptor and coenzyme. It accepts hydrogen from reduced NAD to become reduced FAD. | Browssntey ok conse cengvabsei: 1. Glycolysis (takes place in cytoplasm) 1. Glucose is phosphorylated to form glucuse phosphate by the loss of phosphate(Fi) from one molecule ATP. 2. Glucose phosphate is then phosphorylated to form fructose biphosphate by the loss of Pi from one molecule ATP. 3. Fructose biphosphate splits into 2 molecules of GP 4. Each GP is dehydrogenated|(oss of H) to form pyruvate and the lost H is accepted by NAD, which becomes reduced NAD. This process releases energy to form 2 molecules of ATP from each GP. End products of glycolysis Err 2 molecule of ATP (4 ATP produced, but 2 used up, so net is 2) ADP +B) 2 molecules of reduced NAD beled tet) 2 molecules of pyruvate Bs Fructose Bisphosphate (60) GEeMMeN o-y-clero tes Ir ov) ler) Ne) ena 2A Ree ie ® anecle Pyruvate (8c) 2. Link Reaction takes plac in marx) st 1 Pyruvates are oxidised, so they lose Hydrogen to NAD, which becomes reduced NAD 2. Then they are followed by decarboxylation, which removes CO, converting pyruvate into acetate. 3. Acetate combines with coenzyme A, to become acetyl coenzyme A. End products of link reaction acetyl CoA (2C) 2 reduced NAD 2CO per molecule glucose, because in glycolysis 2 pyruvate produced form 1 glucose. 3. Krebs Cycle 1. Acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetate to form citrate, 2. Citrate is decarboxylated and dehydrogenated to form a5 C compound, a reduced NAD and CO2 3. 5C compound is dehydrogenated and decarboxylated to form reduced NAD and COz 5C compound is again dehydrogenated (by loss of 2 H this time) to form reduced FAD/ FAD Ho. 5C compound is dehydrogenated for the 3rd time, forming reduced NAD and 1 molecule ATP this time. ‘The 3 dehydrogenations and 1 decarboxylation converts the 5C compound back into oxaloacetate. ented 3) pra - © End products of Krebs cycle wet 2ATP mee 2 reduced FAD 6 reduced NAD “These end ome enter into the link reaction 4, Electron transport chain (takes place in the inner membrane of mitochondria) *|nitial components are reduced NAD and reduced FAD 1. Reduced NAD loses its H* and electrons, becoming oxidised NAD. This H* and electron are accepted by the next electron acceptor FAD, which becomes reduced FAD 2. Reduced FAD then similarly becomes oxidised FAD, and next electron acceptor cytochrome becomes reduced cytochrome 3. Reduced cyctochrome becomes oxidised cyctochrome, and the next electron acceptor, cytochrome oxidase becomes reduced cytochrome oxidase. 4. Lastly, reduced cytochrome becomes oxidised, and the H* and electron are gained by the final electron carrier, Oxygen, which becomes water. Qs il Ce ee 1. Hydrogen ions released on oxidation of components in ETC, are pumped into the intermembrane space (for accumulation) 2. So the high conc, of H* ions in intermembrane space move down their cone,, electrochemical and pH gradient through pores on stalked particles. 3. The energy released by H* moving down conc. gradient, is used to combine ADP and Pi to synthesise ATP. *'Majority of the ATP is made by chemiosmosis during oxidative phosphorylation (oxygen being final electron acceptor in ETC), Anaerobic respiration doesnt have chemiosmosis, so only a few ATP is produced by Glycolysis alone. Scientists say on average 36, but theres actually less than that, because : 1. It is assumed that complete oxidation always takes place, 2. [tis also assumed that ATP is produced in whole numbers 3. Some ATP is used up in active transport in the mitochondria, so rarely over 30 ATP made. Anaerobic Respiration Only stage in anaerobic respiration is G lycolysis. **A fter glycolysis, if enough oxygen present, then pyruvate enters mitochondria and aerobic respiration proceeds as krebs cycle takes place “*After glycolysis, if insufficient or low oxygen present, then pyruvate remains in the cytoplasm and anaerobic respiration takes place. > Ethanol production (in plants and yeast) 1, Glycolysis produces pyruvate 2. CO2 is removed from pyruvate in decarboxylation to produce acetaldehyde. 