Welsh Lessons

© Antone Minard, 2016

This series of lessons is designed to accompany the Welsh courses I offer through the Vancouver Welsh
Society, currently scheduled to meet once a week for two ten-week terms. They are designed to supplement the class
meetings, or to substitute if you have missed a meeting, or just to serve as a reference.

Because heritage language learners all come with different abilities and progress at different paces, each lesson is
divided into three sections: Level A for Beginners, Level B for Intermediate, and Level C for advanced. Each lesson
starts with a flowchart to help you assess your level for that particular lesson.

This is a work in progress, and over the next year or so I will be adding dialogues, exercises, and example quotes
from Welsh songs and folklore, and if I can find someone to contribute, illustrations. If there are errors, or if you
find something confusing, please contact me at [Link]@[Link].

The Welsh Lessons here are meant to complement your other learning tools. There are a lot of great resources
online, such as the Say Something in Welsh course ([Link] The awesome
duolingo now has Welsh; it’s not perfect, but it’s very effective for progress in the early stages.

Finally, of course, if you’re not a member of the Vancouver Welsh Society, why not join via Paypal as a thank you?
Only $20 per year for an out-of-area membership.
 Lesson Eleven: Conjugated Perfect
Diagnostic Page, Lesson 11

No: Go to Level A
Question 1:
Do you know the difference
between gwelais
and gwelodd ?
Yes: See Question 2

No: Go to Level B
Question 2:
Can you conjugate mynd in the
preterite tense (es i, etc.) ?
Yes: See Question 3

No: Go to Level C
Question 3:
Do you know the difference
between canodd and canasai?
Yes:
Skip Lesson Eleven
 Lesson Eleven, Level A
Welsh verbs can be used in two main ways:
1. in a periphrastic construction, where bod or another auxiliary verb is conjugated (changes form: in red), but the verb
that carries the meaning remains a verb-noun (and doesn’t change form: in blue): Mae Nia wedi canu “Nia sang.”
2. where the verb itself is conjugated, and there is no need to use bod or another auxiliary: Canodd Nia “Nia sang.”

There is no difference in meaning between Mae Nia wedi canu and Canodd Nia. The spoken language prefers the periphrastic
construction, but sometimes uses the conjugated verb; the literary language prefers the conjugated verb, but sometimes uses
the periphrastic construction.

A verb is conjugated by adding a set of endings to the stem of the verb. Most stems are easy to predict: lop off the ending,
usually the last letter if the verb-noun ends in a vowel, and there it is. Common endings are:

No ending: agor (stem agor–) bwyta (stem bwyta–) chwarae (stem chwarae–)
-ed cerdd·ed (stem cerdd–) clyw·ed (stem clyw–) yf·ed (stem yf–)
-i cod·i (stem cod–) golch·i (stem golch–) llosg·i (stem llosg–)
-o cofi·o (stem cofi–) ffôni·o (stem ffôni–) nofi·o (stem nofi–)
-u can·u (stem can–) car·u (stem car–) pryn·u (stem pryn–) tal·u (stem tal–)
-yd cymer·yd (stem cymer–) dywed·yd (stem dywed–)

Most verbs end in -(I)O or -U, and have easily predictable stems. There are, however, dozens and dozens of endings, and
many exceptions to the rules. If there is an -I- between stem and ending, sometimes it is also dropped and sometimes it isn’t.
As with nouns, it is helpful to learn all the options when learning the word: learn the stem when you learn the verb-noun. The
Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru (University of Wales Dictionary) is good for this: if you search for a verb-noun, the entry will be
listed under the conjugated first-person singular, which is the stem + -AF, and the verb-noun follows a colon. So talu, for
example, is TALAF: TALU.

To form the preterite tense [the perfect aspect of the past tense, i.e. not the imperfect]—the one that is equivalent to (ry)dw i
wedi, rwyt ti wedi, mae e wedi, etc.—the following endings are added:
-ais, -aist, -odd, -asom, -asoch, -asant (Literary);
-es i, -est ti, -odd e / hi, -on ni, -och chi, -on nhw (Spoken).
It is best to learn the literary forms, in bold below, because you can easily derive the spoken forms from them. In the most
formal registers, an A in the stem sometimes changes to E, but this is rare in the modern language. The alternative
ending -ws, cognate with Irish and Breton -as, shows up rarely in older or dialectal sources.

CAN·U Formal Literary Welsh Literary Welsh Spoken Welsh

I sang cen·ais (A in the stem raises to E) can·ais can·es i (AI→E)
You (s.) sang cen·aist (A in the stem raises to E) can·aist can·est ti (AI→E)
He / she sang can·odd (or can·ws) can·odd can·odd e / hi
We sang can·asom can·asom can·on ni (AS→⊘; M→N)
You (pl.) sang can·asoch can·asoch can·och chi (AS→⊘)
They sang can·asant can·asant can·on nhw (AS→⊘;A→O;T→⊘)

In the literary language, the conjugated verb forms omit the pronouns, because each form is distinct. The verb forms take the
particles yr (positive), niH/L (negative), and aL (interrogative). In the spoken language, they take the positive particles miL
(North Wales) and feL (South Wales), as can be seen in Welsh nursery rhymes:

Mi welais jac-y-do I saw (gwel·d) a jackdaw (jac-y-do)

Fe syrthiodd clochdy’r Bermo The clocktower (clochdy) at Barmouth (Abermaw→Y Bermo) fell (syrthi·o)
The negative can be prefexed by niH/L, nid before vowels, but more often just has the appropriate mutation and adds ddim
after the subject. Another traditional rhyme contrasts the imperfect of the defective verb medd (stem medd·) “says” and the
preterite of wed·yd, also “says.” Wedyd is a dialectal form of dywed·yd (literary) or dweud (spoken).

“Wel,” meddai Wil wrth y wal “Well,” said Will to the wall;
Wedodd y wal ddim wrth Wil. The wall said nothing to Will.

For both particles, negative niL and interrogative aL, another example:

Ni welais i byth mo’m dafad, I haven’t seen (gwel·d) my sheep at all (lit. I never saw my sheep)
Ys gwn i a welsoch chwi? I wonder whether you have seen it?

Note the mutations: they tend to stick around whether the particle is expressed or not.

Positive: No mutation (literary); direct object takes the soft mutation.

(Y) Canais i gân hyfryd I sang a lovely song (cân)

Soft mutation (colloquial); direct object takes the soft mutation.

