EMG 5115: DESIGN FOR MANUFACTRUING

Dr. James Wakiru

 BIO
• PhD (Mech. Eng), MSc (Industrial
Engineering), MBA (Marketing), BSc.
(Mech. Eng)
• Editor (Lubezine)
• Email: [Link]@[Link]
• Cell: +254 737 737023
• Pan-African based
• Africa’s Lubricants and lubrication needs
• Quarterly-based
• Print + Digital
• Target audience
- Base oil, Additives, Lubricant's producers
- Lubricant and lubrication end-users
- Complementing sectors
- Engineering and Maintenance
Expected learning Outcomes
At the end of this course, the student should be able to;
1. Explain how the processes are influenced by: material choice of the product (part);
quality requirements of the product (part); geometric features of the product (part);
product (part) quantities to be produced; and the technical limits of production
equipment and tools;
2. Select a suitable production process for a given (part of a) product. (in the role of
production engineer)
3. Describe and explain the complete production cycle of a product;
4. Explain what the effect is on the complete production cycle of a (part of a) product
caused by: automation; quality of processes and testing; engineering metrology; safety,
Reliability; Maintenance; Environment; and Cost.
Course outline
• Manufacturing, Design, and Design for Manufacturing: Product Realization Process; Process
Design versus Product Design; Industrial (Product) Design, Engineering Design;
• Selection of Production Processes; Primary Processes: Casting; Forming; Machining Joining
Processes and Non-Traditional Processes.
• DFM Guidelines & Tooling Cost: Injection Moulding; Compression Moulding; Casting; forging;
Sheet Metal Forming; Selection of Production Process
• DFM Guidelines for Product Design: Design for Reliability; Design for Repair & Maintenance,
Design for Quality, Design for Safety; Concepts of Design for the Environment (DFE):
• Design for Assembly: Assembly Processes; Reduction of Part count; Reduction of part Handling;
Total Assembly cost
• Economic Factors Influencing design: Design for Cost; Economic Analysis of Design,
Project Work
Application of DFM Principles.
Lectures will be augmented with laboratory projects in the area of design, tolerancing,
assembly, and manufacturability where the students will redesign an actual product,
generate a prototype, and obtain feedback from industry concerning manufacturability.
The Lab will require redesign of an existing product, in application of the DFM principles
 1. Corrando Poli (2001) Design for Manufacturing: A
Structured Approach, Butter Worth Heine Mann,
Elsevier
Recommended Reference Materials
References 1. D.M. Anderson (2014) Design for
Manufacturability, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis
Group, Florida, US
2. . A.K. Chitale and Gupta (2011) Product Design &
Manufacturing, PHI Learning Ltd
 • CATs, Assignment, Labs: 30%
Evaluation • Examination: 70%
 Thank you!

The quickest way of ending a war is to lose it.

George Orwell
Manufacturing Design & Design for
Manufacturing

D R J AMES W AKIRU
Manufacturing and Design
▪ Manufacturing consists of physical processes that modify materials in form, state, or
properties.
▪ Design (as in a design process) is the series of activities by which the information known and
recorded about a designed object is added to, refined (i.e., made more detailed), modified,
or made more or less certain.
▪ A design problem is created when there is a desire to change the state of information about
a designed object.
▪ A design problem exists when there is a desire to generate more (or better) information
about the designed object when we want to develop a new (but presently unknown) state of
information. For
Design for Manufacturing
Design for manufacturing (DFM) is a philosophy and mind-set in which manufacturing input is
used at the earliest stages of design in order to design parts and products that can be produced
more easily and more economically.
Design for manufacturing is any aspect of the design process in which the issues involved in
manufacturing the designed object are considered explicitly with a view to influencing the
design.
Examples are considerations of tooling costs or time required, processing costs or controllability,
assembly time or costs, human concerns during manufacturing (e.g., worker safety or quality of
work required), availability of materials or equipment, and so on.
Design for manufacturing occurs--or should occur throughout the design process.
Functional designed objects
Parts
A part is a designed object that has no assembly operations in its manufacture. (Welding, gluing,
and the like are considered assembly operations for the purposes of this definition.) Parts may
be made by a sequence of manufacturing processes (e.g., casting followed by milling), but parts
are not assembled.
Standard part
is a member of a class of parts that has a generic function and is manufactured routinely
without reference to its use in any particular product. Examples of standard parts are screws,
bolts, rivets, jar tops, buttons, most beams, gears, springs, and washers.
Special purpose parts
are designed and manufactured for a specific purpose in a specific product or product line
rather than for a generic purpose in several different products. Special purpose parts that stand
alone as products (e.g., paper clips, Styrofoam cups) are referred to as single-part products.
Functional designed objects
Assemblies and Subassemblies
An assembly is a collection of two or more parts. A subassembly is
an assembly that is included within an assembly or other
subassembly. standard module or standard assembly is an assembly
or subassembly has a generic function and is manufactured
routinely for general use or for inclusion in other subassemblies or
assemblies.
Examples of standard modules are electric motors, electronic power
supplies or amplifiers, gear boxes, v-belt drive systems, batteries,
Functional designed objects
Products and Machines
A product is a functional designed object that is made to be sold and/or used as a unit. Products
that are marketed through retailing to the general public are called consumer products.
A machine is a product whose function is to contribute to the manufacture of products and
other machines.
Trade (or commercial, or industrial) market. For example, a manufacturer may buy a pump to
circulate cooling water to a machine tool already purchased.
Product Realization Process
Product Realization is the set of cognitive and physical processes by which new and modified products are
conceived, designed, produced, brought to market, serviced, and disposed of.
• Determining customers' needs
• Relating those needs to company strategies and products
• Developing the product's marketing concept
• Developing engineering specifications,
• Designing both the product and the production tools and processes
• Operating those processes to make the product
• Distributing, selling, repairing, and finally disposing of or recycling the product and the production
facilities.
Product realization means a clear idea of the product, usually expressed in drawings, statements of work,
functional product specs, or their equivalents.
 Phase 1: Phase 2: Phase 4: Phase 5:
Phase 0: Phase 3:
Concept System-level Testing and Product
Planning Detail Design
Development Design Refinement Ramp-up

Development Process and Organization

Product Planning
Identifying Customer
Needs
Product Specifications
Concept Generation
Concept Selection
Concept Testing
Product Architecture
Industrial Design
Design for Manufacturing
Prototyping
Robust Design
Patents and Intellectual Property
Product Development Economics
Get New Product Development Right the
First Time- Why?
Market changes and ever-evolving consumer demands:
Today’s consumers have access to a myriad of brands and products, meaning businesses must
provide new, innovative products quickly or risk losing customers. However, the pace at which
the market and customer trends change has made it increasingly difficult for businesses to keep
up.

Understanding/controlling supply chain and resource costs:

Creating and introducing new products is typically an expensive process. Businesses must strike a
perfect balance between supply chain and resource costs to improve the new product’s chance
of survival.
Get New Product Development Right the
First Time- Why?
Competitive timelines:
The pace of innovation also poses a risk to the stages of new product development. Slow
feedback and review cycles can make it difficult for organizations to complete timelines and
launch new products on time successfully.

Delivering value:
Personalization is a top priority among today’s consumers, and companies that excel at
personalization generate 40% more revenue than those that don’t. However, some new products
fail to provide significant value to consumers, which may result in product failure.
Get New Product Development Right the
First Time- Why?
To overcome these challenges, organizations must align each decision or dependency in new
product development—from ideation to execution to commercialization—with their overall
business strategy and objectives. When organizations delineate and define the different stages
of the new product development cycle, they can:

• Confidently pick the right products/innovations to focus on

• Successfully transform ideas into a marketable product that meets customer needs and
expectations
• Gain foresight that helps reduce risk and increase speed to market
• Ensure new products deliver maximum value to consumers
Stages of New Product Development
Ideation
This stage refers to generating, screening, and prioritizing product ideas that can create value for
customers and the business.
Core Activities of New Product Development Ideation
• Conducting thorough market research and product analysis, employing customer interviews, focus
groups, and surveys. Collaboration with product marketing and sales departments may also
facilitate the execution of user tests.
• It involves dynamic brainstorming and crowdsourcing initiatives to generate diverse
and innovative product ideas that address customer needs. Subsequently, product stakeholders
meticulously prioritize these ideas using various criteria, including feasibility, profitability,
alignment with business goals, customer value proposition, and competitive advantage.
• The most promising concepts are selected for further development, validation, and strategic
innovation management, ensuring a refined and customer-centric product portfolio.
Stages of New Product Development
Ideation - Challenges