3, Acetaldehyde is reduced to form ethanol, as it gains hydrogen, lost from reduced NAD, which therefor gets oxidised, to become oxidised NAD. > Lactic acid/ Lactate production (in mammals) 1. Glycolysis produces pyruvate 2. Pyruvate is reduced to become lactic acid, when it gains hydrogen lost by reduced NAD, whichgets oxidised to become oxidised NAD **Fate of Lactic acid in Mammals (Common question Topic) - When doing high intensity exercise, oxygen demand increases. But muscles donot get enough oxygen to meet their demands. - So muscle cells respire aerobically(with the little oxygen left) and mainly anaerobically. - Anaerobic respiration produces lactic acid, which dissociates into lactate and H* ions. - The lactate and hydrogen ion moves into the blood, and so blood hydrogen ion conc. increases, this lowers blood pH. - So enzymes involved in muscle contraction starts to denature, and ability of muscle contraction decreases and eventually stops. Fate - when exercise stops, the level of lactate is high in the blood. Lactate is toxic. (1) Lactate is carried to the liver by the blood. (2)Lactate is then oxidised back into pyruvate, and the pyruvate is respired aerobically by liver cells. (3) This oxidation back into pyruvate and respiration requires high levels of oxygen, that is why people breathe heavily following exercise. (4) This large amount of oxygen is the oxygen debt. Effect of athletic training 1) Improves blood supply to muscles due to increased capillary density, so tolerance to lactate improved 2)Lactate transporter molecules develop in mitochondrial membranes, which allow lactate to be processed into pyruvate more quickly when oxygen is available ovo of oxygen demand ‘oxyoen dot ‘oxyoon surly repaymedt of onan debt CCaygon conan ‘paling tv Period of exarciae Tim nota faa Xs 0109! Y A. fig This gaph shows the aiference between the angen demand en supply a the muscle @ When not enough glucose/ glycogen available, other susbtatances such as fats and other carbohydrates are respired © When both carbs and fats are low in availability, proteins are respired. (Aminoacids are firstly deaminated, then the rest of the molecule are used in cellular respiration) © Fats and lipids are first hydrolysed into glyceral and fatty acids. Glycerol is phosphorylated to be converted back into GALP and fatty acids are decarboxylated to remove two 2-carbon fragments. (As lipids contain the highest hydrogen content of all biological molecules. So respiration of lipids produce more reduced NAD and and FAD. And hence results in a higher proton gradient, producing more ATP by chemiosmosis. More hydrogen produce more ATP, also more oxygen is needed to breakdown the molecucles) Dispieassey UGS. ‘© Respiratory Quotient = carbon dioxide'producéd/oxygen used {in a given time] ‘RQ value depends on = 1. Level of activity (if activity increases, RQ increases) 2. Type of food being respired # Implications of RQ value RQ value implication 1 Carbohydrates are respired 09 Proteins are respired OR combination of fats and carbs (as proteins are rarely used) 07 Fats are respired lgreater than 1] Anaerobic respiration occuring (not requiring much 02, but producing lots of CO2) inven onny esas Satya eg On ag) To measure breathing rate - spirometer To measure respiration rate - respirometer. (@) 1 ow ovine —t (©) exoermental tube 1 om? syringe | ote (7 screw cip [lt \ ote bath ‘amperiaecontnl Soy tap soda ino to absorb carbon dioxide gauze respiration chamber potassium om hydroxide — rrisms KOH soon {OH solution audio eons sbeorbs carbon ace ‘doxide | ionido ‘manometer ub0 containing fuid A. fig (a) Any movement ofthe liquid inthe tube ofa resprometer indicates an uptake of cnygen by the cxganismsin the respiration chamber. You can measre noved overtime to measure the rate of respiration (b) Some esprometers are more sophisticated than others Fig : respirometer * Arespirometer measures the uptake of oxygen (the quantity used) or the output of carbon dioxide (the quantity produced) by whole organisms. * A basic respirometer consists of a cloSed’chamber into which no air can enter and which contains one or more living organisms, such as germinating seeds. We can use a chemical (usually soda lime or potassium hydroxide) to absorb the carbon dioxide produced by respiration. Therefore, any changes in volume will be caused by the uptake of oxygen by the organisms. As the organisms use oxygen, the pressure reduces and so the fluid in the manometer moves towards the tube containing the organisms. Using the syringe, we can measure the volume of gas need to return the manometer to normal. We can then use this measurement to calculate the intake of oxygen per minute, which gives an approximate respiration rate for the organisms. We can change the external conditions (e.g. temperature, light, age) and measure the effect on the rate of respiration by recording changes in the uptake of oxygen. Page 155 fig F Topic : 7B (Muscles, Movement and Heart) Muscles are specialised tissues (composed mainly of proteins) that contract and relax to carry out roles. Muscle cells are known as muscle fibres. There are three main types of muscles ; 1. Skeletal muscle 2, Smooth muscle 3, Cardiac muscle - Present in skeletal system; = Present in gut and in blood vessels - Present in heart ~ are voluntary ~ are involuntary ~ are involuntary - Contracts strongly and gets fatigued | - Contracts slowly and fatigues slowly = Contracts with a rythm, and does not quickly Pointed shaped and not striated fatigue ~ Cylindrical shaped and striated(with Branched shaped and is striated stripes) structural organisati uscl Neuromuscular junction MUSCLE OmMvscte- eye) sacceplasmic. cericvlum Muscle tissue (tissue) roteins! © ff en Myoritamens. Grelecsle) Myorisei, — (ytoplasm) (orgenelle) © SARCOMERE ACTIN ACTIN 1. Muscle cells are called Muscle fibres, which join to make muscle tissues. 