Heat Transfer: Radiation, Conduction and Convection

When radiation from the Sun (UV, IR, visible

wavelengths) reaches the Earth, it is absorbed &
reflected by the Earth’s surface. The Sun provides most
of the Earth’s energy and along with the Earth’s natural
___greenhouse effect__; our planet is able to maintain
an average temperature of _15C_. It is the energy from
the Sun that is the driving force behind all the
__weather___ and __climate__ patterns on our planet.

Transfer of Energy

_Theral_ energy is the energy of _motion of

particles in a substance. _Heat_ is thermal energy
transferred from one substance to another. Energy
can be transferred between two places by one of
three methods:
1) Conduction
2) Convection
3) Radiation

Radiation

Radiation is the transfer of

energy by means of Incoming Solar Energy 100%
_electromagnatic waves_.
These waves do not require a
__medium_. This is how the
Sun’s energy reaches the
Earth. When solar radiation
penetrates the Earth’s
atmosphere it can be either
___absorbed__ or
__reflected___.
and oceans
Examples of radiation include
holding your hand above a grill
to check if it’s hot, spreading black coal on highways to melt surface ice and melt
snow, using the shiny side of aluminum foil facing the food to reflect the radiant heat
to cook the food faster.

Conduction

Conduction is the transfer of energy through the means

of _direct contact_, mostly in _solids_. When highly
energetic particles vibrate more quickly, they
__collide__ with other particles and transfer some
energy to them. Conduction occurs on Earth’s surface, in __solid_, __water_, & __air_.
Conduction is only a small part of the transfer of energy in weather.

Examples of conduction include insulating material around hot water bottles to keep
the heat in; a potato cooks faster with an iron nail in the middle of it since the heat
conducts along the nail to cook the potato from the inside out.

Convection

Convection is the transfer of energy by the movement of molecules in a _fluid__

(_liquid_ or _gas_). Convection is the most important concept for weather systems,
since they depend on the movement of ____air___ to create __weather patterns__.

A convection current is set-up when particles of a fluid gain energy. As their

movement increases, the particles ___spread farther apart____ and that portion of
the fluid becomes _less dense__ compared to its surrounding; thus it ___rises_. The
warm fluid is replaced by cooler fluids as the flow of the convection current begins.

Examples of convection include holes on the top of a metal lamp shade, heating vents
on the floor and not on the ceiling because hot air rises.
 Movement of Air and Water

Air pressure is the pressure the air exerts as __gravity_ pulls it toward the centre of
Earth. At sea level, there’s approximately ___101.3kPa___ of atmospheric pressure.

A __barometer__ is the instrument used to measure pressure. An aneroid

barometer is the most common type, consisting of a sealed metal container. Small
changes in atmospheric pressure cause the container to expand or contract,
changing the needle position and registering the change in pressure.

Pressure gradients are used to measure the amount the

atmospheric pressure changes across a set distance.

Vertical gradients measure changes in pressure with changes in

altitude, and influence convection. They have the most
variations.

Horizontal gradients measure changes in pressure

along the same altitude and influence pressure systems
(H, high pressure, L, low pressure). They lead to the
movement of air called wind. Horizontal gradients can
be used to determine the strength and direction of
winds.

On a map, areas with the same pressure can be connected with a smooth line.

Pressure systems

Low Pressure System

An “L” on a weather map indicates a low pressure system,
meaning that the area has a decrease in atmospheric pressure.
__warm_ air is less dense and _rises_ to create low pressure
systems. Any air that was pushed up will swirl in a
___counterclockwise____ direction due to the Earth’s
__rotation____ (Coriolis effect). As warm air rises, it is cooled
and condensed; therefore low pressure systems bring
__clouds____ and _____precipitation_______.

High Pressure Systems

An “H” on a weather map indicates an area of high pressure. A
high-pressure system means the pressure inside the system is
higher than that of the surrounding areas. This is because ___cold____ air is more
dense and _sinks____. Since warm air is able to hold more water vapor the high-
pressure system is usually associated with _clear___ weather as clouds do not form.
Air will move ___clockwise_____ in a high-pressure system as it moves outward
towards areas of low pressure.

Air Mass
An air mass occurs when ___a large body of air remains stationary____ in an area
for long enough to take on the temperature and moisture characteristics of the land or
water below.
Example of air masses include continental polar (cold and dry) or maritime
tropical (hot and wet).

Fronts

A front is formed when _two air masses with different temperature and
densities meet______. There are many times of fronts, the most common being a
warm or cold front.

