University of Ibadan

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Question 1
(a) (a) Differentiate between skin friction drag and pressure drag. Which is usually more
significant for slender bodies such as airfoils?

The part of drag that is due directly to wall shear stress τw is called the skin friction drag FD,
friction since it is caused by frictional effects, and the part that is due directly to pressure p and
depends strongly on the shape of the body is called the pressure drag FD, pressure. For slender
bodies such as airfoils, the friction drag is usually more significant.
For blunt bodies, on the other hand, pressure drag is usually more significant than skin friction
drag.

(b) (b) What is the effect of streamlining on (a) friction drag and (b) pressure drag? Does the
total drag acting on a body necessarily decrease as a result of streamlining? Explain.

As a result of streamlining, (a) friction drag increases, (b) pressure drag decreases, and (c) total
drag decreases at high Reynolds numbers (the general case), but increases at very low Reynolds
numbers (creeping flow) since the friction drag dominates at low Reynolds numbers.
Streamlining can significantly reduce the overall drag on a body at high Reynolds number.

(c) What is the difference between streamlined and blunt bodies? Is a tennis ball a streamlined
or blunt body?

A body is said to be streamlined if a conscious effort is made to align its shape with the
anticipated streamlines in the flow. Otherwise, a body tends to block the flow, and is said to be
blunt. A tennis ball is a blunt body (unless the velocity is very low and we have “creeping
flow”).
In creeping flow, the streamlines align themselves with the shape of any body – this is a much
different regime than our normal experiences with flows in air and water. A low-drag body
shape in creeping flow looks much different than a low-drag shape in high Reynolds number
flow.

(d) What is drag? What causes it? Why do we usually try to minimize it?

The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow direction is called drag. Drag is caused
by friction between the fluid and the solid surface, and the pressure difference between the
front and back of the body. We try to minimize drag in order to reduce fuel consumption in
vehicles, improve safety and durability of structures subjected to high winds, and to reduce
noise and vibration.
In some applications, such as parachuting, high drag rather than low drag is desired

(e) What is lift? What causes it? Does wall shear contribute to the lift?

The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the normal direction to flow that tends to move
the body in that direction is called lift. It is caused by the components of the pressure and wall
shear forces in the direction normal to the flow. The wall shear contributes to lift (unless the
body is very slim), but its contribution is usually small.
Typically the non-symmetrical shape of the body is what causes the lift force to be produced
(f) During flow over a given body, the drag force, the upstream velocity, and the fluid density
are measured. Explain how you would determine the drag coefficient. What area would you
use in the calculations?

When the drag force FD, the upstream velocity V, and the fluid density ρ are measured during
flow over a body, the drag coefficient is determined from

where A is ordinarily the frontal area (the area projected on a plane normal to the direction of
flow) of the body.
In some cases, however, such as flat plates aligned with the flow or airplane wings, the
planform area is used instead of the frontal area. Planform area is the area projected on a plane
parallel to the direction of flow and normal to the lift force.

(g) During flow over a given slender body such as a wing, the lift force, the upstream velocity,
and the fluid density are measured. Explain how you would determine the lift coefficient. What
area would you use in the calculations?

When the lift force FL, the upstream velocity V, and the fluid density ρ are measured during
flow over a body, the lift coefficient can be determined from

where A is ordinarily the planform area, which is the area that would be seen by a person
looking at the body from above
in a direction normal to the body.
In some cases, however, such as flat plates aligned with the flow or airplane wings, the
planform area is used instead of the frontal area. Planform area is the area projected on a plane
parallel to the direction of flow and normal to the lift force.

(h) What is the effect of surface roughness on the friction drag coefficient in laminar and
turbulent flows?

The friction drag coefficient is independent of surface roughness in laminar flow, but is a strong
function of surface roughness in turbulent flow due to surface roughness elements protruding
farther into the viscous sublayer.
If the roughness is very large, however, the drag on bodies is increased even for laminar flow,
due to pressure effects on the roughness elements
Question 2
(b) Two common methods of improving fuel efficiency of a vehicle are to reduce the drag
coefficient and the frontal area of the vehicle. Consider a car whose width (W) and height (H)
are 1.85 m and 1.70 m, respectively, with a drag coefficient of 0.30. Determine the amount of
fuel and money saved per year as a result of reducing the car height to 1.55 m while keeping
its width the same. Assume the car is driven 18,000 km a year at an average speed of 95 km/h.
Take the density and price of petrol to be 0.74 kg/L and $2.90/L, respectively. Also take the
density of air to be 1.20 kg/m3, the heating value of petrol to be 44,000 kJ/kg, and the overall
efficiency of the car’s drive train to be 30 percent.