2. Muscle cells/ Muscle fibres cytoplasm is known sarcoplasm and their ER is known as sarcoplasmic reticulum, which stores and releases calcium ions. Sarcoplasm also contain mitochondria and myoglobin 3. Muscle cells/fibres' cell membrane is known as sarcolemma 4. Another organelle present in muscle fibres is known as myofibril. Myofibril are made up of structural units known as sarcomere. And sarcomere contain protein filaments of two types, actin and myosin. Percentage satwetion 0 70 2 % 40 6 60 70 8 90 100 10, (pana pressure of oxygen for) ‘Types of Skeletal muscle fibres : There are two types of skeletal muscle fibres ; ‘Slow twitch Fast twitch They're specialised for slower, sustained contraction and can cope with long periods of exercise £4. lon distance running, Standing for long They're specialised for rapid, intense contractions in shorts bursts e.g. sprinting and weightlifting 1, | Contain many mitochondria - mainly aerobically respires Few mitochondria- anaerobic respiration mainly 2. | They contain lots of myoglobin to store oxygen and lots of capillaries to supply oxygen. This gives the muscle a dark colour as myoglobin is a dark red pigment. It contains little myoglobin and few capillaries therefore the muscle has a light colour 3. 4. | Low glycogen content 5, | Less myofibrils 6. | Less sarcoplasmic reticulum, so less Ca2+ |More sarcoplasmic reticulum, so more Ca2+ released Low creatine phosphate They're fatigue resistant They fatigue quickly High glycogen content As few mitochondria present, so they have more space for more myofibrils than slow twitch fibres do. released High creatine phosphate, which can rapidly and anaerobically make ATP. It acts as a reserve of phosphate. Muscle Contraction : te Abend Zaisk Zuiek H- zone : only myosin is present | band : only actin is present A band : actin and myosin both present Z disc to Z disc: isa single sarcomere Muscle contraction takes place by sliding filament theory. > Evidence for sliding filament theory is as shown below ; When a muscle contracts, actin slide over myosin; -A band remains same length, Structure of Actin and ‘exposed myosin )- Myosin has 2 polypeptide chains twisted together. Actin vopomesh binding stes 2 At the end of each chan is lage globular head, called myosin head a 3. Myosin head has ADP and Pi bound to it, and the head can act as ATPase enzyme 1. Actin contain 2 types of protein. (Troponin and Tropomyosin) Myosin heat 2. Contains myosin binding sites at regular intervals, where myosin heads attach to. : 3. In relaxed state, tropomyosin covers myosin binding site using troponins. When calcium ions attach to troponins, they change shape and pull away tropomyosin, revealing myosin binding sites. Myosin > Mechanism of Sliding filament theory/ Explain how Sliding filament theory follows ratchet mechanism; 1. An impulse arrives at neuromuscular junction, causing C3? ions (stored in sarcoplasmic reticulum) to be released; 2, Ca?* ions bind to troponin and change its shape, causing troponin to pull away on tromomyosin, revealing myosin binding sites; 3. Myosin heads can now attach to myosin binding sites by forming actomyosin bridges. (ADP and Pi bound to myosin heads are now released as ATP) 4, Myosins now pulls actin across them (shortening the sarcomere), until the actomyosin bridge breaks. (ATP that was released bind to myosins and break the cross bridges) 5. The bound ATP is hydrolysed by myosin head (acting as ATPase) to release energy returning the myosin head back to original position that was bound with ADP and Pi (So that the myosin head can bind to another myosin binding site ‘on the same actin, pulling it across even more, shortening the sarcomere further.) 