(Fe / Mi) Ganais i gân hyfryd I sang a lovely song (cân)

Interrogative: Soft mutation; direct object also takes the soft mutation.
(A) Ganais i gân hyfryd? Did I sing a lovely song? (cân)

Negative: Aspirate mutation if possible (literary); dim is mutated, and the direct object is not.
(Ni) Chanais i ddim cân hyfryd I did not sing a lovely song (cân)

Soft mutation if aspirate is not possible; dim is mutated, and the direct object is not.
(Ni) Welais i ddim cath hyfryd I did not see a lovely cat (cath)

(There’s another rule that if the object of a negative verb is definite—with y or a proper noun—you have to say ddim o,
which is often shortened to mo as in the sheep quote above.)

Vocabulary:

Frequency

defnyddio (defnyddi·), v. use

unrhyw un, pron. anyone
unrhyw beth, pron. anything
cymdeithas, -au, f. society
ardal, -oedd, m. region; neighbourhood
cwrs, cyrsiau, m. course
dyna, adv. there is; then
dyma, adv. here is

Theme: Body (Head and Hand)

pen, pennau, n.m, head

wyneb, -au, n.m. face
gwelltyn, gwallt, n.m., hair (head hair)
llygad, llygaid, n.m., eye
clust, -iau, n.m., ear
trwyn, -au, n.m., nose
ceg, cegau, n.f., mouth
dant, dannedd, n.m., tooth
llaw, dwylo, n.f., hand
bys, -edd, n.m., finger

Dialogue:

Useful patterns to memorize:

Ganodd Nia? Did Nia sing?

Fe ganodd Nia. (South Wales) Nia sang.
Mi ganodd Nia. (North Wales) Nia sang.
Ni chanodd Nia. Nia did not sing.

Exercise 1: Change the periphrastic preterite into the conjugated preterite:

1. Mae hi wedi gweld blodau ar y bryn.

2. Dyw Owain ddim wedi clywed y cerddoriaeth.
3. Dw i wedi bwyta gormod.
4. Wyt ti wedi gweld dy famgu / dy nain dros y Nadolig?
5. Pwy sy wedi ysgrifennu y llythr?
6. Ydych chi wedi galw dy ffrind?
7. Maen nhw wedi cael profiad gwych.
8. Dydyn nhw ddim wedi cael profiad gwych.
9. Wnes i ddarllen y llyfr eisioes.
10. Dw i wedi cael fy nhalu ganddo.
 Lesson Eleven, Level B
The preterite (past tense, perfect aspect) of the irregular verbs can be tricky, especially with bod. In English, we do not have a
preterite form of “to be.” I was is imperfect, and the only ways to indicate that we were but aren’t still is to say I used to be or
I have been. You can’t really say something like “I did be” or “I been” in the standard language.

Sometimes the distinction is useful. Gravestones, such as the one at left for
Welsh Society member Hannah Lampshire-Jones, often say bu farw — “she
died.” Roedd hi’n marw would mean “she was dying,” but by the time it is
etched on a gravestone, the process is pretty much complete.

A famous sixth-century poem uses this tense, when the bard Taliesin lists a
series of transformations he has undergone in order to achieve his poetic
awesomeness. The implication is that each phase of transformation happened,
but that he transformed back afterward.

Middle Welsh Literary Welsh

ûm hynt, bûm eryr I have been a path, I have been an eagle
ûm corwg ym môr I have been a coracle at sea
ûm darwedd yn llad I have been a bubble in ale
ûm dos yng nghawod I have been a drop in the rain-shower
ûm cleddyf yn angad I have been a sword in a grasp
ûm ysgwyd yng nghad I have been a shield in battle
ûm tant yn nhelyn I have been a string in a harp

In Welsh, the literary forms of the irregular verbs have changed somewhat in the spoken language, notably in the singular:
bues i and buodd e in place of bûm and bu.

Bod Literary Colloquial Variants

I bûm bues i buais
you (s) buost buest ti buaist
he / she bu buodd fe / hi
we buom buon ni
you (pl) buoch buoch chi
they buont buon nhw buant

Mynd Literary Colloquial Variants

I euthum es i
you (s) aethost est ti
he / she aeth aeth e / hi
we aethom aethon ni
you (pl) aethoch aethoch chi
they aethant aethon nhw aethont

Dod Literary Colloquial Variants

I deuthum des i dois i
you (s) daethost dest ti doist ti
he / she daeth daeth e / hi
we daethom daethon ni delon ni, deson ni, dethon ni
you (pl) daethoch daethoch chi deloch chi, desoch chi, dethoch chi
they daethant daethon nhw daethont, delon nhw, deson nhw, dethon nhw
 Gwneud Literary Colloquial Variants
I gwneuthum gwnes i many variants:
you (s) gwnaethost gwnest ti gwn– → gn– or → n–
he / she gwnaeth gwnaeth e / hi –ae– → –e–
we gwnaethom gwnaethon ni –th– → –l–
you (pl) gwnaethoch gwnaethoch chi or –th– → –s–
they gwnaethant gwnaethon nhw

Cael Literary Colloquial Variants

I cefais ces i
you (s) cefaist cest ti
he / she cafodd cafodd fe / hi cas, cadd, cafas, caeth e
we cawsom cawson ni caen ni, caethon ni, cafon ni
you (pl) cawsoch cawsoch chi caech chi, caethoch chi, cafoch chi
they cawsant cawson nhw caen nhw, caethon nhw, cafon nhw

Vocabulary:

Frequency

peidio (peidi·), v. stop, cease; don’t

dylu (dyl·), v. ought, should [defective verb; typically found only in imperfect and pluperfect tenses]
cenedl, cenhedloedd, f. generation, nation
dull, -iau, m. style, means, manner
canol, -au, m. / adj. centre, middle

Theme: Body (Head and Hand)

blewyn, blew, n.m., hair (not on the head)

boch, -au, n.f., cheek
dant, dannedd, n.m., tooth
tafod, -au, n.m., tongue
ymennydd, n.m., brain / brains (pl. -iau)
bawd, bodiau, n.m., thumb
bys blaen, index finger
bys canol, middle finger
bys modrwy, ring finger
bys bach, little finger / pinkie
ewin, -edd, m. nail
dwrn, dyrnau, n.m., fis
 Lesson Eleven, Level C
There is one further past tense beyond the imperfect and the preterite, the pluperfect. This moves the action one step further
into the past: before the action of the imperfect or the perfect, and two steps before the present. In English, “I had been” or
“He had eaten” vs. “He was” or “he ate.”

In Welsh, because wedi wedi is, at best, confusing, the periphrastic works similar to English: the imperfect of bod “be,” but
with the verb-noun linked by wedi.