New Product Development Ideation Best Practices

▪ Use various source methods: Organizations should rely on multiple sources and ways to generate
product ideas, including expanded crowdsourcing, observation, ethnography, data mining, trend
analysis, and more.
▪ Involve a diverse group of stakeholders: Including a diverse and cross-functional team opens the door
to different perspectives and insights that may not have otherwise been considered.
▪ Utilize a structured/systematic approach: This method should be used when selecting product ideas
and should also rely on scoring models, decision matrices, SWOT analysis, and more to evaluate
product ideas.
▪ Test and validate product ideas: All product ideas should be tested early and often using methods such
as surveys, interviews, focus groups, and prototyping. This enables organizations to gather feedback
and measure customer interest and satisfaction.
 Stages of New Product Development
Ideation - Challenges
• Generating too few or too many product ideas.
Some ideas may be too similar (i.e.,
cannibalization) or too different from existing
products or customer needs (i.e., poor product
mix).
• Failing to screen out unfeasible or unprofitable
product ideas that waste time and resources in
later stages of new product development.
• Rejecting potentially valuable product ideas due
to cognitive biases, groupthink, or lack of
diversity and feedback.
Stages of New Product Development
Discovery
This is where in-depth research and analysis on the selected product ideas are conducted to
understand the customer needs, market opportunities, competitive landscape, technical fea
Core Activities of New Product Development Discovery
• While still in the initial stages of new product development, critical steps involve defining the
target segment and creating customer personas that form the foundation for the product. This
includes meticulously examining market dynamics through comprehensive market research
and analyzing factors such as market size, growth trends, drivers, barriers, regulations, and
overall market dynamics.
Stages of New Product Development
Discovery
Core Activities of New Product Development Discovery
• Additionally, a thorough competitive analysis is conducted to identify the strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) posed by existing or potential competitors.
• A technical feasibility analysis should also be performed during discovery to emphasize the
practicality of bringing the product to fruition. This involves a detailed assessment of the
technical requirements and specifications for developing the new product.
• Lastly, during the discovery stage, a valuation analysis can estimate the cost, return on
investment (ROI), and net present value (NPV) associated with the development and launch of
the new product. These comprehensive analyses collectively form a strategic framework,
guiding subsequent stages of new product development, supporting informed decision-
making, and successful market entry.
Stages of New Product Development
Discovery
Top Challenges of New Product Development Discovery

• Relying on inaccurate or outdated data

• Failing to conduct sufficient or comprehensive research that results in gaps or errors in
understanding customer needs, market opportunities, or financial viability of the product.
• Conducting too much or too little research or analysis that causes delays or inefficiencies in
moving forward with the remaining stages of new product development.
Stages of New Product Development
Discovery
New Product Development Best Practices
• Use various sources: Teams should use numerous sources to collect and analyze data, such as
secondary or primary quantitative and qualitative research, to check the validity and reliability
of results.
• Use appropriate tools: Select tools that enable individuals to organize and visualize data
effectively. This ensures proper understanding and communication of the findings.
• Use frameworks and models: This will help to synthesize and present data or information to
highlight key aspects and assumptions of the product idea.
• Test and validate data: Data should always be validated using surveys, interviews, and more to
refine the findings and assumptions.
Stages of New Product Development
Scoping
Scoping is the process of defining the breadth of the new product, in other words, what features,
functions, specifications, and requirements will be included based on the research and analysis
conducted during the discovery phase.
Core Activities of New Product Development Scoping:
• The most successful product development teams begin this stage by creating a product vision
statement a comprehensive narrative delineating the purpose, value proposition, target
market, and overarching goals of the forthcoming product.
• Following this, a product roadmap is meticulously crafted, outlining the high-level plan,
timeline, milestones, deliverables, dependencies, and necessary resources for the
development and launch phases. Simultaneously, a product backlog is compiled, cataloging the
myriad tasks, bugs, and enhancements integral to the product development process.
Stages of New Product Development
Scoping
Developing a Minimum Viable Product (MVP) is another part of scoping that helps outline the
minimum features necessary for testing and validation with customers. By introducing the MVP,
product teams can gather valuable insights, refine the product based on real-world feedback, and
iteratively enhance its features and functionality.

Top Challenges in New Product Development Scoping

• Defining an unrealistic or unclear scope that leads to scope creep, over-engineering, under-
delivering, or misalignment with customer needs or expectations.
• Creating too many or too few features results in a product that is either too complex or too
simple for customers to use or appreciate.
• Defining vague or ambiguous specifications or requirements that cause confusion or errors in
product development or testing.
Stages of New Product Development
Scoping
New Product Development Scoping Best Practices
• Choose the right tools: The right tools should be used to define and document the scope,
features, functions, specifications, and requirements of a product. This provides clarity and
helps to define the completeness of a product.
• Use agile methodologies: Agile for new product development is highly effective for defining
and managing the product scope, ensuring flexibility and responsiveness to changing
customer needs or expectations.
• Rely on prioritization techniques: Using this approach to define and rank the product
features or functions makes certain there is alignment with perceived customer value
propositions and business goals.
• Use validation techniques: This helps to properly define and test the MVP to ensure
continuous learning and improvement of the product.
Stages of New Product Development
Development
“Actual development of a new product is informed by the scope, specifications, and requirements
defined in the earlier stages.”
Core Activities of New Product Development
• The actual creation of a new product is a multifaceted process that encompasses various crucial
elements. Design of the product architecture, user interface, and user experience, employing
appropriate tools and techniques that drive optimal functionality and user satisfaction. The
subsequent step involves building the product in adherence to industry best practices and
standards, encompassing considerations such as the bill of material, supply chain management,
coding conventions, documentation, and version control.
• A comprehensive testing phase is essential to ensuring a robust product with an acceptable life
cycle. Some testing methods might include, but are not limited to, unit testing, integration
testing, and system testing. Each test is conducted in alignment with established best practices
and standards.
Stages of New Product Development
Development
Notably, the iterative nature of product development incorporates feedback loops, facilitating
product refinement based on customer input. This continuous feedback and refinement process
is critical for seamlessly aligning a product with market expectations and industry standards,
resulting in a high-quality, customer-centric offering.

Top Challenges in Product Development

• Designing a product that is not user-friendly, intuitive, attractive, or consistent with customer
needs or expectations.
• Building a product that is not functional, performant, secure, reliable, or compatible with
customer devices or platforms.
• Testing a product that is not comprehensive, accurate, or effective in identifying or resolving
errors or defects.
• Refining a product that is not responsive, flexible, or adaptable to changing customer needs or
expectations.
Stages of New Product Development
Testing and Validation
The testing and validation stage is essential for checking that the product resonates with
customers and stakeholders.
“This stage is essential to verify that the product meets—if not exceeds—customer needs and
expectations. Testing and validation increase the product’s overall chance of success.”
Core Activities of Testing and Validation
Organizations can use the following methods to test the effectiveness of new products:
• Alpha testing – Internal users evaluate product functionality and performance and identify any
errors or defects that must be fixed before beta testing.
• Beta testing – External users evaluate the product value proposition and overall customer
satisfaction. Additionally, this approach can be used to identify any improvements or
enhancements needed before launch.
• Pilot testing – A small group of customers or stakeholders evaluates the product’s market
response and adjustments needed before launch.
Stages of New Product Development
Testing and Validation
Top Challenges of Testing and Validation
• Using methods that are not representative, realistic, or sophisticated enough to capture the
actual customer needs and expectations or to detect the potential errors or defects of the
product.
• Testing that is too costly, time-consuming, or complex to execute or analyze.
• Validation that generates conflicting, inconsistent, or inconclusive results or leads to scope
creep, feature creep, or customer dissatisfaction.
Testing and Validation Best Practices
Select the most appropriate, effective, and efficient testing tools: Be intentional with testing. The
methods chosen must be relevant and make sense with the product type, stage, and objectives.
Collect and analyze results: Review/share data with teams to check for reliability and validity and
ensure it is actionable.
Standardize testing and communicate findings: Make output digestible without getting mired in
the details.
Stages of New Product Development
Launch
involves introducing the product to the market. This is also when customers and stakeholders
can interact directly with the finished product in a non-test-controlled environment.
“95% of new products fail in this stage of new product development when they are under the
most scrutiny out in the real world.”
Core Activities of Product Launch

The launch strategy must consider key objectives and results and the more significant overall
business strategy. From this strategy comes a detailed product launch plan, outlining essential
elements such as launch activities, timeline, budget, required resources, and the roles and
responsibilities of each team member. This plan serves as the roadmap for executing the
product launch strategy seamlessly.