6, Process is repeated many times per second, by lots of actin - myosins, so sarcomeres shorten in order to shorten the whole myofibrils(So muscle contracted); During Relaxation, 1. ATPis used to pump Ca** ions back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum. 2. Ca2+ can no longer bind to troponin, so troponin and tropomyosin return to their original positions 3. So myosin binding site is covered again, actomyosin bridge cannot form as myosin head cannot bind, 4, Contraction finished, muscle fibres relax, Part II - Movement Roles: BASICS for MCQ | Bone cells are called - osteocytes, > Bone cells are fixed in a collagen, calcium matrix Bone is the hardest structure of ous body, It is not dense, to reduce weight moved azound. ‘Tendons - attaches muscle to bone - provides secure attachment Ligaments - hold bones together - prevents dislocation Synovial fluid Cartilage (present between bones) ~ acts as a lubricant, reducing friction, allowing easy movement f fills the joint eavity called synovial cavity -acts as shock absorber -withstand compressive forces (s0 they are elastic) -lubsicates between bones (to reduce friction) (is covered by synovial membrane) Extra info from book ‘There are 2 main types of cartilage - Hyaline cartilage, found at ends of bones (and in nose and ears aitpasages) ~ White fibrous cartilage, stronger and less flexible than other cartilages as it has more collagen. Found between vertebraes and between bones in joints. > Cruciate Ligament © The cruciate ligaments control the back and forth motion of our knee. The function of the anterior cruciate ligament is to prevent the tibia from sliding forward on the femur, and to control tibio-femoral rotation. © The ACL functions primarily to restrict anterior movements of the tibia relative to the femur, while the PCL functions to restrict posterior movements of the tibia relative to the femur > Difference between Tendons and Ligaments ‘Tendons Ligaments 1. Inelastic and tough T. Elastic and strong -So that they themselves dont | ~They ate elastic to be able to absorb separation suetch when force is applied, | forces. So that bones dont get dislocated, as the Allowing the force to only} ligaments absorb all the energy applied by the more the bones. force. 2, Joins a skeletal muscle toa | 2-Joins a bone to another bone bone > Joints ‘There ace theee types of joint, 1) Freely movable joint/Synovial joint <—__ Only one to know for syllabus. 4 2) Partially movable joint ‘They can move around 180 or 360* 3) Immovable joint Bg. Shoulders and hip can move Examples of Synovial joints 360 degrees Eg, Elbows can do 180 degrees a shoulder fy {Galan soc one i > How do Muscles produce Movement : too (tn 1. Two types of muscle produce movement, extensor and flexor musele & 2. When muscles contract, they pull on bones they are attached to by tendons act tas pai 3. When muscles relax, they DONOT push bones backward. Instead its antagonistic musele paie pulls it backward, 4. So out of the antagonistic pair, when one contracts, the other selaxes, Aingeroint Eg. Wheg exteasor(bicep) contracts while flexor (triceps) relax, the bord is pulled forward to bend it, When extensor(bicep) relaxes while flexor (ticeps) contract, the bones pulled backward, straightening the arm How to identify from diagram whether muscle is contract of relaxed? -If muscle is thick, its contracted, if its thin, its relaxed. A. figB The sicleton hos several oieren types ofjoin They each mskea ferent ype of movement possible 7B (Part 2 : Internal Environment) > Basic | nfo 1. Some cells in early embryo, which are destined to become the heart cell, start contracting rhythmically. 2. Cardiac muscle is myogenic - 1) Because it is self stimulating 2) It contracts and relaxes without any external stimulus 3) Brings about depolarisation on its own 3. Depolarisation causes contraction while, repolarisation causes relaxation 4, Heart beat has follows an intrinsic rhythm (which means the internal contraction and relaxation in the cardiac muscle follow a rhythm or repeated pattern) > How Is requiar heart beat produced? / How the Intrinsic rhythm \s produced? 1. SAN{ present in RA} initiates wave of electrical excitation - Wave of electrical excitation/ depolarisation sent to atrial walls, causing atrial systole in both atria 2, SAN then transmits the depolarisation to AVN (atrioventricular node){ also present in RA} - AVN then transmits excitation to Bundle of His { present in septum} after a slight delay 3. Bundle of His transmits excitation to Purkyne tissues, which branch into the ventricles and transmits the excitation into the ventricles 4. Causing ventricular systole, starting at the bottom or apex of both ventricles; Whole process is repeated by SAN(sinoatrial node) hecause it has the fastest intrinsic rhythm, so it acts as pacemaker “*qmportance/ Significance of slight delay when ansmits depolarsation to Bundle of His - Ensures atria have stopped contracting (beforé) ventricles can start - So that atria can empty properly and valves work properly > ECG Electro cardiogram) ECG are used to produce a record of electrical activity of the heart, to study the rhythm of the heart. Usually ECG is taken with patient lying down, however some heart conditions are only shown when the patient is exercising. ORS con in pled lesl upatrnaion copgpliaten apetatan a Faathourtboat achyewsias) No interval between S and T sehen a Sowtonestbndeus) Long interval hetween S and T and in, 1. P wave represent atrial systole between P and Q 2. QRS complex repesent ventricular systole — Exam QNA, 2 types of fibrillation ‘mequiarheonboot (fibration) 1, Atrial - irregular contr. and rela. of aivia, Can lead to stroke Woh 2. Ventricular" . Can lead to heart attack 3. T wave represent ventricular diastole 43] [anew ™" EXAM HINT 4) [soe srw ‘Make sure you study this diagram and can understand why the valves eo ‘open and close when they do fs > Homeostasis Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment in the body, regardless of changes in the external and internal conditions @ Feedback system The homeostatic communication is brought about by chemical(eg. hormones) or nerve impulses(electrical) There are two types of feedback system- 1) Negative feedback system - systems that Work to increase the change by the action of effectors after receptors detect a decrease in something 2) Positive feedback system - systems that work to increase the change by the action of effectors after receptors detect a increase in something. Eg contraction of uterus during child birth > Cardiac Output The response of the heart to conditions changing in exercise, is a result of negative feedback system Cardiac output = stroke/ cardiac volume x heart rate Number of beats (per minute) (dmmin“) volume of blood ejected from LV volumie of blood ejected from LV to rest of body (per beat) to rest of body (per minute) *cardiac output increases during exercise. *heart rate is lower in athletes at rest, because due to exercise they have developed higher cardiac volume. Both heart and ventillation are controlled by the autonomic nervous system. ‘Also known as involuntary nervous system, ie. it doesnt require thought for control of their processes. > Nervous control of the heart Thus, control of the heart is via the autonomic (involuntary) nervous system; it is divided into two parts + The sympathetic nervous system is usually excitatory; for example, it speeds up the heart rate, (by releasing noradrenaline to stimulate the SAN) + The parasympathetic system is usually inhibitory, for example, it slows down the heart rate (by releasing Acetylcholine(ACh) to inhibit the SAN) Chemical, stretch and pressure receptors (in the lining of the blood vessels and the chambers of the heart) detect changes in internal environment and send impulses to medulla *Baroreceptors mainly detect changes in blood pressure* » Role of chemoreceptors in control of heart rate Chemoreceptors (present in walls or aorta and carotid artery)are sensitive to bload CO2 and pH levels 1. As CO2 levels rise, the blood pH falls and this is detected by chemoreceptors. They then send impulses to the medulla 2. Medulla sends impulses along sympathetic nerve to stimulate the SAN and increase heart rate, for more 02 supply and C02 removal [Link] blood C02 levels fall, blood pH rises. The chemoreceptors respond to this by reducing impulses transmission to the ‘medulla. 4. So this reduces impulses sent along the sympathetic nerve othe SAN. So heart rate decreases and returns to intrinsic rhythm, » Role of baroreceptors in control of heart rate Bororeceptors are important in the feedback control ofthe heart rate during exercise. + Atest, baroreceptors send constant impulses to the cardiovascular control center in the brain 1. Atstert of exercise, adrenaline is released causes vasoullation the blood, so blood pressure falls little. 2. This reduces the stretch on the baroreceptors and they stop sending impulses to medulla. The medulla responds by sending impulses via sympathetic nerve to stimulate the SAN to increase heart rate and blood pressure (by vasoconstriction) 3. When exercise stops, blood pressure is high AND so the baroreceptors are stretched. They respond by sending more impulses to the medulla, which then sends impulses via the parasympathetic system to slow down the heart rate and lower blood presssure by vasodilation > Hormonal control 1. When we are stressed, nervous, anticipating to exercise, the sympathetic nerve stimulates the adrenal medulla to release the hormone adrenaline. ( Adrenaline is very similar to the noradrenaline released in the synapses of the sympathetic nervous system.) 