H
L L

H H

L L

H H

L L
H

Winds

Wind is a result of pressure differences between areas, since air wants to move from
areas of _high_ pressure to areas of ___low_ pressure.

Near the Equator, the Sun heats the Earth with the greatest intensity. When an area
of Earth’s surface is heated, the air above it is warmed which causes it to rise and
move towards the Poles.

As warm air rises, it cools off since it gets farther away from the warm Earth,
therefore it becomes more dense than the warm air, falls back towards the surface
and moves to replace the warm air from the Equator.

The circular current formed by the rising warm air and falling cool air is a convection
current. This pattern of convection currents is repeated closer to the poles, creating
three closed sets of convection currents (called cells) at approximately 0º, 30º, and
60º latitude.

Wind patterns can be understood as the combination of the convection currents

previously described and the Coriolis effect; the deflection of objects caused by the
Earth’s rotation from _west to east_. Wind is named with respect to the direction
that it originated from (ex. wind from BC to Ontario is moving East, but it is coming
from the west therefore it is called “west winds” or “__westerlies____”)

The ___jet stream______ is a 60º Easterlies

ribbon of extremely fast

moving air near the top of
the troposphere caused by 30º
Prevailing Westerlies
the contact of cold and
warm air masses. The polar
jet stream forms at the
0º
boundary between the Tradewinds

warmer prevailing westerlies Equator

and the cooler polar Tradewinds

easterlies.
30º

Ocean Currents
Prevailing Westerlies

60º

Ocean currents are __movements of seawater_______ and are important for weather
and climate since they occupy so much of the Earth’s surface. Ocean current patterns
can be explained by:

 Wind patterns
 Earth’s rotation
 Temperature differences
 Salinity differences
 Density differences
 Sape of continents and ocean
 Weather vs Climate

What is weather?

Weather includes all of the atmospheric conditions that

occur over a ____short period____ of time (i.e., an hour,
day, or week).

__meteorologists____ are scientists who study the

weather, and use the following information to describe
the weather:

 temperature
 air pressure
 humidity
 wind speed and direction
 precipitation

In some areas the daily weather is the same, like the Sahara Desert where it is always
hot and dry. In Canada, the weather changes, sometimes dramatically from day to
day. Weather data has been collected since the 1800’s, using weather stations,
weather balloons, aircraft, and satellites.

Interactions between water, air and land on Earth and energy from the Sun all
contribute to weather.

What is climate?

Climate is the usual, or average, pattern of weather in a

region ____over a long period of time__________.

___climatologists___ are scientists who collect weather

measurements made over _30_ years or more and average the results to study the
climate.

The climate of a region gives a range of temperatures that would be expected at a

certain time of the year, and whether you can expect rain, snow, or high winds in
certain seasons. The climate of a region determines the weather you can expect over
many years.

“Climate is what you expect, but weather is what you get”

–Robert Heinlein
Classifying Climate

___Climate____ have been identified since the early 1900's using _temperature___,
___precipitation___ and _____vegetation_____. Wladimir Koeppen identified 5
climate zones, each is subdivided further into _climate types_____.

The 5 climate zones are:

 tropical
 dry
 temperate
 continental
 polar

Moderate
Continental

A graphic representation of an areas expected climate data is called a

_climatograph___. Climatographs are useful because they allow scientists to view
how temperature and precipitation change throughout the year and to compare
weather patterns in different locations.

Factors that Affect the Earth’s Climate:

1) Solar energy

The amount of solar energy that reaches the Earth’s surface depends on a number of
factors:
____solar output______ - the amount of energy produced by the Sun fluctuates by
about 0.1% every
_11 years
(“sunspot
cycle”).

___axial tilt_______ -
Earth’s axis of
rotation is tilted at an
angle of about
_23.5 degrees__.
This, combined
with its annual orbit
around the Sun,
produces our
seasons.
_____Eccentricity________ - change in shape of the Earth’s orbit due to the
gravitational pull of the other planets (_especially Jupiter___) is a __100000___ year
cycle.

Obliquity - the angle of the

Earth’s tilt varies by about
2.4O ; a greater degree of tilt
means greater temperature
differences between summer
and winter (__41000_ year
cycle)

__Precession__ - the Earth is not a perfect sphere, it wobbles slightly as it rotates (like
a wobbly top). This determines whether the two hemispheres (N & S) will have similar
contrasts between seasons, or if one will have greater differences than the other.

__Latitude__ - because of the spherical

shape of the Earth, areas close to the
equator receive more direct, intense
sunlight than areas closer to the poles.
2) Atmosphere & air movement

Earth’s atmosphere extends __100 km__ up from its surface, and is composed mainly
of N2, O2, and CO2 gases.