An integral part of the launch plan is a launch campaign that aims to generate awareness, spark
interest, create desire, and drive action. The campaign becomes the vehicle for communicating
the product’s value proposition to the target audience, ensuring a successful market entry.
Stages of New Product Development
Launch
Following the launch, a thorough evaluation is conducted to measure and monitor the
outcomes, providing valuable insights into the launch’s effectiveness. This assessment gauges
success and identifies opportunities for improvement, allowing for continuous refinement of
future launch strategies.
Core Activities of Product Launch
• An integral part of the launch plan is a launch campaign that aims to generate awareness,
spark interest, create desire, and drive action. The campaign becomes the vehicle for
communicating the product’s value proposition to the target audience, ensuring a successful
market entry.
• Following the launch, a thorough evaluation is conducted to measure and monitor the
outcomes, providing valuable insights into the launch’s effectiveness. This assessment gauges
success and identifies opportunities for improvement, allowing for continuous refinement of
future launch strategies.
Stages of New Product Development
Launch
Top Challenges of New Product Launches

•Launch strategy not aligned with customer needs, market opportunities, competitive landscape,
or business goals.
•Launch plan that is not realistic, feasible, or effective in executing the product launch strategy.
•Launch campaign that lacks creativity or consistency in communicating the product value
proposition and positioning statement.
•Evaluation that is not comprehensive, accurate, or timely in assessing the product launch
outcomes and performance indicators.
Stages of New Product Development
Launch
New Product Launch Best Practices
• Develop and document everything launch-related: Record events and milestones in the
strategy, plan, campaign, and evaluation, checking for completeness and quality of launch
deliverables.
• Adopt methods of facilitating collaboration and communication: Encourage the product
launch team to communicate in an open forum with other stakeholders. This collaboration
promotes seamless coordination and alignment of product launch activities.
• Incorporate analysis methods: Continuously measure and monitor product launch progress
and performance using key performance indicators, dashboards, and reports that champion
transparency and accountability for the product launch outcomes.
• Adopt tools that optimize the product launch: Automation or templating presents excellent
opportunities to increase efficiency, reduce waste, and secure a successful product delivery.
Product Development Cycle
• The product development cycle can be defined as the phases through which a product
progresses from idea inception to market delivery.
• While there are distinct phases in the product development cycle, product development is
rarely a one-and-done sort of thing.
• Product development should be ongoing, as many products can be improved based on what
happens during their lifespan. Organizations must closely examine the product development
cycle as an important part of optimizing a product to perform in a fluid, changing market.
Stages of the Product Development Cycle
Ideation and validation
• In this stage, teams bring product ideas to stakeholders, keeping in mind that a new product
idea or ideas to improve an existing product can come from anywhere, including the
customer, stakeholders, and employees.
• Ideation and validation can be complex and should always be based on data, necessitating
a standardized platform capable of driving engagement and collaboration. This ensures every
member of a team can gain deep, data-driven innovation insights so only the best ideas
advance. This approach is the most effective way an organization can prioritize the best ideas
(versus pet projects) so innovation can flourish at scale.
Stages of the Product Development Cycle
Planning
• Gartner survey found that 46% of product managers view themselves as responsible for
managing planning, development, and launch, and 39% said their key responsibilities in this
effort were to create a product strategy that informs the product roadmap.
• No matter what product managers feel is their role, their objective is to establish a game plan
on how the product will be brought to market regarding resource capacity, timetables, and
other dependencies.
Essential factors they must consider include:
• Outlining key deliverables and KPIs
• Choosing the right people and teams
• Understanding the competitive timeline
• Foresight into product positioning, and the what-if scenarios
Stages of the Product Development Cycle
Development (Prototyping and testing)
It’s where all that ideation, validation, and planning prove effective or not in creating a viable
prototype of the product.
Once the prototype is ready, it’s time to test theories and execution in real-world scenarios.
Some examples of tests that might occur in this stage include:
• Field tests
• Market tests
• Compliance tests
• Regression tests
In each of these tests, product developers seek to gain a better understanding of where there is
room for improvement and if anything has been overlooked. Teams can continue to iterate until
the final design is approved and goes into production. This process can also include existing
products going through a revamp.
Stages of the Product Development Cycle
Launch
The product is not ready for prime time until teams set market goals, conduct customer
research, and design a marketing strategy.
Questions that need to be answered during the launch stage often include:
• What does the most effective launch timeline look like?
• How will success be measured?
• How will this product be positioned against similar products in the market?
• What roadblocks could delay the launch?
→ When all boxes are checked and questions answered, the product is ready to go-to market.
→ Adaptation is key. The most successful product development organizations work continually to
improve their processes and their products through ongoing analysis. That’s where the
concept of Continuous Improvement comes into play most heavily.
Stages of the Product Development Cycle
Continuous Improvement
Because product development never truly ends, continuous improvement is a vital phase of any
product development cycle. It is essential for:

• Identifying the effects change has on a product

• Pinpointing areas in the product development cycle that can improve product quality and
longevity
• Learning what areas of the product development cycle can be optimized or improved
The Stages of the Product Lifecycle
Introduction
• This stage is when the product is introduced to the world,
often with fanfare, to encourage reviews, attract
influencers, and grow public relations.
• It’s also the time to evaluate its initial reception and
success compared with set goals. How is the product
priced and in what markets and to what audience? If
needed, how can any of these elements be adjusted to
ensure a better launch?
• Deloitte found that in pharma, 70% of products that miss
expectations at launch continue doing so in subsequent
years, and approximately 80% of products that meet or
beat expectations continue to do so afterward.
• Launch performance in this introduction stage is a crucial
indicator of product longevity.
The Stages of the Product Lifecycle
Growth
• The product should grow market share as word spreads and more is invested in marketing and
sales. This is not a time to sit back and watch, however. By constantly measuring KPIs and with
an agile mindset, it’s never too late to adjust.
• Changes or disruptions often have a significant impact on growth, and this is precisely why
organizations need to be nimble and courageous enough to reevaluate decisions made in the
product development cycle, especially during the planning and development phases. There
must be room to pivot product development when the growth trajectory is less than ideal.
The Stages of the Product Lifecycle
Maintain and mature
• Even after all efforts have been exhausted, some products do not reach the Maintain and
Mature stage. But those that make it have the chance to maintain market stability, mature,
and become staples.
• Advertising and market expenses continue at a steady-state level as variants or improvements
that could help sales are considered. If the competition was fierce at launch, it will ramp up
here.
• But just as with any change, an agile organization can adapt early because it has planned for
such disruptions during what-if scenario planning in the second stage of the product
development cycle.
The Stages of the Product Lifecycle
Decline
• The decline stage is the time to look more seriously at product development improvements or
end-of-life programs. Either way, this stage is closely tied to continuous learning: every product
has something to teach for the next time.
• Asking questions like “Did we develop the product with future innovation in mind” and “Did we
develop the product to ensure a long lifecycle or in a way that it can be easily recycled or
repurposed” can impact future planning stages.
• By cross-analyzing the development and post-launch product data with observations captured
from the product’s journey, it’s easier to justify whether the product deserves innovations and
improvements or to end its life. If the product is truly declining, there will be a reduction in
marketing and support costs, which are often redirected to new products.
Types of Product Development
• New product development: These products, such as software applications that solve new or novel
customer problems, have not been released in the market before.

• New product categories: These products may not be new to the marketplace but are new to the
company developing them. For example, a software company may expand its offering to include
products within the category it currently develops, such as adding tax accounting to its portfolio of
personal finance applications.

• Product line extensions: These expand the products offered within the organization’s existing range
of products, such as adding new industries within a category. For example, a company may develop
accounting software for the construction industry and decide to extend its accounting software to
the airline industry.