2. tis carried in the blood and binds to receptors in the target organs, including the SAN, increasing its excitation and hence increasing heart rate. 3. Adrenaline stimulates the medulla, increasing the impulses in the sympathetic neurones which supply the heart > Components of Lung volume Lung volume/ breathing volume can be measured using spirometer, which produces spirometer trace Tidal volume(VT) - volume of air that enters and leaves the lung at each resting breath (Seen, | Tidal volume varies according to age, gender, activity, size Inspiratory reserve volume(IRV) - volume of air that can {13%0ur| be taken and above the tidal volume eoiatoy, rome wre Expiratory reserve volume(ERV) - volume of air that can be expelled over and above the tidal volume Vital capacity(VC) - total of the tidal volume and the [se “ers inspiratory and expiratory reserve volumes Tne Residual volume(RV) - volume of air left in the lungs after NX <-T apaliing) |the strongest possible expiration Common Question; Labelling | > -esence of residual volume ensures lungs dont collapse Ventillation = tidal x frequency of Total lung capacity(TLC) - sum of vital capacity and rate volume —_ inspiration residual volume (dmmin*) (dm) (min) Inspiratory capacity(IC) - volume that can be inspired from the end of a normal expiration; IC = VT + IRV. “Learn spirometer working page 202 Practical skill, comes in both US and US > Control and Regulation of Breathing 1, The medulla is also the ventiliation centre/respitatery, control centre, it Is connected to intercostal muscles by sympathetic nerve = Medulla contains Inspiratory centre to control inhalation and expiratory centre to control exhalation 2. During inhalation, impulses travel along sympathetic nerve and causes contraction of intercostal muscles and diaphragm. 3. So we inhale, and as lungs become inflated, stretch receptors (in bronchi) send impulses to medulla to Inhibit the medulla 4, So medulla stops sending impulses along sympathetic nerve, so breathing muscles no longer stimulated to contract. Muscles relax and person exhales. = Breathing rate must be changed to meet demands during exercise, (by Increasing both tidal volume and ‘Frequency of inspiration » Breathing and Homeostasis -Main stimulus(change) is CO2 level or blood pH, detected by chemoreceptor, effectors are intercostal muscles ‘and diaphragm which contract harder to remove excess CO2 1. During exercise, CO2 level increases, blood pH drops. Chemoreceptors detect changes in blood pH and send impulses to the medulla. 2, Medulla responds by sending impulses along sympathetic nerve (to the breathing muscles) causing them to contract more 3. Ina negative feedback system, which removes extra CO2 as ventilation rate increases. ~ Increased ventillation rate Is maintained by stretch receptors (from control of breathing) and chemoreceptors (from homeostasis and breathing), until the oxygen debt Is paid off. Topic 7C : - Control of Internal Environment Hormones are organic chemicals produced and secreted (in blood stream) by endocrine glands, which cause changes to target organs. *Cells of target organs have specific receptors on their membrane and also inside the cells, that are complementary to specific hormones There are two types of hormones : 1) Peptide hormone made of aminoacids(1) and are water soluble but lipid insoluble.(So cannot cross phospholipid bilayer)(2) binds to membrane receptor to stimulate production of a "second messenger”, which acts as transcription factor.(3) Eg. ADH, insulin, glucagon and adrenaline 2) Steroid hormone are lipid soluble, so can pass through cell membrane.(1) Steroid hormone receptors are present (inside cells) which steroid hormones bind to and form steroid-receptor complexes.(2) S-R complexes pass through nuclear pore and the hormone acts as DNA transcription factors to regulate gene expression(3) Eg. oestrogen, progesterone and testosterone > Glands Endocrine glands secrete hormones while exocrine glands release enzymes. Endocrine glands are ductless and directly secrete into the bloodstream while exocrineglands have duct and don't secrete directly. Endocrine glands include : 1) the pituitary gland: master gland as it controls activities of all other glands 2) hypothalamus: thermoregulation and osmoregulation 3) thyroid glands: thyroid hormones are involved in controlling growth and metabolism 4) parathyroid glands: parathyroid hormones are involved in the homeostatic control of calcium metabolism 5) pancreas: the exocrine pancreas produces digestive enzymes and the endocrine pancreas produces insulin and glucagon which are involved