Mae Nia yn bwyta “Nia eats” / “Nia is eating” Bod is present, link is yn: present
Roedd Nia yn bwyta “Nia was eating” Bod is imperfect; link is yn: imperfect
Mae Nia wedi bwyta “Nia ate” / “Nia has eaten” Bod is present, link is wedi: preterite
Roedd Nia wedi bwyta “Nia had eaten.” Bod is imperfect, link is wedi: pluperfect

Or, put another way:

Verb tenses yn wedi
Present tense of bod present preterite
Imperfect tense of bod imperfect pluperfect

The pluperfect endings of conjugated verbs are recognizable by the -AS- in the middle, also found in the plural literary forms
of the preterite. As usual, in the spoken language, the we and they forms fall together. The pluperfect endings for standard
verbs, plus the five irregulars, are shown in the table below.

pluperfect endings bod mynd dod gwneud cael (compare the perfect)
I -aswn buaswn aethwn daethwn gwnaethwn cawswn
You (s) -asit buasit aethit daethit gwnaethit cawsit
He / She -asai buasai aethai daethai gwnaethai cawsai
We -asem > -asen buasem aethem daethem gwnaethem cawsem (-asom > -ason > -on)
You (pl) -asech buasech aethech daethech gwnaethech cawsech (-asoch > -och)
They -asent > -asen buasent aethent daethent gwnaethent cawsent (-asant > ason > -on)

There are a few variants: a stem (d)el- for (d)aeth- which adds the regular endings, though occasionally dropping the -a- in
-as- (so elaswn / elswn, elasit / elsit, etc.); gwn- is prone to losing its initial consonants. In general, though, the conjugated
forms are found in written Welsh, where editors try to keep to the forms given above.

Vocabulary

Frequency

ymddangos (ymddangos·), v. appear

ffaith, ffeithiau, f. fact
dŵr / dyfr, dyfroedd, m. water
hytrach, adv. rather; instead

Theme: Body (Head and Hand)

talcen, -ni, n.m., forehead

ael, -iau, n.f., eyebrow
amrant, amrannau, n.m., eyelid
ffroen, -au, n.m., nostril
gwefus, -au, n.f., lip
gên, genau, n.m., jaw
pen·glo, -gau, n.f., skull
migwrn, migyrnau, n.m., knuckle (can also be “ankle”)
cledr llaw, cledrau dwylo, n.f., palm
arddwrn, arddyrnau, n.m., wrist
 Lesson Twelve: The Future
Diagnostic Page, Lesson 12

No: Go to Level A
Question 1:
Can you say “Nia will sing” in
Welsh without using mynd ?
Yes: See Question 2

No: Go to Level B
Question 2:
Can you say “Nia will sing” in
Welsh without using mynd or
bydd ? Yes: See Question 3

No: Go to Level C
Question 3:
Can you identify the verbs that
gwrendy and erys come from?
Yes:
Skip Lesson Twelve
 Lesson Twelve, Level A
The ordinary way of forming the future in Welsh is with the periphrastic of bod, formed with the root bydd-:

I will* Byddaf i (more colloquially, bydda’ i ) [*or “shall”; I’m ignoring the shall / will issue in English]
you (s) will Byddi di
he / she /it will Bydd e / hi
Note the soft mutation for the negative and for the
we will Byddwn ni
interrogative: (A) Fyddi di? = Will you be?
you (pl) will Byddwch chi (Ni) Fydd e ddim = He won’t be.
they will Byddan nhw (more formally, byddant)

With the linking verb yn, this forms the future; with wedi, the future anterior or future perfect (that is to say, a period in time
after the present but before something else in the future):

Bydd Nia yn canu, “Nia will sing / Nia will be singing” (Nia will be in the state of singing)
Bydd Nia wedi canu, “Nia will have sung” (Nia will be in the state of having sung)

Alert: Be particularly careful of the first person, as byddwn i means “I would be,” while byddwn ni means “we will be.” Be
careful to sound both Ns in the future tense! Think of the difference between green ale vs. green nail.

Practically speaking, there is not much difference between Mae Nia yn mynd i ganu and Bydd Nia yn canu, but the latter is
several orders of magnitude more common, and incidentally makes the future perfect easier: it is much more awkward to say
Mae Nia yn mynd i fod wedi canu.

The endings attached to bydd- here are really the endings for the conjugated present. Welsh, like English, historical lacks a
dedicated future tense. (If you think about it, English has to use “shall” or “will.” This isn’t uncommon for Indo-European
languages.) Welsh made its future out of a tense form which has no equivalent in English, the consuetudinal or habitual
present. It is used for things which happen over time: regular activities, habits, customs, and repeated activities, which
naturally stretch beyond the present into both past and future. This meaning still survives for the bydd- forms, especially in
Literary Welsh.

For example, a lovely sentence from an 1886 story meant to be inspirational reads:

Ni bydd* fy mam yn fy ngharu pan y byddaf yn ddrwg “My mother doesn’t love me when I am bad.” *sic: recte ni fydd.

It would be incorrect to translate this as “Mother will not love me when I will be bad”; the context is a little Victorian girl
whining inspirationally to her grandmother about her current relationship with her mother. (Apparently God, like Grandma,
loves his children even when they are bad. Mam is cut from sterner cloth.) Note that it is implied that the girl is bad on
multiple occasions, past and future, but not that she is always bad or even that she is regularly bad. The story, “Dylanwad
Cariad” (“The Influence of Love”) can be found in Y Cyfaill [The Friend] from March, 1886, p. 104; the full text is available
online.

A more practical example comes from the highway code and road signs: Rhaid i chi stopio pan fydd y golau coch i’w weld,
“you must stop when the red light appears,” and tra bydd golau coch sefwch yma, “while there is a red light, stop here.”
Here, the habitual nature of bydd shows that the red light cycles through periodically. Other parts of Wales say tra bo golau
coch, “while there is a red light,” using the subjunctive.

In the modern spoken language, customary or habitual action is often indicated with the addition of the word arfer,
“custom,” thrown into the sentence adverbially, so that byddaf i’n gwneud is replaced by dw i’n arfer gwneud with the same
meaning. English “will” or “shall” is always translated with the byddaf, byddi, bydd, etc.; “usually” or “habitually” should be
be conveyed by adding arfer after the linking preposition. Going back into English from other peoples’ Welsh, however, the
habitual bydd- should be kept in mind, especially in the set phrases os bydd “if it is. . .” and pan fydd “when it is. . . .”
Vocabulary:

Frequency

troi (tro·), v. turn

ceisio (ceisi·), v. seek, try
popeth, pron. everything
cyngor, cynghorau / cynghorion, m. council
cilydd, n.m. fellow
ei gilydd / eu gilydd, etc. each other
tu, -oedd, m. side
arbennig, adj. special
unig, adj. only; lonely

Theme: Body

blewyn, blew, m. hair (not on the head)

bron, -nau, n.f., breast [note: bron, -nydd, n.f., hill]
dwyfron, n.f., chest
cefn, -au, n.m., back
asgwrn, esgyrn, n.m., bone
calon, -au, n.f., heart
braich, breichiau, n.f., arm
coes, -au, n.f., leg
troed, traed, n.m., foot

Dialogue:

Useful patterns to memorize:

Bydd Nia yn canu. Nia will sing.
Fydd Nia yn canu? Will Nia sing?
Fydd Nia ddim yn canu. Nia will not sing.