• Product enhancements: These are new features and capabilities within existing products.
Companies generally design them to provide customers with new or added value. Enhancements
respond to changes in the market, performance issues, or new competitive products.
Industrial/Product design
Creates the first broadly functional description of a product
together with its essential visual conception.
The models are often merely very rough, nonfunctional ones
showing external form, color, and texture only, but some
models at this stage may also have a few moving parts.
Engineering design
Engineering design consists of four roughly sequential but also
overlapping stages or subprocesses, each corresponding to a design
problem type:
Engineering Conceptual Design
Several variations of the engineering conceptual design problem are
encountered in the course of engineering design. The variations are
slight and depend on whether the object being designed is
(1) a new product (usually an assembly),
(2) a subassembly within a product, or
(3) a part within a product or subassembly.
Engineering design
Engineering Conceptual Design
Generating alternatives in engineering conceptual design requires a
creative process called conceptual decomposition, or just
decomposition. For example, we might decompose a wheelbarrow into
a wheel subassembly, the tub, and the carrying handle subassembly.
An activity that permeates the engineering design process is the
selection of the materials of which the parts are to be made, as well as
the processes by which they are to be manufactured. Because there are
literally thousand of materials and hundred of processes, these
Engineering design
Configuration Design of Parts and Components
Identifying and selecting their type or class of the parts in the
conceptual design of products and their subassemblies, a number of
components (that is, standard modules, standard parts, and special
purpose parts) are created as concepts.
Standard module is a pump, then configuration design involves
deciding whether it is to be a centrifugal pump, a reciprocating
pump, a peristaltic pump, or some other type.
Configuration design of special purpose parts begins with problem
formulation, usually in the form of a part requirements' sketch.
Engineering design
Parametric Design
In the parametric design stage, the initial state of information is the
configuration. In other words, just about everything add the
dimensions and any other specific information needed for
functionality and manufacturability.
The specific material is also selected if it has not previously been
designated. In other words, parametric design supplies all the
dimensions, tolerances, and detailed materials information critical
to the design consistent with both the marketing concept and the
Engineering Design Specification.
Engineering design
Detail Design
Detail design supplies any remaining dimensions, tolerances,
and material information needed to describe the designed
object fully and accurately in preparation for manufacturing.
As every manufacturing engineer knows, in a large complex
product, the result seldom provides all the existing
dimensions and tolerances.
Selection of Manufacturing
Process

Dr. James Wakiru

Manufacturing processes
Manufacturing process
• The method through which raw materials are transformed into a final product

Why is selection of manufacturing process important for product

development?
From a business perspective of product development, the returns of a product
depend on
Product design (detail
• Cost of the product design, testing and
process planning), 15%
• Volume of sales of the product Product
production,
85%
Manufacturing Process Selection
• There are hundreds of manufacturing processes, e.g.
casting, forming, molding and machining.
• For any given product, there will be multiple
manufacturing processes that you’ll need to select
from.
• The process you choose will depend on many factors
called the process selection drivers.
Manufacturing Process Selection drivers
• Quantity of the product
The quantity of parts you need can greatly impact your choice.
Some processes are more efficient for small production runs, while
others excel in mass production.
• Cost for tooling, manufacturing machines and equipment
Manufacturing tooling costs are the expenses associated with
designing, developing, and fabricating implements, molds, dyes,
and fixtures during manufacturing.
Types of Tooling costs
• Upfront tooling costs in manufacturing are
paid once the initial set of tools is produced.
Depending on the complexity of the product,
these costs can vary from a few thousand
dollars to millions of dollars.
• Ongoing tooling costs in manufacturing are
recurring spending for each new batch of
products. These costs include maintenance
for the tools and repairs for the replacement
parts over time. The ongoing tooling costs
depend on the number of products
manufactured and how often.
 Tooling costs in Manufacturing – why?
• Accurate estimating costs will help manufacturers assess the potential of
projects and product lines and decide if they can align with the company’s
strategic objectives.
• Cost estimation tools help manufacturers determine the production
process's cost drivers, including raw materials, labor, energy consumption,
machine maintenance, and overhead expenses.

Breakdown of production
costs for the shock
absorber (Oussama 2019)
 Tooling costs in Manufacturing – why?
• These tools can calculate the direct and indirect production costs and factor
in desired profit margins.
• Based on the estimated tooling costs, manufacturers can realize design flaws
and improve quality assurance.
• Manufacturers can streamline supply chain management, including
transportation and inventory management, and identify potential cost-saving
opportunities.
• Estimating tooling costs in manufacturing also involves allocating resources
and optimizing them throughout the production process- efficient allocation
of labor, equipment, and materials.
Factors affecting Tooling costs in Manufacturing
• Product design: Products that are well-designed in materials, tolerances,
and assembly can optimize manufacturing.
• Material selection: Each material has its own strength, durability, and
pricing.
• Workforce skills and training: Necessary knowledge and skills to run
machinery effectively, reduce problems, and maintain a safe working
environment.
• Quality control: Robust techniques to control quality, like statistical
process control (SPC)
Factors affecting Tooling costs in Manufacturing
• Supply chain management: It is also important to ensure timely delivery of
raw materials and components, improve inventory management, and build
strong relationships with suppliers.
• Equipment and machinery: Innovative technology and automation can
help enhance manufacturing speed, accuracy, and consistency.
• Environmental impact: Tooling costs in manufacturing are also about
reducing waste generation and energy consumption and employing
sustainable practices.
• Continuous improvement: Implementing regular process audits,
understanding performance metrics, and considering employees’
suggestions can significantly improve the process over time
Strategies for optimizing Tooling costs &
quality
• Cost Benefit Analysis: After identifying the upfront investments,
operation, and maintenance costs, you need to analyze the long-term
benefits of quality tooling for productivity increase, downtime reduction,
and consistency improvement.
• Consistent Improvement: To keep enhancing the product process, you
must regularly evaluate the potential for optimizing efficiency,
minimizing waste, and increasing tool performance.
• Partner With Suppliers: You can work with your suppliers to figure out
cost-effective options and ensure high-quality tooling and components
in the following time.
Strategies for optimizing Tooling costs &
quality
• Invest in Technology: The revolution in technology in the 4.0 Industry
creates an amazing environment for manufacturers to optimize
efficiency and effectiveness. This technology facilitated automation to
boost performance and reduce costs.
• Predictive Maintenance: Predictive maintenance practices can help
you identify potential complications with production tooling and prevent
serious breakdowns. Awareness of maintenance costs will help avoid
unwanted downtime through regular inspections and data analytics.
• Quality Management Systems: Robust quality management systems
are vital to monitoring and controlling the quality of production tooling.
To adhere to industry standards, quality checkpoints must be
conducted during the production process.
Maximizing Tooling investment ROI - TCO
• Operating costs: These costs include energy consumption, utility bills, and
ongoing operational expenses for running the new equipment.
• Cycle time and run time: Fast cycle times and run times can considerably
enhance productivity and output. That’s why you must regularly assess the
speed and efficiency of any new tools or machines.
• Scrap rate percentage: A lower scrap rate of the new equipment can
minimize material waste and other associated costs.
• Feed/speed rates: We must evaluate the new tools’ feed and speed
capabilities to ensure higher rates that can speed up production times and
increase throughput.
Maximizing Tooling investment ROI - TCO
• Equipment run time: Investing in longer-lasting tools and machines can
minimize the frequency of replacement costs.
• Labor hours: Automation and improved efficiency can reduce labor hours,
which will lead to cost savings in the end.
• Cost-per-part: How much is the cost-per-part using the new equipment? It
will require to know several factors, including material consumption, energy
usage, and production speed. Does it align with your profitability goals?
Maximizing Tooling investment ROI - TCO
• Tool and machinery life: You will save on replacement costs and downtime
by investing in longer-lasting equipment at the initial steps.
• Downtime for maintenance and repair: Reducing unplanned stoppages can
improve overall equipment effectiveness (OEE) and productivity.
• Carrying costs: What are the costs relating to storing, handling, and
transporting the new equipment? It is also about potential inventory or space
requirements.
Manufacturing Process Selection drivers
• Time required for processing (Lead time)
Assess your project's time constraints. Some manufacturing processes
are faster than others, and a quick turnaround may be essential.
• Level of skilled labor required
Technical level is one of the important indicators to measure the core
competitiveness of an enterprise. When selecting a production process, it
is necessary to consider the company's existing technical level and future
technology development trends. Select process solutions that can adapt
to emerging technological trends to maintain the company's
technological leadership.
Manufacturing Process Selection drivers
• Product quality
Product quality is the foundation for an enterprise's survival and development.
When selecting a production process, consider its ability to ensure product
quality. Improve the market competitiveness of your products by selecting
process solutions and equipment that can produce high-quality products
stably and reliably.
• Production cost
Production cost is one of the important factors for enterprise development.
When selecting a production process, the cost-effectiveness of the process
must be taken into account. By comparing the input-output ratios of different
process solutions, select a solution with lower costs and can achieve
economic benefits.
Manufacturing Process Selection drivers
• Technical level
Technical level is one of the important indicators to measure the core
competitiveness of an enterprise. When selecting a production process, it is
necessary to consider the company's existing technical level and future technology
development trends. Choose process solutions that can adapt to technological
development trends to maintain the company's technological leadership.
• Product characteristics
When choosing a production process, you must first consider the characteristics of
the product, including chemical properties, physical properties, and mechanical
properties. According to the characteristics of the product, select process parameters
and equipment that can meet the requirements to ensure product consistency and
reliability. At the same time, the industrialization of the entire product must be
considered during the laboratory research and development stage.
Manufacturing Process Selection drivers
• Design tolerances
Tolerance refers to the total amount that the dimensions of a promotional
product can vary. It also refers to both upper and lower limits. Tolerances
are defined since various factors such as materials, manufacturing
processes and assembly methods can affect a product's dimension.
Why Tolerances are Important in Manufacturing
1. They improve the fit and functionality of parts
2. They improve the look of the end product
3. Manufacturing is more cost-effective
4. You’ll get products to market faster
5. Tolerances reduce manufacturing ambiguity and complexity
Manufacturing Process Selection drivers
• Waste produced by the process
Manufacturing waste refers to any materials or resources discarded or
unused. Some manufacturing waste examples include excess raw
materials, scrap materials, broken or defective products, and energy or
water used in production.
• Maintenance costs
Maintenance costs include all the direct and indirect expenses of upkeep,
repairs, replacement, and all maintenance activities. Maintenance costs
are estimated between 15 % and 70 % of the goods produced. It is
estimated that approximately one-third of these costs are unnecessary
and avoidable
Manufacturing Process Selection drivers
• Material compatibility
Different processes are better suited for specific materials. Consider the
properties of your chosen material and ensure it aligns with the selected
manufacturing process.
• Environmental Impact
As environmental awareness continues to increase, companies need to fully
consider their impact on the environment when choosing production
processes. By choosing environmentally friendly production processes and
equipment, we can reduce waste emissions and energy consumption, and
reduce the negative impact on the environment. At the same time, we will
strengthen environmental management and monitoring to ensure the
sustainable development of corporate production
Manufacturing Process Selection drivers
• Quality Requirements
Consider the quality standards your project demands. Certain processes
offer higher precision and better surface finish than others.
• Energy consumption
• Availability of material and cost of material
• Capabilities required to process material
• Product dimensions and size
• Surface finish required
•
Selection procedure
STEP 1: Selection criteria
The first step in the manufacturing process selection is to establish
selection criteria based on key process selection drivers: manufacturing
volumes, value of the product, part geometry, required tolerances, and
required material. The material choice will be very effective in
narrowing down your options. This is because many processes work
exclusively with certain materials.
For example, injection moulding can only be used with polymers,
whilst die casting can only be used with metals. Your material choice
will instantly rule out a vast number of unsuitable processes.