Solution
The car is driven 18,000 km a year at an average speed of 95 km/h. The densities of air and
gasoline are given to be 1.20 kg/m3 and 0.74 kg/L, respectively. The heating value of petrol is
given to be 44,000 kJ/kg.
It is assumed that the effect of reduction of the frontal area on the drag coefficient is negligible.
The drag force acting on a body is
V 2
FD = CD A
2
where A is the frontal area of the body. The drag force acting on the car before redesigning is
1.20  95 1000
FD = 0.3 (1.85 1.70 ) = 394 N
2  3600
Noting that work is force times distance, the amount of work done to overcome this drag force
and the required energy input for a distance of 18,000 km are
Wdrag = FD L = 394 18000
= 7.092 106 kJ/year
Wdrag 7.092 106
Ein = =
car 0.30
= 2.364 107 kJ/year
The amount and the cost of the fuel that supplies this much energy are
m E HV
Amount of fuel = fuel = in
 fuel  fuel
2.364 107 44000
= = 726 L/year
0.74
Cost = (Amount of fuel)(Unit cost) = 726 ×2.90 = $2,105.40/year
That is, the car uses about 726 liters of gasoline at a total cost of about $2,105.40 per year to
overcome the drag. The drag force and the work done to overcome it are directly proportional
to the frontal area. Then the percent reduction in fuel consumption due to reducing the frontal
area is equal to the percent reduction in the frontal area:
A − Anew H − H new
Reduction ratio = =
A H
170 − 1.55
= = 0.0882
1.70
Amount reduction = Reduction ratio × Amount
Fuel reduction = 0.0882 × 726 = 64 L/year
Cost reduction = (Reduction ratio)(Cost) = 0.0882 × $2,105.40 = $185.70/year
Therefore, reducing the car’s height reduces the fuel consumption due to drag by nearly 9
percent.
Question 3
A barge is being towed at 3 m/s. Determine the total friction drag of the water on its sides and
bottom. The water is still and has a temperature of 15°C. The submerged depth of the barge is
1.5 m. Assume the boundary layer is completely turbulent.

Solution
Question 4
The oil tanker has a smooth surface area of 4.5(103) m2 in contact with the sea. Determine the
friction drag on its hull and the power required to overcome this force if the velocity of the ship
is 2 m/s. Consider both laminar and turbulent boundary layers. Take ρ = 1030 kg/m3 and μ =
1.14(10-3) N.s/m2.

Solution
Question 5
The sports car and driver in the figure have a total mass of 1.5 Mg. The car is traveling at 11
m/s when the driver puts the transmission into neutral and allows the car to freely coast until
after 40 s its speed reaches 10 m/s. Determine the drag coefficient for the car, assuming its
value is constant. Neglect rolling and other mechanical resistance effects. The projected front
area of the car is 2 m2. Assume that the flow is incompressible and the density of air at standard
temperature is, ρa = 1.23 kg/m3.

Solution
Since the car can be considered as a rigid body, we can apply the equation of motion, ΣF = ma,
and then use a = dV/dt to relate the car’s velocity to the time. Alternatively, although it amounts
to the same thing, we can choose the car as a “control volume,” draw its free-body diagram as
shown in the figure below, and then apply the momentum equation,


 F =
t cv
+ V  dV +  V V f / cs .dA
cs

Since there are no open control surfaces, the last term is zero. The first term on the right can be
simplified, noting that Vρ is independent of its position within the volume of the car, and so
 dV = V . But  V = m , the mass of the car and driver, and therefore, the above equation
cv
becomes
d ( mV ) dV
 F x =
+ =m
dt dt
Finally, since FD is the drag on the car, we have
  V2  dV
−CD Ap  a  = m
 2  dt
Separating the variables V and t, and integrating, we get
1 t V dV
CD Ap a  dt = −m 2
2 0 V0 V
V
1 t 1
CD Ap a t 0 = m
2 V V0
1 1 1 
CD Ap  a t = m  − 
2  V V0 
Substituting the data,
1 1 1
CD  2 1.23  40 = 1.5 103   − 
2  10 11 
CD = 0.277
Question 6
An airplane is flying at 300 km/h in still air at an altitude of 2 km. If the wings can be assumed
to be flat plates, each having a width of 1.5 m and a length of 5 m, determine the friction drag
on each wing if the boundary layer is considered to be fully turbulent.

Solution
Question 6
Each of the smooth bridge piers (cylinders) has a diameter of 0.75 m. If the river maintains an
average speed of 0.08 m/s, determine the drag the water exerts on each pier. The water
temperature is 20°C.

Solution
Question 7
The antenna on the building is made from two smooth cylindrical sections as shown. Determine
the restraining moment at its base to hold it in equilibrium if it is subjected to a wind having an
average speed of 25 m/s. The air is at a temperature of 10°C.

Solution
Question 8
The plane can take off at 120 mi/h when it is at an airport located at an elevation of 2500 ft.
Determine the takeoff speed from an airport at sea level.

Solution
Question 9
The glider has a weight of 160 kg. If the drag coefficient is CD = 0.316, the lift coefficient is
CL = 1.20, and the total area of the wings is A = 6 m2, determine if it can land on a 1.5-km-long
landing strip that is located 5 km away from where its altitude is 1.5 km. Assume the density
of the air remains constant.

Solution