Exercise 1: Change the periphrastic future into the conjugated future:

1. Dw i ddim yn mynd i deithio i Gymru.

2. Wyt ti’n mynd i weld y sioe?
3. Dw i’n mynd i ganu cân.
4. Maen nhw’n mynd i fwyta caws.
5. Dych chi’n mynd i ddarllen llyfr?
6. Dych chi ddim yn mynd i ysgrifennu llyfr.
7. Mae Owain yn mynd i brynu teledu newydd.
8. Mae fy nghalon i’n mynd i dorri.
9. Dydy fy nghalon i ddim yn mynd i dorri.
10. Dw i’n mynd i dorri calon rhywun arall!
 Lesson Twelve, Level B
There is also a conjugated present tense in Welsh, with more or less the same endings as the future bydd-. This is one of those
cases where the literary language and the spoken language have moved rather far away from each other. In Literary Welsh,
this tense is both present, and, like bydd, habitual. In Spoken Welsh, this tense can be habitual but primarily has the sense of
the future, except in set expressions.

Literary Welsh North Wales South Wales

-af –a –a
-i* –i –i
–‡ –ith –iff [think CardIFF, South Wales, to remember which is which]
–wn –wn –wn
–wch* –wch –wch
–ant –an –an

*The second person causes the final vowel in the stem to raise. “Raising,” for the ti and chi forms, means that if the stem
vowel’s last syllable is an A, it changes to E. So the verb rydych chi’n canu would be cenwch in very formal Welsh.

‡
In the third person singular, all vowels are subject to change. This form is so complicated that it is being pushed into Level
C. The verb aros (arhos·), for example, becomes erys, as opposed to arhosith / arhosiff.

Literary North Wales South Wales

canaf “I sing” mi gana i fe gana i “I will sing”
ceni mi gani di fe gani di
cân mi ganith o / hi fe ganiff e / hi
canwn mi ganwn ni fe ganwn ni
cenwch mi ganwch chi fe ganwch chi
canant mi ganan nhw fe ganan nhw

Remember that in the living language, the positive particles miL(North Wales) and feL (South Wales) cause the soft mutation,
unlike the literary positive particle yr, so that literary Cân Nia and . . . y cân Nia (as well as Nia a gân) are equivalent to Fe
ganiff Nia. In both spoken and literary language, these forms tend to be used in sentence structures where the conjugated
form simplifies the situation, though it may not feel like that at first!

Literary present: endings mynd dod gwneud cael

Irregular forms
I -af af deuaf > dof gwnaf caf
You (s) -i ei deui > doi gwnei cei
He / She — â daw gwna caiff
(NW colloq., eith) (NW colloq., gwneith) (NW colloq., ceith)
(SW colloq., aiff) (SW colloq., gwnaiff)
We -wn awn deuwn > down gwnawn cawn
You (pl) -wch ewch dewch > dowch gwnewch cewch
They -ant ânt deuant > dônt gwnânt cânt
Colloq. ân Colloq. dôn Colloq. gwnân Colloq. cân

With the irregular verbs, both gwneud and cael are common. As with the preterite, gwneud is an alternative auxiliary verb to
bod: Wnei di ddod? Means the same as Fyddi di’n dod?: “Will you come?” Note the mutations with gwneud, though. In the
same construction, cael is used for permission: Gei di ddod? is “Can you come?” or “Will you be able to come?” Remember
that the negative causes the spirant mutation for cael: Chei di ddim dod, “You won’t be able to come.” Cael, in this sense, is
more like English “may” in that it doesn’t imply physical ability.
The mynd form occurs in the song Ble’r ei di?; I’ve put the conjugated present tense forms in red. Some have a future sense.

B’le’r ei di, b’le’r ei di yr hen dderyn bach? Where are you going, where are you going, little birdie?
I nythu fry ar y goeden. To nest high upon the tree
Pa mor uchel yw y pren? How high is the tree?
Wel dacw fe uwchben. Well, there it is, above.
O mi syrthi, yr hen dderyn bach. Oh, you’ll fall, little birdie.

B’le’r ei di, b’le’r ei di yr hen dderyn bach? Where are you going, where are you going, little birdie?
I rywle i dorri fy nghalon. Somewhere to break my heart.
Pam yr ei di ffwrdd yn syth? Why are you going away right now?
Plant drwg fu’n tynnu’r nyth. Bad children pulled down the nest.
O drueni, yr hen dderyn bach O, poor thing, little birdie.

Vocabulary:

Frequency

torri (torr·), v. cut, break; make (sandwiches)

cymorth (cymhorth·), v. help, assist
swyddog, -ion, m. official
tipyn, tipiau, m. bit, little bit
nes, conj. until

Theme: Body

gwddf, gyddfau, n.f., neck, throat

bol (N), bola (S), boliau, n.m., belly
(y)stumog, -au, n.f., stomach
(y)sgerbwd, (y)sgerbydau, n.m., skeleton
asen, -nau, n.f., rib
ysgyfant, ysgyfaint, n.f., lung
iau, ieuau, n.m. (N), liver
afu, -au, n.m. (S), liver
penelin, -oedd, n.m., elbow
pen·glin, -iau, n.m., knee
bys troed, bysedd traed, n.m., toe
sawdl, sodlau, n.m., heel
 Lesson Twelve, Level C
The third person singular conjugated literary present tense is a challenge. In the first place, as it is a literary form, your daily
vocabulary probably won’t help you to recognize it. It is almost but not quite the bare stem of the verb; there is no ending,
and the vowels tend to shift, so it is doubly difficult: here are some of the shifts that occur.

a→ai; a→ei; a→y; e→y; o→y; a...o→e...y; o...o→e...y; aw→y; ei→ai; o→aw; y→w; y→y [changes sound]

Finally, the initial consonant is subject to mutation, and thus the form occasionally crosses the line into nearly impossible.
Here are a few examples of the more difficult but common literary third-person present tense verbs.