22
Selection procedure
STEP 1: Selection criteria
• Establish selection criteria based on key process selection drivers:
manufacturing volumes, product value, part geometry, required tolerances,
and required material.
• Many processes work exclusively with certain materials. For example
injection moulding can only be used with polymers, whilst die casting can
only be used with metals. Your material choice will instantly rule out a vast
number of unsuitable processes.
• The expected manufacturing volume will further narrow down your process
options. For a large quantity, a manual production process like manual
machining would be completely impractical. Instead, you would need to
consider an automated process such as molding. The geometry and
tolerances required for a product will also filter out many processes that
would be unable to achieve the desired accuracy.

23
Selection procedure
STEP 2: Identify processes
After applying STEP 1, a smaller range of processes will be available. At this
point you should ideally work with an experienced manufacturer to identify
those processes that can satisfy the required quantity, material
requirements, and part geometry.
STEP 3: Evaluate processes
After identifying the potential processes for manufacturing a product, it is
time to evaluate them based on less broad parameters, such as process
capability, processing time, tooling and equipment cost, degree of
automation available, skill required for operation, waste produced after
processing, and post processing required. It is a good idea to create a
decision matrix with a score or value for each of these important elements
24
Selection procedure
STEP 4: Selection
• You should now be able to use the weighted decision matrix you created in
STEP 3 to identify the best process for your application. If you carefully
evaluate each element, giving extra weight to those elements that are most
important, the result will be a single process that will produce the part
required to the standard required for an acceptable cost of production.
• As mentioned earlier, it is important that you work with experienced
manufacturers or a manufacturing engineer to help you identify potential
processes, evaluate each process effectively, and select the best process so
that you and your customers will be happy with the final product.

25
 Forming from solid by deformation
Processes classes This type of forming can be divided into three
subgroups:
1. hot working, including hot rolling, forging and
Forming from liquid (casting, extrusion;
molding)
2. cold working, stamping, bending, spinning,
stretch forming, shearing, cold
rolling, extrusion, deep drawing etc.; and
3. forming from powder, such as powder
metallurgy and plastic molding.
Processes clases
Forming from solid by deformation

• Forging

• Spinning

• Stretch forming

• Powder metallurgy and plastic molding

Processes
Forming from solid by material removal
a) Milling
b) Turning
c) Drilling
d) Cylindrical grinding
Processes
Forming from solid by material removal
LASER Processes
• Broaching:
Used to produce non-round holes
• EDM and ECM
Electrodischarge machining (and ECM, electrochemical machining) is a non-
conventional process.
• Laser beam machining
A process using a high-intensity light beam and single frequency to burn and
vaporize workpiece material.
Processes
Forming by joining parts
• Welding
• Soldering
• Adhesives
Forming by assembly
• This technique involves the mechanical joining of parts by threads, bolts,
rivets, assembly by press, etc.
 Processes
Forming by material increase (incress)
Selective solidification or binding of liquid or
solid particles by gluing, welding,
polymerization, or chemical reaction. Material
is progressively added until the whole part is
created.
Stereolithography (SLA) is a form of 3D
printing technology used for creating models,
prototypes, patterns, and production parts in
a layer-by-layer fashion using photochemical

Rapid prototyping.
processes by which light causes chemical
monomers and oligomers to cross-link
together to form polymers
Manufacturing
• The part shape and dimensions will differ according to
the selected process.

(a)Casting or molding The thickness of the fin and the

adjoining fillets have to be large in order to allow material
flow in the die.

(b) Welded joints The thickness of the part may be

controlled by strength constraints and will probably be
significantly smaller than that in casting.
Manufacturing
(e) Welded joint with support plate For added
strength and reduced fin thickness, support
plates can be used.

