We define the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector as
R ⃗ − mk⃗r .
⃗ = (⃗p × L) (1)
r
Taking the time derivative,
⃗
dR
= (p⃗˙ × L) ⃗˙ − mk d
⃗ + p⃗ × L ⃗r
, (2)
dt dt r
⃗ − mk d ⃗r ,
= (p⃗˙ × L)
dt r
⃗ is a constant of motion.
since L
Let us take, in general,
f (r)⃗r
p⃗˙ = . (3)
r
Then,
⃗ = f (r)⃗r × (⃗r × p⃗),
p⃗˙ × L (4)
r
f (r)⃗r
= × (⃗r × m⃗r˙ ),
r
mf (r) h ˙
i
= ⃗r × (⃗r × ⃗r) .
r
Expanding the triple product,
h i
⃗ = mf (r) ⃗r˙ (⃗r · ⃗r˙ ) − ⃗r(⃗r˙ · ⃗r˙ ) ,
p⃗ × L (5)
h i
˙ ˙
= mf (r) ⃗r(⃗r · ⃗r) − ⃗rṙ . 2
Now,
d
⃗r · ⃗r˙ = 1
2
(⃗r · ⃗r), (6)
dt
d
= 12 (r2 ),
dt
= rṙ.
1
So,
" #
⃗
r˙
⃗ = mf (r) ⃗r˙ rṙ − r2 ,
p⃗ × L (7)
r
" #
ṙ ⃗
r˙
= mf (r)r2 ⃗r˙ − ,
r r
!
d ˙
⃗
r
= −mf (r)r2 .
dt r
Therefore, !
⃗
dR d ⃗r˙
= −mf (r)r2 . (8)
dt dt r
For the inverse-square central force,
k k
−f (r) = − ⇒ V (r) = − . (9)
r2 r
Thus,
⃗
dR
= 0, (10)
dt
⃗ is conserved for the Kepler potential V (r) = −k/r.
which shows that R
Physical Significance of Different Trajectories
The conservation of the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector R ⃗ in the inverse-square
central force problem provides deep insight into the geometry of particle
trajectories. Its direction points along the major axis of the orbit, while its
magnitude encodes the eccentricity e of the trajectory.
Bound States (E < 0)
For negative total energy, the trajectory is an ellipse:
• R⃗ points toward the perihelion (closest approach).
• The magnitude |R|
⃗ = mke directly relates to the orbital eccentricity.
• Circular orbit corresponds to e = 0 and hence R
⃗ = 0.
2
Critical Case (E = 0)
At zero total energy, the trajectory is parabolic:
• The particle just escapes the potential well.
• R
⃗ remains conserved and fixes the axis of symmetry of the parabola.
Unbound States (E > 0)
For positive total energy, the trajectory is hyperbolic:
• R
⃗ determines the orientation of the hyperbola.
• The eccentricity e > 1 is encoded in |R|.
⃗
• Physically, this corresponds to scattering states where the particle de-
flects by a finite angle.
Summary
Thus, the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector not only guarantees integrability of
the Kepler problem but also provides a geometric classification of trajectories:
e=0 Circle,
0 < e < 1 Ellipse,
e=1 Parabola,
e>1 Hyperbola.
Its conservation explains why planetary orbits are closed conic sections
and why scattering in Coulomb or gravitational fields follows hyperbolic
paths.