The _____greenhouse effect________ is a natural part of Earth’s climate system which

helps keep temperature fluctuations within a certain range.

The movement of air from areas of _high_ to _low__ pressure (a.k.a. “_wind_”)
transfers energy around the world and affects the ocean currents and precipitation
patterns. Wind is caused by the uneven heating of the Earth’s surface and the rotation
of the Earth (___coriolis effect_____).

3) Water ice and reflectivity

Oceans and lakes act as “heat reservoirs” (they hold in heat) because water has a high
_____heat capacity________

Ice and snow reflect heat because their light colour increases their __albedo____
(ability to reflect light). __melting_ ice and snow would result in _increased
absoption_____ of radiant energy.

4) Plate Tectonics & volcano

The Earth's outer layer is composed of massive pieces of sold rock knows as _tectonic
plates_____ Tectonic plates move a few ___centimetres____ each year. This affects
air and water circulation which transfer energy around the globe.

_____Volcanoes____ release ash and other particles which __reflect_ radiation and
have a _cooling____ effect on the climate. The 1815 eruption of Tambora in the
Philippines cause the “Year Without Summer.” Some types of volcanic eruptions may
_increase____ global temperatures by releasing __greenhouse____ gases.

5) Human influence

The current change in climate is at least partly ___anthropogenic____ (relating to or

resulting from the influence of humans). The _____industrial revolution______
started in the late 1700’s/early 1800s. New machines were invented to do work for us
by burning __fossil_ __fuels___ (automobiles, trains, ships, aircraft, factories,
farming/mining equipment, furnaces, etc...) When fossil fuels are burned to release
_energy__, they release _CO2__ and other _greenhouse gases___ into the
atmosphere as a waste product. Many of these gases affect the natural process that
produces the greenhouse effect.
 The Greenhouse Effect

Earth’s climate system maintains Earth’s temperature by __absorbing___ energy from

the Sun and distributing the energy around the world.

A lot of the __incoming (shortwave)__ radiation from the Sun that passes through
the atmosphere is absorbed by the Earth’s surface, and as a result, the Earth’s
surface __warms___.

 The Earth emits ____long wave___ radiation (IR: infrared radiation), which is trapped
by the _greenhouse gases__ in the atmosphere.

 Atmospheric gases then radiate the energy in all directions, which means that about
_50%_ of the radiation gets sent back toward Earth’s surface warming the Earth even
more.

 The Greenhouse Effect is a natural process in which gases

and clouds _absorb_ IR emitted from Earth’s surface and radiates it, heating the
atmosphere & Earth’s surface. It is the phenomenon that keeps temperatures on our
planet consistent during the day and night.

Greenhouse Gases

 Most of the atmosphere is ___nitrogen (N)____ (78%) and __Oxygen (O)__ (21%)
neither of which absorbs radiation from the surface of the Earth.

 The greenhouse effect is caused by the gases that make up _1%_ of the atmosphere,
called the ___greenhouse gases___.

 The contribution of a greenhouse gas to the greenhouse effect depends on its

___concentration__ in the atmosphere and by how much __energy___ each
molecule of gas can absorb.
1) Water vapour, H2O(g) – accounts for _60%_ of the natural greenhouse effect. The
concentration of H2O in the atmosphere is temperature dependent and ranges
between __trace_ amounts and _4%_ of the atmosphere. As Earth’s temperature
increases, more liquid water becomes water __vapour_ and the _warmer__ air can
hold more water vapour. Water vapour can __increase the greenhouse effect__,
which further heats up the Earth. This is a _positive_ feedback loop.

AB
BBB  AAAA positive feedback
loop
Negative feedback loop
AAAA -> B
B -> A

2) Carbon Dioxide, CO2(g) –

accounts for __0.04%__ of the
atmosphere, but is thought to
account for ¼ of the natural
greenhouse effect on Earth.
Since the __industrial
revolution___, the
concentration of CO2 has
increased from __~280 ppm
to over ~420 ppm__.
Natural sources of CO2 include _volcanoes, respiration (breathing of animals
etc)_, and __decay___.

The ___carbon cycle___ is the movement of carbon between the lithosphere,

hydrosphere, atmosphere and living things. __Photosynthetic organisms
(plants and algae)__ are important __carbon sinks__ in that they remove CO2
from the atmosphere and convert it to other forms of carbon.