f) Riveted joint: The fin must have a ‘T’ or ‘L’ shape

in order to leave room for the rivets
Selecting primary manufacturing processes –
rough rules
The following design factors have a bearing on the choice of a manufacturing
process:
1. Quantity.
2. Complexity of Form.
3. Nature of Material.
4. Size of part.
5. Section thickness.
6. Dimensional accuracy.
7. Cost of raw material, possibility of defects, and scrap rate.
8. Subsequent processes.
Selecting primary manufacturing processes –
rough rules
Direct time taken to mold a part of moderate complexity with a metal die is
about 25 seconds; to produce the same part using a material removal process
might take about an hour.
Cost of the metal die is high, probably in the neighborhood of $25,000.
Assuming that the direct labor cost of the material removal process is about
$15 per hour (ignoring indirect hourly rate and set-up costs, which will probably
be higher for the molding process) the economic quantity should be at least
25,000/15 = 1666 pieces in order to reach the break-even point.
Selecting primary manufacturing processes –
rough rules
• As a general rule, the manufacturing processes may be ranked in order of
economic consideration as follows:
• High quantity (2000 or more)
1. Forming from solid by deformation
2. Forming from liquid - casting, molding
3. Forming by joining parts
4. Forming from solid by material removal
5. Forming by assembly
NB Forming by material increase is not suitable.
Selecting primary manufacturing processes –
rough rules
• Low quantity (up to 50)
1. Forming from solid by material removal
2. Forming by joining parts
3. Forming from solid by deformation
4. Forming by assembly
5. Forming by material increase
NB Forming from liquid - casting, molding - is not suitable.
• Medium quantities should be analyzed separately in each case. However, in
order to save thinking and computation time, additional rules may be added
relating to quantity and part complexity:
• For a simple part, the lower quantity should be increased to 150 pieces and the
higher quantity should be reduced to 1000 pieces. For complex parts, the higher
quantity may be reduced to 1500 pieces.
Selecting primary manufacturing processes –
refined rules- capability and quantity
The first decision should be to select the primary manufacturing
forming process. Then, refined rules are considered to check which
process is most suitable for manufacturing the required part.
Shape complexity is divided into four categories:
1. Mono This shape consists of a constant cross-section of the part
along the main axis with no lateral features.
2. Open This shape consists of parts that can be divided into a
maximum of two separate parts by plane so that no cross-section
from the parting plane up or down will be larger than the parting
plane in any direction.
3. Complex This shape consists of open parts, but lateral features
are allowed.
4. Very complex This shape consists of parts with any shape and
having hidden hollow spaces.
Selecting primary manufacturing processes –
refined rules- capability and quantity
Selecting among forming from liquid processes
There are several methods of forming from liquid. The commonly used
processes are:
• sand casting
• permanent casting
• die casting
• investment casting.
• Each molding method has certain inherent advantages and limitations.
• Selecting the molding method should be based on the following parameters:
• part material
• size of part
• section thickness
• dimensional accuracy
• cost of raw material, possibility of defects and scrap rate.
 Selecting primary manufacturing processes –
refined rules- capability and quantity
Selecting among forming from liquid processes

Code A = forming from liquid (casting, molding)

Code B = forming from solid by deformation
Code C - forming from solid by material removal
Code D = forming by joining parts
Code E - forming by assembly
Code F - forming by material increase

Selecting the molding method

A quantity of 80 parts of the open shape complexity are ordered. This shape complexity and
quantity points to the third column. The first priority process is 'C' - forming by material removal.
A quantity of 3000 complex parts is ordered. The recommended process for this order is in the
sixth column and is 'A' - forming from liquid (casting, molding).
Selecting primary manufacturing processes –
refined rules- capability and quantity

1 Materials that may be produced by investment casting belong to the following families: aluminium alloys,
copper alloys, zinc alloys, magnesium alloys, tin alloys, lead alloys.
2 Usually under 8kg.
3 Best results are for parts around lkg.
4 The accuracy tolerance depends on the scatter of the skrinkage factor and on the dimension of the mold. It
can be computed by the equation
Selecting primary manufacturing processes –
refined rules- capability and quantity
𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑇𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 > 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑜𝑛
2
where S is the shrinkage factor, a function of the material.
The dimension refers to the mold, not the part. The transformation of the part
dimension to the mold dimension is computed by the following equation:
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
1 − 𝑆𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
1
Where:𝑆𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛
2
A quantity of 2500 complex parts made of bronze, weight 4 kg, (8.8Ib) minimum section thickness
1.2 mm (approx. 0.040 in), minimum dimension tolerance ± 0.10 mm, and minimum surface finish
of 2μm Ra is ordered. As a rough estimate, the die will cost about $25 000 and can operate at a rate
of 100 shots per hour. The hourly rate at the plant, including overheads, is $60 per hour, and the raw
material costs $0.8 per [Link] a process to manufacture this part and prepare a quotation.

• Decide on the recommended process. For complex shapes and quantities

higher than 1500 pieces, refer to the sixth column of the table; it
recommends forming type 'A'—forming from liquid (casting, molding).
• Determine the specific forming by liquid process between sand casting and
Die casting.
• Available die-casting machines have a capacity of 10 kg (22Ib) and can
accommodate two parts in a die.
A quantity of 2500 complex parts made of bronze, weight 4 kg, (8.8Ib) minimum section thickness
1.2 mm (approx. 0.040 in), minimum dimension tolerance ± 0.10 mm, and minimum surface finish
of 2μm Ra is ordered. As a rough estimate, the die will cost about $25 000 and can operate at a rate
of 100 shots per hour. The hourly rate at the plant, including overheads, is $60 per hour, and the raw
material costs $0.8 per kg. Recommend a process to manufacture this part and prepare a
quotation.
The estimated cost to manufacture the order is therefore:
Cost of the die $25 000
Labor cost 60 x 2500/(100 x 2) $750
Raw material cost 2500 x 4 x 0.8 x 1.2 $9600 (20% waste)
Total. $35 350 or $14.14 per part.
Assume forming this part by a metal removal process will take 25 minutes.
With the same hourly rate and raw material cost, the order will cost:
Labor cost 60 x 2500 x (25/60) $62 500
Raw material cost $9600
Total. $72 100 or $28.84 per part.
 Thank you!

The quickest way of ending a war is to lose it.

George Orwell
DFM Guidelines & Tooling

Casting
Types of processes
Metal Casting Processes
Metal alloy is melted and then poured or forced into a mold where it takes the
shape of the mold and is allowed to solidify.

Types of molds
Expendable molds (sand casting and investment casting) that are destroyed to
remove the part, and permanent molds (die casting). Expendable molds are
created using either a permanent pattern (sand casting) or an expendable
pattern (investment casting).
Permanent molds, of course, do not require a pattern.
Sand casting
Process in which a sand mold is formed by packing a mixture of sand, a clay binder, and water around a
wood or metal pattern that has the same external shape as the part to be cast. A pattern can come in two
halves: a top half (called a cope) and a bottom half (called a drag)
Sand casting
Used to produce large parts such as
machine-tool bases and components,
structures, large housings, engine
blocks, transmission cases, connecting
rods,
Sand casting also results in parts with
internal porosity that causes leaking
and reduces part strength.
Sand castings are not generally used
for the production of parts that require
high production volumes.
Investment casting
Investment casting, as well as die casting can produce parts of similar geometric shapes and size.

A metal die or mold is made by either machining or casting. The more complicated the shape (because of
undercuts, for example), the more costly the metal dies.
Die casting
Process in which a melt is injected under pressure into
a metal mold. The melt then cools and solidifies,
conforming to the internal shape of the mold.
main elements:
(1) a source of molten metal, (2) an injection
mechanism, (3) a mold, and (4) a clamping system.
Hot chamber machine, the injection mechanism is
submerged in the molten metal
Cold chamber machine, molten metal from a separate
holding furnace is ladled into the cold chamber sleeve
after the mold is closed.
 Centrifugal casting
Utilizes the inertial forces caused by rotation to distribute the molten metal in to the mold cavities

Three types of centrifugal casting

◦ True centrifugal casting
◦ Semi centrifugal casting
◦ Centrifuging
DFM guidelines for Casting
Parts should ideally be designed so that:
1. The flow can be smooth and fill the cavity evenly;
2. Cooling, and hence solidification, can be rapid to shorten cycle time and
uniform to reduce warpage; and
3. If ejection is needed, it can be accomplished with as little tooling
complexity as possible.
The location of the parting surface, the direction of closure, and the design of
the part must be considered simultaneously in order to provide for ejection of
the part from the mold after solidification.
 DFM guidelines for Casting
1. The direction of mold closure and the location of the parting surface.

2. An easy to manufacture part must be easily ejected from the die, and dies will be less
expensive if they do not require special moving parts (such as side cores) that must be
activated in order to allow parts to be ejected.

3. Because of the need for metal to flow through the die cavity, parts that provide relatively
smooth and easy internal flow paths with low flow resistance are desirable. Avoid sharp
corners and sudden changes or large differences in wall thickness should be avoided because
they both create flow problems..

4. Thick walls or heavy sections will slow the cooling process. Parts with no thick walls or other
thick sections are less costly to produce.

5. Design parts of uniform, or nearly uniform, wall thickness. The thickest section largely
determines solidification time and, hence, total cycle time.

6. In large or complex parts, two or more gates may be required through which metal will flow in
two or more streams into the mold.
Sheet-Metal Forming
Sheet-metal forming consists of two
broad categories: stamping and
fabricating.
Stamping is a process in which thin-
walled metal parts (less than about 6.25
mm or 0.25 inches) are shaped by means
of punches and dies driven by
mechanical or hydraulic presses.
Fabricating is a process of forming thick-
walled parts (greater than about 6.25
mm or 0.25 inches) or large thin-walled
parts using single or compound dies with
or without non-press operations.
 Stamping

1. Shearing or cutting operations in which holes,

slots, grooves, and other features are created by
exceeding the shear strength of the material;
2. Non-shearing operations such as forming ,
drawing, bending and other operations in which
various shapes are created by exceeding the
tensile or compressive strength of the material.
 Stamping

Bending is done using a matched punch and die set or, as is more
commonly the case, by using a descending punch to fold or "wipe"
the workpiece over the edge of the die.