Third-Person Form Verb-Noun (stem·)

â mynd (a·)
bwyty bwyta (bwyta·) [Note: bwyty is also the common word for “restaurant”]
caiff cael (ca·)
cân canu (can·) [Note: cân is also the common word for “song”]
ceidw cadw (cadw·)
cwyd codi (cod·)
cyll colli (coll·) [Note: cyll also means “hazel,” a plural of coll]
daw dod (deu·) [Note: daw also means “son-in-law”]
dail or deil dal (dali·) [Note: dail also means “leaves,” the plural of “leaf”]
deffry deffro (deffr·)
dengys dangos (dangos·)
dyry* rhoi (rho·)
* This one is really just rhy with a leniting prefix dy-, but that doesn’t make it easier to find in a dictionary!
dwg dwyn (dyg·)
edrydd adrodd (adrodd·)
edwyn adnabod (irregular)
eddy addo (addaw·)
egyr agor (agor·)
enfyn anfon (anfon·)
erys aros (arhos·) [not to be confused with the conjunction er ys, “since”]
etyb ateb (ateb·)
etyl atal (atali·)
geill or gall gallu (gall·)
gwêl gweld (gwel·)
gwnâ gwneud (irregular)
gwrendy gwrando (gwrandaw·)
gŵyr gwybod [not to be confused with gwŷr, “men”]
pery parhau / para (parh·)
prawf profi (prof·) [prawf is also the common word for “test”]
rhy rhoi (rho·) [not to be confused with the adverb rhy, “too”]
rhydd rhoddi (rhodd·) [rhydd is also the common word for “free”]
saif sefyll (saf·)
tâl talu (tal·) [adjective tal, “tall”; nouns tâl “payment” / “end”]
teifl taflu (tafl·)
tery taro (tar·)
try troi (tro·)
tyr torri (torr·)

This list is incomplete, but should show a number of the potential problems and patterns: the vowels tend to raise in third
person, notably A→E and O→Y; the -Y ending is often a hint that it is the third person singular; vowels are expanded back
into diphthongs, for example O→AW and O→WY.
This form can be learned! Dyfal donc a dyr y garreg: A persistant strike breaks the stone.

Vocabulary:

Frequency

dychweld (dychwel·), v. return (formal dychwelyd)

ffurf, -iau, f. form
cyfrwng, cyfryngau, m. means, medium; agency; intervla
ychydig, adj. little

Theme: Body

corn gwddf, cyrn gwyddfau, n.m., gullet

clun, -iau, n.f., haunch, buttock
tin, -au, n.f., arse / ass, buttocks
twll tin, n.m., asshole / arsehole
pidyn, -nau, n.m., penis
caill, ceilliau, n.f., testicles
gwain, gweiniau, n.f., vagina; vulva
[note: there are many synonyms for the nether bits: the words above have fairly neutral connotations.]
clun, -iau, n.f., thigh
morddwyd, -ydd, n.f., thigh
ffêr, -au, n.f., ankle
 Lesson Thirteen: The Imperative
Diagnostic Page, Lesson 13

No: Go to Level A
Question 1:
Can you give commands in Welsh
(“Sing!” “Don’t sing!”) ?
Yes: See Question 2

No: Go to Level B

Question 2:
Can you use the form bydded ?
Yes: See Question 3

No: Go to Level C
Question 3:
Do you know what verb the form
elo comes from?
Yes:
Skip Lesson Thirteen
 Lesson Thirteen, Level A
Welsh verbs have three moods (modes of operation). Most verbs are in the indicative; very rarely you find the subjunctive. In
between is the imperative, used for giving commands. It only has one all-purpose tense. Note that this mood doesn’t require
any pre-verbal particle. English only has the second person: it’s the form of the verb that can be followed by an exclamation
point: stop! Welsh also lacks the first person singular, because you can’t really command yourself (or if you do, you can
address yourself as ti in the second person, or chi if you are less familiar with yourself). Like French, though, it does have a
first person plural, which doesn’t exist in English. English uses “let’s” instead: “go!” vs. “let’s go!”

The imperative in Welsh is fairly simple, especially in the plural, but it requires knowing the stem of the verb.

Verb stem·ending 1st person sing. (mi) 1st person pl. (ni)
—·u, —·o, etc. does not exist ·wn!
2nd person sing. (ti) 2nd person pl. (chi)
·a! ·wch!
or
—! (+ A-raising)
(bare stem, no ending)
The second person plural raises A to E, especially in the formal language: Cenwch! “sing!” For the singular, verbs ending
in -io (stem –i·o) regularly use ·a, resulting in -ia! There are some expections, notably peidio (see below). Irregular verbs (e.g.
bod, dod, mynd) use the bare stem, never ·a. Other verbs tend to use ·a in informal Welsh, but the bare stem in more formal
and literary Welsh. Most verbs work either way:

Agor y drws! or Agora’r drws! Open the door!

Agorwch y drws! Open the door! (polite / formal / plural)
Agorwn y drws! Let’s open the door!

Don’t forget that the object of a conjugated very takes the soft mutation: agorwch ddwrs! Open a door!

You can soften the -wch form a little bit by adding the pronoun, chi:

Agorwch chi’r drws Open the door, will you?

To tell someone not to do something, arguably more useful in an emergency, the Welsh equivalent of “don’t” is the verb
peidio “stop” or “cease,” which of course is used in the imperative. In the literary language it is followed by âH / ag, but in
speech these are often dropped. (In the really formal registers of the language, the negative imperative is the positive form
preceeded by na(c) or, with transitive verbs, sometimes nas.)

Paid ag agor y drws! Don’t open the door!

Peidiwch ag agor y drws! Don’t open the door! (softer: peidiwch chi ag agor y drws! Don’t you open the door!)
Peidiwn ag agor y drws! Let’s not open the door!
Nac agorwch y drws! Open not the door! (Very formal / old-fashioned)

As in English, you can just say “don’t!” on its own with paid! or peidiwch! Since Welsh lacks a direct word for “no!” small
children hear paid! a lot. Peidio is also used to mean “not” in cases where dim’s other meaning, “anything” / “nothing,”
might cause confusion: mwy na pheidio, “more than not” vs. mwy na ddim, “more than anything / more than nothing.”

Again as in English, you can also use the imperative of gadael (“let” or “permit”), though it requires iL + the pronoun + soft
mutation:

Gad i ni gau’r drws! Let us close the door! (you, singular, need to let us)
Gadewch i ni gau’r drws! Let us close the door! (you, plural, need to let us)
Gad i ni beidio â chau’r drws! Don’t let us close the door! (you, singular, need to not let us)
Gadewch i ni beidio â chau’r drws! Don’t let us close the door! (you, plural, need to not let us)

Note that the verb takes the soft mutation after the pronoun, as in rhaid i ni, and also that in the negative, the English order
is reversed: “don’t let us” becomes “let us don’t.” You can also use this construction with the other persons, if you need to.
Whether you use the singular or plural depends to some extend on what person or entity you think is giving permission, but
the plural is the default.