3) Methane, CH4(g) – even though there is much less methane in the atmosphere
than H2O or CO2, the methane molecules __absorb more___ thermal energy than a
molecule of CO2. This makes methane _over 20 times__ more powerful than CO2
as a greenhouse gas. Since the Industrial Age, the methane concentration has
increased from __~700 ppb to over ~1900 ppb___. It is formed by natural
sources such as __bacterial decomposition_____ in swamps and __digestive
systems of animals (livestock)____.

4) Ozone, O3(g) – Naturally, ozone is found in the _stratosphere__

where it protects the Earth from _UV_ rays from the Sun. Ozone is
found in the __stratosphere__ in varying concentrations, and here
it acts as a greenhouse gas.

5) Nitrous Oxide, N2O(g) – N2O molecules radiate much more energy

than other greenhouse gases, it is almost __300 times__ more
effective than CO2. This ability of N2O to trap high levels of energy
is balanced by its extremely __low concentration_____ in the
atmosphere. The concentration of N2O has increased from
____270ppb to 335 ppb__ since the industrial revolution. It is produced by natural
sources such as __soil bacteria_, and is also a _fertilizer by-product___.
 What is the Enhanced Greenhouse Effect?

When there is a change in the amounts of the greenhouse gases there can be a
disruption in the _energy balance_ of the climate system. This causes the Earth’s
temperature to _increase__.

GLOBAL WARMING is the __increase___ in the _average_ temperature of Earth’s

near-surface air and oceans since the mid-20 th century and its
projected continuation.

CLIMATE CHANGE is the _change_ in the statistical distribution of _weather

patterns_ over periods of time that range from decades to
millions of years. Climate change is a result of global
warming!!

What are the sources of the Greenhouse Gases?

“There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50
years is attributable to _human activities__” (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change, January 2001)

Evidence points to an increase in the greenhouse gases, H 2O, CO2, CH4, N2O, which
accounts for __most observed warming____.

There is a strong correlation between the atmospheric _CO2_

concentrations and global temperature __increase___.

Relatively small changes in average temperatures can have

huge consequences. During the last Ice Age, about 20 000
years ago, average temperatures were __5-6°C cooler___
than they are today, but the _oceans__ were only __2-3°C
___ colder.
 Evidence of Global Warming

 Earth’s climate has always changed over time

 Recent changes have not been experienced for _thousands of years__.
 This time, scientists believe changes are happening because of __human
activity___ (___anthropogenic causes__).

Rising Temperatures

 Daily temperatures have been recorded since the 1800’s

 Annual average temperature each year can be graphed
 By 2006, _9_ of the previous _10_ years, was the _warmest on record_.
__Canada___ has warmed up by _~1.7°C __ in the past _60_ years.

Rising Sea Levels

 Sea levels have been rising almost __twice__ as fast as during previous
warm periods, this can result in _coastal flooding__.
 Melting glaciers can cause sea levels to _rise__.
 As water temperatures increase, warm water _expands____
 Water may be coming from North America, where levels of __groundwater___ have
dropped.
 If the ice sheet covering Greenland were to melt, sea levels would rise __by 7
meters_.
 An increased amount of water in the oceans has changed the _pH_ from _basic_ to
_acidic_.

Melting Glaciers and Ice

 Average size of glaciers is _shrinking__ as global

temperatures rise
 Water from melting glaciers runs to the oceans, provides fresh
drinking water for almost _~40%_ of the world’s population.
 If glaciers disappeared, there would be a _water
shortages___.
 Ice and snow in the polar regions (Antarctica, Greenland) is
melting.

Severe Weather

 __heat waves____ are becoming more intense; a massive heat wave in Europe
(2003) caused 1000’s of deaths not to mention the destruction of
Hurricane Katrina (2005)
 Warmer ocean temperatures lead to more __powerful__ hurricanes,
there are _twice_ the number of category 4-5 hurricanes in the last
__30 years__

Precipitation

 Rising temperatures mean more __evaporation____.

 The precipitation is heavier, with ___downpours and flooding____.
 There are increasing levels of precipitation in some areas such as __Canada_, and
less precipitation in drier areas such as _Africa__

Changing Seasons

 Seasons are __shifting earlier__.

 Less cold days worldwide, and frosty nights _starting later__ and ending
___earlier__.
 Many areas have ___growing seasons__, beneficial for farmers.

Changing Ecosystems

 Many trees, shrubs and other plants are __flowering___ earlier than usual.
 Animals are __migrating___ earlier.
 Animals and plants are slowly _moving__ toward __north___ and ___to higher
elevations___ as these areas warm up, changing ecosystems. This can lead to
problems if the insects and plants are pests.