Drawing is a forming operation in which a punch draws a thin flat

circular blank of diameter Db into a die to form a recessed cup
whose inner diameter Dp is equal to that of the punch.

Embossing is a forming operation used to form beads, ribs, and

lettering by use of shallow indentations
DFM guidelines for stamped
parts
The number of distinct features in a part should be minimal.
Avoid closely spaced features when possible.
The use of narrow cutouts and narrow projections should be avoided.
Bend angles greater than 90 ~ should be avoided whenever possible.
Side-action features should be avoided or kept to a minimum.
 Plastic Products

• Plastics can be shaped into a wide variety of products:

– Molded parts
– Extruded sections
– Films
– Sheets
– Insulation coatings on electrical wires
– Fibers for textiles

More Plastic Products

• In addition, plastics are often the principal ingredient in other

materials, such as
– Paints and varnishes
– Adhesives
– Various polymer matrix composites
• Many plastic shaping processes can be adapted to produce
items made of rubbers and polymer matrix composites
 Trends in Polymer Processing

• Applications of plastics have increased at a much faster rate than

either metals or ceramics during the last 50 years
– Many parts previously made of metals are now being made of
plastics
– Plastic containers have been largely substituted for glass bottles
and jars
• Total volume of polymers (plastics and rubbers) now exceeds that of
metals

• Almost unlimited variety of part geometries

• Plastic molding is a net shape process
– Further shaping is not needed
• Less energy is required than for metals due to much lower
processing temperatures
– Handling of product is simplified during production because
of lower temperatures
• Painting or plating is usually not required
Thermoplastics

Thermoplastic materials, like water and wax, can be repeatedly softened by heating and
hardened by cooling, and are formed into parts primarily by injectionmolding, extrusion,
and extrusion blow molding.

Thermoplastics
Chemical structure remains
unchanged during heating and
shaping

More important commercially,

comprising more than 70% of total
plastics tonnage
Thermoplastics

Crystalline thermoplastics have a relatively narrow melting range. They are opaque,
have good fatigue and wear resistance, high but predicable shrinkage, and relatively
high melt temperatures and melt viscosities.
Examples of crystalline
plastics include acetal, nylon, polyethylene, and polypropylene (PP).
Amorphous thermoplastics melt over a broader temperature range, are
transparent, and have less shrinkage, but they have relatively poor wear and
fatigue resistance.
Examples of
amorphous materials are ABS, polystyrene, and polycarbonate.
 Plastic types: Thermoplastics

General properties: low melting point, softer, flexible.

Typical uses: bottles, food wrappers, toys, …

Examples:

Polyethylene: packaging, electrical insulation, milk and water bottles, packaging film
Polypropylene: carpet fibers, automotive bumpers, microwave containers, prosthetics
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC): electrical cables cover, credit cards, car instrument panels
Polystyrene: disposable spoons, forks, Styrofoam
Acrylics (PMMA: polymethyl methacrylate): paints, fake fur, plexiglass
Polyamide (nylon): textiles and fabrics, gears, bushing and washers, bearings
PET (polyethylene terephthalate): bottles for acidic foods like juices, food trays
PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene): non-stick coating, Gore-Tex (raincoats), dental floss
Thermosetting Plastics

These plastics are made up of molecules that are heavily

cross-linked (below). This results in a rigid molecular
structure. Although they soften when heated the first time,
and can therefore be shaped, they then become
permanently stiff and solid, and cannot be reshaped.

Thermosets
Undergo a curing process during
heating and shaping, causing a
permanent change (cross-linking)
in molecular structure

Once cured, they cannot be remelted

 Plastic types: Thermo sets

General properties: more durable, harder, tough, light.

Typical uses: automobile parts, construction materials.

Examples:

Unsaturated Polyesters: lacquers, varnishes, boat hulls, furniture

Epoxies and Resins: glues, coating of electrical circuits,

composites: fiberglass in helicopter blades, boats, …
 SHAPING PROCESSES FOR PLASTICS

1. Compression Moulding
2. Transfer Moulding
3. Extrusion Moulding
4. Injection Moulding
5. Blow Moulding
6. Thermoforming
7. Calendering
8. lenPolymer Foam Processing and Forming
9. Product Design Considerations
Plastics Processing: Compression Molding compression molding
Plastic Processing : Compression Molding

Figure : Compression molding for thermosetting plastics:

(1) charge is loaded,
(2) and (3) charge is compressed and cured, and
(4) part is ejected and removed.
 Plastic Processing : Compression Molding

• Molding materials:
– Phenolics, melamine,
urea-formaldehyde, epoxies,
urethanes, and elastomers
• Typical compression-molded products:
– Electric plugs, sockets, and housings;
pot handles, and dinnerware plates

• Simpler than injection molds

• No sprue and runner system in a compression mold
• Process itself generally limited to simpler part geometries due to lower
flow capabilities of TS materials
• Mold must be heated, usually by electric resistance, steam, or hot oil
circulation
 Plastics Processing: Compression Molding
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Plastics Processing: Compression Molding
 Transfer Molding
TS charge is loaded into a chamber immediately ahead of
mold cavity, where it is heated; pressure is then applied
to force soft polymer to flow into heated mold where it
cures

• Two variants:
– Pot transfer molding - charge is injected from a "pot"
through a vertical sprue channel into cavity

– Plunger transfer molding – plunger injects charge

from a heated well through channels into cavity.
Transfer Molding

Pot Transfer Moulding

 Pot Transfer Molding

Figure : (a) Pot transfer molding: (1) charge is loaded into

pot, (2) softened polymer is pressed into mold cavity and
cured, and (3) part is ejected.
 Plunger Transfer Molding

Figure : (b) plunger transfer molding: (1) charge is

loaded into pot, (2) softened polymer is pressed into
mold cavity and cured, and (3) part is ejected.
Screw conveyor
Thermoplastic granules (right) are fed from a hopper by a
rotating screw through a heated cylinder.

The tapered shape of the screw (right) compacts the plastic

as it becomes plasticized. This part of the process is similar to
the heating and compacting stages in the injection moulding
process. The difference being that the softened material is
allowed to flow out through a die in a continuous stream
( Extrusion moulding ) rather than be pumped intermittently
in measured amounts into a mould.( Injection moulding )

The die (right) which is fitted to the end of the extruder

barrel determines the cross-section of the extrusion.
 Extruder

Figure : Components and features of a (single-screw) extruder for plastics

Compression process in which material is forced to flow through a die

orifice to provide long continuous product whose cross-sectional shape
is determined by the shape of the orifice of a die

• Widely used for thermoplastics and elastomers to mass produce items

such as tubing, pipes, hose, structural shapes, sheet and film,
continuous filaments, and coated electrical wire

• Carried out as a continuous process; extrudate is then cut into desired

lengths
 Extruder Screw

• Divided into sections to serve several functions:

– Feed section - feedstock is moved from hopper and

preheated
– Compression section - polymer is transformed into fluid, air
mixed with pellets is extracted from melt, and material is
compressed
– Metering section - melt is homogenized and sufficient
pressure developed to pump it through die opening
 Die End of Extruder : Extrusion Die for Solid Cross Section

Figure : (a) Side view cross-section of an extrusion die for solid regular shapes, such as
round stock; (b) front view of die, with profile of extrudate.
• Progress of polymer melt through barrel leads ultimately to the die zone
• Before reaching die, the melt passes through a screen pack - series of wire
meshes supported by a stiff plate containing small axial holes
• Functions of screen pack:
– Filter out contaminants and hard lumps
– Build pressure in metering section
– Straighten flow of polymer melt and remove its "memory" of circular
motion from screw
 Extrusion Die for Coating Wire

Figure : Side view cross-section of die for coating of electrical wire by extrusion.
• Polymer melt is applied to bare wire as it is pulled at high speed through a die
– A slight vacuum is drawn between wire and polymer to promote adhesion
of coating
• Wire provides rigidity during cooling - usually aided by passing coated wire
through a water trough
• Product is wound onto large spools at speeds up to 50 m/s (10,000 ft/min)
Plastics Processing: Extrusion

open cross-sections (channels) closed cross-sections (tubes, pipes) pellets

Plastics Processing: Extrusion
Plastics Processing: Extrusion
Extrusion
This process can be compared to squeezing toothpaste from a tube. It is a continuous
process used to produce both solid and hollow products that have a constant
cross-section. E.g. window frames, hose pipe, curtain track, garden trellis.

