Stages and Types of Memory
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) suggested that there are three types of memory storage
systems:
1. Sensory Memory
2. Short-Term Memory (STM)
3. Long-Term Memory (LTM)
1. Sensory Memory
Sensory memory keeps information that comes through our five senses (such as what we
see, hear, smell, taste, and touch) for only one or two seconds.
The main purpose of sensory memory is to hold information for a very short time so that
the brain can start processing it. The information stored in sensory memory disappears
very quickly, but it stays long enough for us to recognize what we have seen or heard.
For example, when we listen to someone talking, our auditory sensory memory (hearing
memory) helps us hear the words as a smooth and continuous conversation instead of
separate sounds.
Before these sensory memories disappear, some information must receive our attention
so that it can move into Short-Term Memory (STM).
2. Short-Term Memory (STM)
For information to enter Short-Term Memory, we must pay attention to it. Every day we
receive many sights, sounds, and other sensory information, but only the information that
gets our attention can move into a more lasting memory.
Once a stimulus is recognized, it is likely to be transferred to Short-Term Memory (STM).
The information in STM stays available for a longer time than in sensory memory.
STM acts as a bridge between sensory memory and long-term memory. Because it helps
us think, solve problems, and perform mental activities, many psychologists prefer to call
it Working Memory instead of Short-Term Memory.
Working memory helps people do most of their mental tasks, such as thinking,
understanding, solving problems, and remembering information for a short time.
When information enters memory, it is stored in different forms called codes. These codes
can be:
• Visual code (pictures or images)
• Acoustic code (sounds)
• Semantic code (meanings)
The small amount of information that Short-Term Memory can hold for a short time is
called the Immediate Memory Span.
The most important feature of STM is that it has a limited capacity. On average, a person
can remember 7 items, plus or minus 2. This is written as 7 ± 2. It means most people can
remember about 5 to 9 items at one time.
If the information is not repeated or practiced (rehearsed), it is forgotten very quickly.
Information that is not rehearsed usually stays in Short-Term Memory for only about 20
seconds.
3. Long-Term Memory (LTM)
Long-Term Memory contains all the knowledge and experiences a person has collected
throughout life. It stores information for a very long time, and in many cases, for a lifetime.
Long-Term Memory is the main storage place of everything we have learned or
experienced. It includes:
• Past experiences and events
• Facts and information
• Emotions and feelings
• Skills and abilities
• Words and language
• Categories and concepts
• Rules and principles
• Judgments and decisions
In simple words, Long-Term Memory stores almost everything we know about ourselves
and the world around us.
Types of Long-Term Memory
Long-term memory is divided into two main types:
1. Declarative (Explicit) Memory
2. Non-Declarative (Procedural) Memory
1. Declarative (Explicit) Memory
Declarative memory, also called explicit memory, is the memory of facts and events that
we can remember and explain consciously. It includes information that we can easily
bring to our mind and tell other people.
For example, remembering your school name, your birthday, the capital of a country, or
what you did yesterday are all examples of declarative memory.
Declarative memory has two main types:
a) Episodic Memory
Episodic memory is the memory of personal experiences and events that happened in
our own life. It helps us remember when, where, and what happened.
For example:
• Your first day at university.
• Your last birthday celebration.
• A family trip.
• An enjoyable picnic with friends.
These memories are connected with time, place, and personal experiences.
b) Semantic Memory
Semantic memory is the memory of general knowledge, facts, meanings, and
concepts. It is not connected with personal experiences.
It includes the information we learn from books, school, teachers, and daily life.
For example:
• Islamabad is the capital of Pakistan.
• Water freezes at 0°C.
• The meaning of different words.
• Mathematical formulas and scientific facts.
Semantic memory helps us remember information that is useful in our daily life and
education.
2. Non-Declarative (Procedural) Memory
Non-declarative memory, also called procedural memory, stores the memory of skills
and actions that we perform automatically after practice. We usually do not have to think
carefully while using these skills.
This type of memory helps us perform activities that become easy through repeated
practice.
For example:
• Riding a bicycle.
• Driving a car.
• Swimming.
• Typing on a keyboard.
• Playing a musical instrument.
Non-declarative memory has one main type:
Implicit Memory
Implicit memory is the memory that works without our conscious effort. It helps us
perform learned skills automatically without thinking about each step.
Once a skill is learned through practice, it becomes part of implicit memory.
For example, when you ride a bicycle, you do not think about how to balance it. Similarly,
while typing or writing your name, you perform these actions automatically because they
have become part of your implicit memory.