A number of common verbs have unpredictable imperatives: the usual five irregulars (bod, cael, dod, gwneud, and mynd),
but a few other common verbs as well. Of those, only dyro! (from rhoi) is completely irregular. The form of the singular
imperative is similar to the third person singular of the conjugated present / future—often the same, but with fewer vowel
hijinks. Where the choice isn’t explicitly regional, I suggest learning the underlined form. Note dos as especially confusing:
mynd, not dod!

Ti Ni Chi
Bod bydd! byddwn! byddwch!
Cael no imperative: use a synonym
Dod tyrd! (N) deuwn! deuwch! (Lit.)
tyd! (N, Colloq.) down! (Colloq.) dewch!
dere! (S) dowch! (Colloq.)
Gwneud gwna! gwnawn! gwnewch!
Rhoi dyro! (Lit.) rhown! rhowch!
rho!
Mynd dos! (Lit., N) awn! ewch! (Lit., N, S)
cer! (S) cerwch! (S)

The Welsh text of O Come, All Ye Faithful (O! Deuwch, Ffyddloniaid) is full of imperatives. For example, the chorus is:

Latin Welsh Version Translated Welsh English Version

Vēnīte adōrēmus O! deuwch ac addolwn, O! come and let us adore, O come let us adore Him
Vēnīte adōrēmus O! deuwch ac addolwn, O! come and let us adore, O come let us adore Him
Vēnīte adōrēmus O! deuwch ac addolwn O! come and let us adore O come let us adore Him
Dominum Grist o’r nef Christ from heaven Christ the Lord

All three languages use the imperative for come! (vēnīte / deuwch / come), but each language has a different
solution for the other verb; only Welsh can use a first-person plural imperative (addolwn). [For those who care,
Latin uses the hortatory subjunctive, present tense, and English the periphrastic with let]. The last line, dominum
(“lord” in the accusative case), is lenited in the Welsh to show that it is the object of addolwn: o’r nef and “the Lord”
are just there to add syllables to the line.

Welsh also has a couple of verbs that exist only in the imperative: hwde! (N Wales; S. Wales is hwre!, not to be
confused with the English-derived exclamation hwrê!). They mean something like French voilà!—both “look at
that” and “here go you / take this.” The plurals are hwdiwch and hwriwch, respectively. There are a few others, but
they are rare or archaic: moes! / moeswch! (“give unto; give me, pass me; let me”), dabre! (“come here”).

Vocabulary:

Frequency
siarad (siarad·), v. talk, speak
gwybod (gwydd· / irregular), v. know
pryd, -au /-iau, m. time; meal
nifer, -oedd, m. number
man, -nau, f. place, spot
agos, adj. near (equ. nesed, comp. nes, superl. nesaf)
holl, adj. all

Theme: Clothing

côt, -iau, f. coat

crys, -iau, m. shirt
dilledyn, dillad, m. piece of clothing, (pl.) clothing
esgid, -iau, f. shoe
ffrog, -iau, f. frock, dress
gwisg, -oedd, f. outfit, attire
hosan, -au, m. stocking, sock
llogell, -au, f. pocket
poced, -i, m. pocket
sanau, pl. socks
sgert, -iau, f. skirt
trôns, tronsys, m. underwear, (British) pants
trwsus, -au, m. trousers, (N. Am.) pants
 Lesson Thirteen, Level B
The imperative can also be used in the third person, something that English needs “let” to express. There are, as
usual, two ways of doing this. Periphrastically, with bod, or less commonly by conjugating the verb itself.

The third-person imperative forms of bod exhibit a lot of variation. The pattern below puts the most common
form on the left, and the least common on the right:

3rd person imperative of bod: Singular Plural

bydded, bid, boed byddent, byddant, byddont

This form is used like rhaid, where the verb is followed by iL + subject + verb with soft mutation. (No
particles with the imperative, though.) In the Welsh national anthem, for example, the chorus reads:

O bydded i’r hen iaith barhau! O, let the old language endure! (parhau)

The form bid shows up in a proverb in the second branch of the Mabinogi: A fo ben, bid bont (“Whoever would be
a leader, let him be a bridge.”) The regular third person singular ending, though, is ·ed, which gave rise to the
other two forms, boed (from the subjunctive stem bo·) and bydded (from the habitual / future / conditional stem,
bydd-). The national anthem could equally well have used parhau in the imperative: parhaed would mean “let
persist” or “let endure” or “let keep on,” only O parhaed yr hen iaith! doesn’t scan.

The Bible is fond of the -ed form. For instance, 1 Peter 3:11 reads:

Gocheled y drwg, a gwnaed y da; ceisied heddwch, a dilyned ef.

The verbs are gochel (gochel·; avoid, shun, eschew), gwneud ([irregular]; make, do), ceisio (ceisi·; seek, try), and
dilyn (dilyn·; follow, pursue), so “Let him avoid evil, and do good; let him seek peace, and pursue it.” In Welsh, it
is not gendered, so “Let her avoid evil. . . ” is just as valid a translation.

In the third person plural, the ending is -ent, though some texts recommend -ant or (in older texts) -ont. As you
are unlikely to encounter the form in speech, and only rarely in writing, it does not matter a great deal which
vowel you prefer; the main thing is to be aware that the form exists.

Vocabulary:

Frequency

colli (coll·), v. lose

credu (cred·), v. believe
arian, m. silver; money
gwerth, -oedd, m. worth, value
llawn, adj. full

Theme: Clothing

cap, -au, m. cap

gŵn, gynau, m. robe, gown [do not confuse with gwn, gynnau, m., gun]
gwregys, -au, m. belt
het, -iau, f. hat
maneg, menig, f. glove
sbectol, -au, m. glasses
sbectol haul, -au h., m. sunglasses
siaced, -i, f. jacket
siwmper, -i, f. sweater, jumper
tei, -s, m. (neck)tie
 Lesson Thirteen, Level C
The third verbal mood is the subjunctive. A Welsh verb can have up to five types of information encoded: person, number,
tense, mood, and sense (meaning). Not every form encodes all of these: the verb-noun has none of that information except
the meaning, and it is possible to have various combinations: impersonal forms have tense and mood but neither person nor
number; imperatives have person, number, and mood, but no tense.