Process
The photo below shows a typical thermoplastic extruder.
Plastics Processing: Extrusion
 Injection Molding

Polymer is heated to a highly plastic state and forced to flow under high
pressure into a mold cavity where it solidifies and the molding is then
removed from cavity

• Produces discrete components almost always to net shape

• Typical cycle time 10 to 30 sec, but cycles of one minute or more are
not uncommon
• Mold may contain multiple cavities, so multiple moldings are produced
each cycle
Injection Molding Machine
Two principal components:

Injection unit
Melts and delivers polymer melt
Operates much like an extruder

Clamping unit
Opens and closes mold each injection cycle
Plastics Processing: Injection Molding
 Plastics Processing : Injection Molding Machine

Figure : Diagram of an injection molding machine, reciprocating screw

type (some mechanical details are simplified).
 Plastics Processing: Injection Molding

(1) mold is closed (2) melt is injected into cavity.

(3) screw is retracted. (4) mold opens and part is ejected.

Cycle of operation for injection molding
 Process & machine schematics

Schematic of thermoplastic Injection molding machine

New developments- Gas assisted
injection molding
 Blow Molding
Molding process in which air pressure is used to inflate soft plastic
into a mold cavity
• Important for making one-piece hollow plastic parts with thin
walls, such as bottles
• Because these items are used for consumer beverages in
mass markets, production is typically organized for very high
quantities

Blow Molding Process

• Accomplished in two steps:
1. Fabrication of a starting tube, called a parison
2. Inflation of the tube to desired final shape
• Forming the parison is accomplished by either
– Extrusion or
– Injection molding
 Extrusion Blow Molding

Figure : Extrusion blow molding: (1) extrusion of parison; (2) parison

is pinched at the top and sealed at the bottom around a metal blow
pin as the two halves of the mold come together; (3) the tube is
inflated so that it takes the shape of the mold cavity; and (4) mold is
opened to remove the solidified part.
 Extrusion Blow Molding

Extrusion Blow Molding involves manufacture of parison by conventional extrusion

method using a die similar to that used for extrusion pipes.
Extrusion Blow Molding is commonly used for mass production of plastic bottles.

The production cycle consists of the following steps:

➢[Link] parison is extruded vertically in downward direction between two mold

halves.
➢2. When the parison reaches the required length the two mold halves close
resulting in pinching the top of parison end and sealing the blow pin in the
bottom of the parison end.
➢[Link] is inflated by air blown through the blow pin, taking a shape conforming
that of the mold cavity. The parison is then cut on the top.
➢[Link] mold cools down, its halves open, and the final part is removed.
1 3

2 4
5
 Injection Blow Molding

Figure : Injection blow molding: (1) parison is injected

molded around a blowing rod; (2) injection mold is opened
and parison is transferred to a blow mold; (3) soft polymer is
inflated to conform to the blow mold; and (4) blow mold is
opened and blown product is removed.
 Injection Blow Molding

1. In Injection Blow Molding method a parison is produced

by injecting a polymer into a hot injection mold around a
blow tube or core rod.

[Link] the blow tube together with the parison is removed

from the injection mold and transferred to a blow mold.
Following operations are similar to those in the extrusion
blowing molding.

3. Injection Blow Molding is more accurate and controllable

process as compared to the Extrusion Blow Molding.
It allows producing more complicated products from a wider
range of polymer materials.

4. However production rate of Injection Blow Molding

method is lower than that of Extrusion Blow Molding.
The photo (below) shows fluid containers used in hospitals, ready to be trimmed. A
wide variety of colours can be achieved by adding a colouring agent to the mix of
thermoplastic granules (about 1% by volume).
 Calendering Feedstock is passed through a series of rolls to
reduce thickness to desired gage

• Expensive equipment, high production rates

• Process is noted for good surface finish and
high gage accuracy
• Typical materials: rubber or rubbery
thermoplastics such as plasticized PVC
• Products: PVC floor covering, shower
curtains, vinyl table cloths, pool liners, and
inflatable boats and toys

Calendering is a process where a large amount of molten plastic is placed between rollers and
rolled to turn it into sheets. The rollers are hot and keep the plastic in its semi - molten state
allowing it to be rolled thinner and thinner as it passes through rollers which are closer and
closer together. When it is at the required thickness it is rolled through cold rollers to enable it
to go hard and is then wound into rolls.

Figure : A typical roll configuration in calendering

Embossing
 Welding of Plastics

Plastics welding is the process of joining two pieces

of Thermoplastics at heated state and under a
pressure as a result of cross linking of their polymer
molecules. The work pieces are fused together with or
without filler material. The joint forms when the parts
are cooled below the Glass Transition Temperature
(for amorphous polymers) or below the melting
temperature (for crystalline polymers).

Thermo sets (thermosetting resins) in cured condition

cannot be welded, since cross-linking of their
molecules has completed.

Plastics welding processes:

Hot Gas Welding

Hot Plate Welding
Ultrasonic Welding
Spin Welding
Vibration Welding
Welding of Plastics : Hot gas Welding
Welding of Plastics : Hot Plate Welding
Welding of Plastics: Ultrasonic Welding
Welding of Plastics : Friction ( Spin ) Welding
Welding of Plastics : Vibration Welding
DFM guidelines for Injection,
transfer and Compression molding
The physical nature of these processes, flow, cooling to solidify, and
ejection provides the basis for a number of the qualitative DFM
guidelines or rules of thumb that have been established.
Parts should ideally be designed so that:
1. The flow can be smooth and fill the cavity evenly;
2. Cooling, and hence solidification, can be rapid to shorten cycle
time and uniform to reduce warpage; and
3. Ejection can be accomplished with as little tooling complexity as
possible.
 DFM guidelines for Injection,
transfer and Compression molding
1. Designers must decide, as part of their design, he direction of mold
closure and the location of the parting surface.
2. An easy to manufacture part must be easily ejected from the die, and
dies will be less expensive if they do not require special moving parts
(such as side cores) that must be activated in order to allow parts to
be ejected.
3. Parts that provide relatively smooth and easy internal flow paths with
low flow resistance are desirable.
4. Thick walls or heavy sections will slow the cooling process.
5. Design parts of uniform, or nearly uniform, wall thickness.
6. In large or complex parts, two or more gates may be required through
which resin will flow in two or more streams into the mold. There will,
therefore, be fusion lines in the part where the streams meet inside
the mold.
Forging
Forging is a bulk deformation process in whch the geometry of a part is shaped
by squeezing (with a mechanical or hydraulic press) or hammering (with a
gravity or power-assisted hammer) a hot workpiece between two die halves
attached to a press or hammer.
Open-die forging is a process where a hot metal workpiece is squeezed or
hammered between flat, circular, or v-shaped dies.
Closed-die forging the workpiece is squeezed or hammered between one or a
series of dies that enclose the workpiece on all sides.
Closed-die forging
▪ Blocker-type forgings only roughly approximate the general shape of
the final part, with relatively generous contours, large radii, large
draft angles, and liberal finish allowances.
▪ Conventional forgings generally have portions of the part machined
and other portions that remain “as forged.”
▪ Precision forgings have little if any draft and generally require little if
any machining. Precision &es are more costly than conventional
dies, and the forgings produced with them require higher forging
pressures than conventional forgings.
DFM Guidelines for Forged
Parts
▪ Avoid forging if possible: long cycle times, and because the robustness
required of the dies, hammers, and presses result in high die and
equipment cost.
▪ Select materials that are relatively easy to deform. These materials will
require fewer dies, shorten the processing cycle, and require a smaller
hammer or press.
▪ Because of the need for the metal to deform, part shapes that provide
relatively smooth and easy external flow paths are desirable.
▪ For ease of producibility, ribs should be widely spaced (spacing
between longitudinal ribs should be greater than the rib height; spacing
between radial ribs should be greater than 30 degrees).
▪ Internal undercuts, and external undercuts caused by projections, must
be avoided since they are impossible to form by the movement of solid
metal.
 Thank you!

The quickest way of ending a war is to lose it.

George Orwell