in the homeostatic control of blood sugar 6) adrenal glands: produce many hormones including adrenaline, involved in the fight or flight response, and aldosterone, involved in the homeostatic control of the osmotic balance of the body 7) kidneys: produce hormones involved in production of red blood cells and vitamin D metabolism ies: produce the female sex hormones roduce the male sex hormones. **Not directly present in spec. But was in book. > Pituitary is master gland, but it is controlled by Hypothalamus/ eu of Pituitary in Hormone release and homeostasis sewne | The hypothalamus lies above the pituitary and controls its activities. Interaction ‘srw | between hypothalamus and pituitary control homeostasis, Hypothalamus controls pituitary activity using neurosecretory cells(which are nerve oan | cells that produce secretions from axon). There are two types of such cells. remy | Neurosecretory cells 1 produce substances(releasing or release inhibiting factors) that stimulate/ inhibit hormone release from anterior pituitary. Neurosecretory cells 2 produce secretions that are stored in posterior pituitary to be released later as hormones, depending on function of cell 1 the pituitary ise Action of — — Peptide Hormones Steroid Hormones Using ADH as example, , 1 ADH/ peptide hormone binds to specific receptor on. | 1 AVelipd soluble, o passthrough cell membrane and act as internal messengers cell surface membrane ; 2. Binds with steroid receptor in cytoplasm and forms 2. This stimulates some chemical rxns in membrane steroid-receptor complex. resulting in production of an enzyme 3, Steroid-receptor complex pass through nuclear pore, and 3. This enzyme and ATP result in production of a hormone in the complex acts as transcription factor; second messenger; commonly cAMP switching on or off genes 4. Second messenger moves to nucleus and act as, transcription factor, switching on or off genes. > Protein Metabolism and Liver Describe the metabolism of proteins by liver (3-4) 1. Liver cells{hepatocytes) remove the amino group/ deamination from smmonn aminoacids, converting it into ammonia 2. ammonia combines with carbon dioxide (in the ornithine cycle) 3. the ornithine cycle produces urea (which is less toxic than ammonia) and so is excreted out 4, The remaindar of the aminoacids(keto acid) is used in respiration in Krebs ot cycle, or converted to lipids for storage. ‘cooH + omm, ‘ina wkd oven : ‘details of the cycle not required, given info above is from ms, no more roo detail needed than that. EXAM HINT: ‘Many calls are specially adapted o their functions. The adapations cof verce ae not obvious under a miroscape Their main "Speciation isin the numbers and atv oftheir mitachonds, > Urine Formation Urine formation and osmoregulation are done by kidneys. Urine formation has three main stages : > Total mechanism is given below ; 1) Ultrafiltration ~ high pressure/ hydrostatic pressure (due to larger diameter/ different diameter) of afferent and efferent arteriole; - pushes out small molecules (out of capillary) into the Bowman's capsule, through the basement membrane - large molecules are too large to pass (out of capillary). {glomerular filtrate produced only has small molecules) capillary, basement membrane, epithelial layer of Bowman's capsule are all one cell layer thick. “large molecules eg. proteins and blood cells. Small ones include, urea, uric acid, creatinine, water and ions 2) Selective Reabsorption In the PCT, all glucose and aminoacids are reabsorbed (by active transport, using energy) - Sodium, potassium and chloride ions reabsorbed by diffusion and active transport (across Loop, DCT and coll. duct) = Water is absorbed by osmosis (across different parts on nephron), so urea concentration in the filtrate increases *PCT is adapted with large [Link] mitochondria, microvilli to increase $A, and carrier proteins to reabsorh different components. 3) Tubular Secretion ~ Some substances such as creatinine, excess H” ions and drugs are secreted out of capillary networks in the nephrons (into the PCT, DCT or collecting duct) for removal as urine, Excess of these will be eliminated as waste in excretion and required amounts will be selectively reabsorbed. > Countercurrent multiplier system in Loop of Henle Countercurrent multiplier isa system of movernent of mineral onsin opposite drections(in descending and ascending limbs), which results in production of concentrated urine, to reduce watet loss. *{hypertonic - more solutes or lower water pot., hypotonic - less solutes or higher water pot. isotonic - same cone. of solute, same water potential} PCT Loop of Henle has three parts; descending limb, thin