Person Number Tense Mood Unmarked

• First • Singular • Present / Habitual • Indicative • Verb-Noun

• Second • Plural • Imperfect (all tenses) (no person, number, tense,
• Third • Preterite • Subjunctive or mood)
• Pluperfect (one tense) • Impersonal
• Imperative (no person or number)
(no tense)

In spoken Welsh, the subjunctive exists only in proverbs and certain fossilized expressions, and even in the literary language it
is rare. In both frequency and function, then, it more or less matches English. In the literary language, the subjunctive is used
for things which aren’t now true, but might be. As in English, it is often a mood used in subordinate clauses. Since it is not
much used, the main reasons for learning it are to recognize it when it shows up in literature, especially since some of the
modern spoken forms look like the older subjunctive forms. Only the present subjunctive is distinct in form, and its endings
are as follows:

canu
I -wyf canwyf (cf. the conjugated present / future, canaf)
you (s.) -ych with vowel raising cenych (cf. the conjugated present / future, ceni)
he / she / it -o cano (cf. the conjugated present / future, cân)
we -om canom (cf. the conjugated present / future, canwn)
you (pl.) -och canoch (cf. the conjugated present / future, cenwch)
they -ont canont (cf. the conjugated present / future, canant)

Note that canoch is identical to the colloquial preterite tense form; on the rare occasions when they come up in the spoken
language, the subjunctive form canon for the first and third person plural match the colloquial preterite.

The irregular verbs often have a distinct subjunctive stem, often with -el-:

bod (bo· / bydd·) caffael > cael dyfod > dod gwneuthur > gwneud myned > mynd
(caff·) (del·) (gwnel·) (el·)

bwyf | byddwyf caffwyf delwyf gwnelwyf elwyf

bych | byddych ceffych delych gwnelych elych
bo | byddo caffo delo gwnelo elo
bôm | byddom caffom delom gwnelom elom
bôch | byddoch caffoch deloch gwneloch eloch
bônt | byddont caffont delont gwnelont elont

As is so often the case, these verbs are the most frequently encountered in this form, and the most difficult to find if you are
not familiar with them.
Vocabulary:

Frequency

cynllunio (cynlluni·), v. plan

swyddfa, swyddfeydd, n. office (location)
maint, meintiau, m. size
pen, adj. top,highest point, main, chief (sup. pennaf)

Theme: Clothing

cadach, cedych, m. handkerchief, cloth

cotwm, adj. cotton
ffedog, -au, f. apron
gwlân, adj., woollen, wool
lledr, adj. leather
llin, adj., linen, flax
modrwy, -au, f. ring
oriawr, oriorau, f. watch
sgarff, -iau, f. scarf
sidan, adj. silk
 Lesson Fourteen: Numbers
Diagnostic Page, Lesson 14

No: Go to Level A
Question 1:
Can you count 1–10 cats or dogs in
Welsh?
Yes: See Question 2

No: Go to Level B
Question 2:
Can you talk about 17 dogs or
cats?
Yes: See Question 3

No: Go to Level C
Question 3:
Can you count from 1–100 in
Welsh?
Yes:
Skip Lesson Fourteen
 Lesson Fourteen, Level A
Numbers, technically, are adjectives that modify nouns, because they provide more information about the noun in question.
Welsh numbers, like English numbers but unlike regular Welsh adjectives, precede the noun (except for “first,” cyntaf, which
follows its noun 90% of the time). They also have a few other nuances:
 As in English, numbers have cardinal (how many: 1, 2, 3) and ordinal (in what order:1st, 2nd, 3rd) forms.
 Gender. Numbers 1–4 have masculine and feminine forms in Welsh (for 1, it’s only in the mutation that follows).
The list below uses masculine ci and feminine cath in the examples to show the different possibilities.
 Mutation. Numbers do not automatically cause soft mutation in a following noun like other adjectives do, but
several of the numbers (1, 2, 3, and 6) cause soft or aspirate mutation or something else (10).
Feminine ordinal nouns mutate after the definite article, and cause soft mutation; masculine ordinals do
neither. Exception: ail (second) causes the soft mutation regardless of gender.
 Spelling changes. 5 and 6 drop the final consonant before nouns. Other numbers sometimes change final G to NG.
 Are used with the singular noun (all except 0).

So the list of cardinal numbers 0–10 is: The list of ordinal numbers 1st through 10th is:

cyntaf: y ci cyntaf
dim: dim cathod, dim cŵn y gath gyntaf

un (m.): un ci ailL: yr ail gi

unL (f.): un gath yr ail gath

trydydd (m): y trydedd ci

dauL (m.): dau gi
dwyL (f.): dwy gath trydedd (f): y drydedd gath
triH (m.): tri chi
pedwerydd (m.): y pedwerydd ci
tair (f.): tair cath
pedwaredd (f.): y bedwaredd gath
pedwar (m.): pedwar ci
pedair (f.): pedair cath pumed: y pumed ci
y bumed gath
pump: pum ci, pum cath
chweched: y chweched ci
chwechH: chwe chi, chwe chath y chweched gath

saith: saith ci, saith cath saithfed: y saithfed ci

y saithfed gath
wyth: wyth ci, wyth cath
wythfed: yr wythfed ci
yr wythfed gath
naw: naw ci, naw cath
nawfed: y nawfed ci
deg: deg ci, deg cath y nawfed gath
deng before B, D, G, N, M
sometimes with mutations B→M, D→N, G→Ø degfed: y degfed ci
y ddegfed gath
Interestingly, when a singular noun is modified by a plural number, it is still understood as plural: mae’r tair cath hyn yn dda
“these three cats are good” (with plural hyn instead of feminine singular hon).

Fractions are as follows.

hanner hanner pwys, a half pound / half a pound (no oL)

traean traean o bwys, a third of a pound (with oL) deuparth, dau draean
chwarter chwarter pwys, a quarter pound / quarter of a pound. (no o )
L
tri chwarter

Other fractions are the same form as the ordinals, as in English, but often helpfully clarified with rhan (n.f.) “part”:

pumed ran pumed ran o bwys, a fifth of a pound (pwys) (with oL)

Vocabulary:

Frequency

derbyn (derbyni·), v. receive, accept

gweithio (gweithi·), v. work
aelod, -au, m. member; limb
diwedd, -ion, m. end (time, event)
defnydd (deunydd), -iau, m. material, stuff
gwahanol, adj. different
tebyg, adj. like, probable; pobably

Theme: Numbers

un, adj. one

dau, m. adj., two
dwy, f. adj., two
tri, m. adj., three
tair, f. adj., three
pedwar, m. adj., four
pedair, f. adj., four
pump, adj., five
chwech, adj., six
saith, adj., seven
wyth, adj., eight
naw, adj., nine
deg, adj., ten
 Lesson Fourteen, Level B
Numbers above ten are slightly more complicated in Welsh, because above ten there are two systems in operation. One
system, used especially with time, money, and measurement, is based around the number 20 and is known as the vigesimal
system, or more simply as the traditional system. The other system, which follows English and is based around the number
10, is known as the decimal system or the new system. It is more common for talking about large numbers. I recommend
learning the traditional system out of respect for the language as something distinct from English, but the decimal is
increasingly common.