ascending limb and thick ascending limb. cT 1. Na and Cl ions are actively transported (out of thick JAP ascending limb) into medulla. (So cone. of ions increases in DRY Ls \ ‘medulla, hence water pot. decreases in medulla) wb f 2, Therefore water moves (out of descending limb) down water pot. grad. by osmosis(into medulla [Cortex (as dese. limb is permeable to water, but asc. limb is impe. : [aren | & | Spemesee aE asc. limb, creates a cone. gradient of ions with descending List limb. (So Na Cl from medulla diffuses into desc. limb) no] [he no" 4. The filtrate moves the diffused in ions from desc limb to I asc limb, repeating the whole process (until ion conc. no" |g) teaches maximum in medulla) As water continues to Ly iaascenging ti __g Move out by osmosis in dif. parts of medulla, so the ion aot] 8-4] ” bmpemeable 6 wate { lecting conc. also reaches maximum at the U shaped bend 5. Water that remain in the filtrate after al the osmosis, are reabsorbed in the collecting duct, producing concentrated urine. Loop of Hen filtrate is at highest ion concentration in the U shaped hend > Types of Nephron and Adaptation of desert mammals There are two types of nephron ; 1) Cortical nephrons are found mainly in the cortex. Their loop of Henle only reaches little part of medulla. (Most of human nephrons are cortical) 2) Juxtamedullary nephrons have long loops of Henle that penetrate right through the medulla. They are particularly efficient at producing concentrated urine. (They allow greater countercurrent multiplier effect) cortical nephron cortex edulla Desert mammals have © High proportion of juxtamedullary nephrons @ Long loops of Henle, to increase countercurrent multiplier effect. To reabsorb more water juxtamedullary nephron > Osmoregulation and Role of ADH Osmoregulation is the maintenance of a constant osmotic potential around living tissues to very narrow limits 1) The water potential ofthe blood is monitored by cells called osmoreceptors in a part of the brain called the hypothalamus. 2) When the osmoreceptors are stimulated by low water potential in the blood, the hypothalamus sends nerve impulses to the posterior pituitary {gland to release a hormone called antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Into the blood. 3) ADH makes the walls of the DCT and collecting duct more permeable to water. 4) This means more water is reabsorbed from these tubules into the medilla and into the bod by osmosis. ‘Assmall amount of concentrated urine is produced, which means less water is lost from the body. Here's how ADH changes the water content of the blood wien it’s too low or too hich Dehydration is what happens when you lose water, e.g. by sweating during exercise, so the water content of the blood needs to be increased: 1) The Water content of the blood drops, so its water potential drops. 2) TMs is detected by osmorecentors in the hypothalamus. 3) The posterior pituitary clanc is stimulated to release more ADH into the blood. 4) More ADH means that the DCT and collecting duct are more permeable, so more water Is reabsorbed into the blood by osmosis. 5) A small amount of nighly concentrated urine Is produced and less water Is lost. Extra Feedback: changes in blood pressure can also stimulate or inhibit release of ADH. Baroreceptors(n the aorta and carotid artery) detect changes in blood pressure and send impulses to posterior pituitary accordingly, High blood pressure means more blood volume, so ADH release is inhibited. And vice versa. > Thermoregulation in Mammals Mammals are endotherms, which means they maintain their body temperature through metabolic processes releasing heat, and have a usually higher temperature than ambient temperature. “Ectotherms are organisms which maintain their body temp. by (totally) relying on external sources, eg. sunlight. Some ways in which organisms warm up : ~ By exothermic metabolic rxns, eg. respiration - By conduction, convection and radiation from surroundings air or sunlight Some ways in which organisms cool down : ~ By evaporation of water/ sweat from body surface - By conduction, convection and radiation of produced heat “Organisms can adapt with deposited fat which insulates to reduce heat loss Thermoregulation By Hypothalamus The skin is the major homeostatic organ, temperature receptors are present both in skin and in the hypothalamus. Temp. receptors in skin detect changes in external temp, while those in hpothalamus detect changes in internal temp. and send impulses to hypothalamus, WHAT HAPPENS WHEN TEMPERATURE RISES Decreased metat Peeters! Vasoconstriction c ES Frere tera era

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