To explain more visually: in English, we think of ones, tens, and hundreds as the basic blocks from which to build any
number below a thousand. A “ten” is a group of ten “ones,” and a “hundred” is ten “tens.” An easy way to think about it is
with money: a dime is worth ten pennies, and a dollar is ten dimes.

In Welsh, the basic units ones and hundreds are the same, but in between, the main unit is twenties. To build bigger numbers,
these are the basic units, though between ten and twenty a five or ten helps close the gap. Think of British money with its 20p
pieces: a pound is five 20p pieces. The easiest way to make 36p is a 20p coin, a 10p coin, a 5p coin, and a penny; counting
in Welsh is the same.

In Welsh, each “twenty” is built from three sections: the first half, the third quarter, and the fourth quarter.
1–10 (the set of numbers 1–10)
10–15 (the number 10 + 1 through 5)
16–20 (the number 15 + 1 through 5)

st
1 un dau tri pedwar pump
quarter (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
nd
2 chwech saith wyth naw deg
quarter (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
rd
3 un ar ddeg deuddeg tri ar ddeg pedwar ar ddeg pymtheg
quarter (1+10 = 11) (2◊10 = 12) (3+10 = 13) (4+10 = 14) (5◊10 = 15)
th
4 un ar bymtheg dau ar bymtheg deunaw pedwar ar bymtheg ugain
quarter (1+15 = 16) (2+15 = 17) (2×9 = 18) (4+15 = 19) (20)
The multiples of three are all out of pattern: 6, 9, 12, 15, and 18. For the curious, it’s the invisible
final P of pump that changes -ddeg to -theg in pymtheg.
And so to count. Below, the mutations and genders are the same within the compounds as they are for the numbers 1–10.
Note that with the decimal system, you can use the singular noun, but you can also use oL plus the plural noun.

Traditional Decimal
un ar ddeg un ci ar ddeg un deg un un deg un ci / un deg un o gŵn
un gath ar ddeg un deg un un deg un gath / un deg un o gathod
deuddeg deuddeg ci / cath un deg dau un deg dau gi / un deg dau o gŵn
un deg dwy un deg dwy gath / un deg dwy o gathod
Alert: Twelve (old style) is very similar to twenty (new style): deuddeg vs. dau ddeg.
tri ar ddeg tri chi ar ddeg un deg tri un deg tri chi / un deg tri o gŵn
tair ar ddeg tair cath ar ddeg un deg tair un deg air cath / un deg tair o gathod
pedwar ar ddeg: pedwar ci ar ddeg un deg pedwar un deg pedwar ci / un deg pedwar o gŵn
pedair ar ddeg: pedair cath ar ddeg un deg pedair un deg pedair cath / un deg pedair o gathod
pymtheg pymtheg ci / cath un deg pump un deg pum ci /cath | un deg pump o gŵn / gathod
un ar bymtheg un ci ar bymtheg un deg chwech un deg chwe chi/chath|un deg chwech o gŵn/gathod
dau ar bymtheg dau gi ar bymtheg un deg saith un deg saith gi / cath | un deg saith o gŵn / gathod
dwy ar bymtheg dwy gath ar bymtheg
deunaw deunaw ci / cath un deg wyth un deg wyth ci /cath | un deg wyth o gŵn / gathod
pedwar ar bymtheg: pedwar ci ar bymtheg un deg naw un deg naw ci / cath |un deg naw o gŵn / gathod
pedair ar bymtheg: pedair cath ar bymtheg
ugain ugain ci / cath dau ddeg dau ddeg ci /cath | dau ddeg o gŵn / gathod

Like 10, 12 and 15 sometimes change the final –G to –NG: see Lesson 14 A.
The ordinal numerals for 11–20 are most common in the old style (new style is un deg + ordinal; 11 th is un deg cyntaf
or un deg unfed). The more traditional ordinals are as follows:

unfed ar ddeg unfed ar bymtheg

deuddegfed ail ar bymtheg or eilfed ar bymtheg
trydydd / trydedd ar ddeg deunawfed
pedwerydd / pedwaredd ar ddeg pedwerydd / pedwaredd ar bymtheg
pymthegfed ugeinfed

Unfed precedes its noun, and is used in place of cyntaf in compound ordinals. As with the ordinals, the noun goes in the
middle where there is a compound:
Yr unfed ci ar ddeg, y deuddegfed ci, y trydydd ci ar ddeg; etc. yr unfed gath ar ddeg, y ddeuddegfed gath, y drydedd gath
ar ddeg, etc.

Joke from 1893 (Papur Pawb, 1 Ebrill 1893, p.3, from [Link]

Aeth dau fachgen i ofyn am le at Mr. Rongscale y cigydd. Gofynodd y cigydd i’r cyntaf pa sawl owns mewn pwys? “Un
ar bymtheg,” meddai y bachgen. “Ni wnei di mo’r tro.” Daeth yr ail fachgen i mewn. “Pa sawl owns sydd mewn
pwys?” gofynai y cigydd. “Pedwar ar ddeg,” oedd atebiad y bachgen. Cafodd y lle.

Two boys went to Mr. Rongscale the butcher to ask for a job. The butcher asked the first, how many ounces in a pound?
“Sixteen,” said the boy. “You won’t do.” The second boy came in. “How many ounces are there in a pound?” asked the
butcher. “Fourteen,” was the boy’s answer. He got the place.
Vocabulary:

Frequency

penderfynu (penderfyn·), v. decide

gwrando (grandaw·), v. listen
disgybl, -ion, m. pupil
adeg, -au, f. time period
bychan, adj. little (f. bechan, pl. bychain)

Theme: Numbers

un ar ddeg, adj. eleven

deuddeg, adj., twelve
tri ar ddeg, adj. thirteen
pedwar ar ddeg, adj. fourteen
pymtheg, adj. fifteen
un ar bymtheg, adj., sixteen
dau ar bymtheg, adj., seventeen
deunaw, adj., eighteen
pedwar ar bymtheg, adj., nineteen
ugain, adj., twenty
 Lesson Fourteen, Level C
The numbers above twenty are more common in the decimal system:

dau ddeg un though un deg naw

dau ddeg is the most common spelling, but it is also found as one word: dauddeg or, confusingly and incorrectly, as deuddeg.
tri deg un though tri deg naw
pedwar deg un though pedwar deg naw
pum deg un though pum deg naw
chwedeg un though chwedeg naw
saith deg un though saith deg naw
wyth deg un though wyth deg naw
naw deg un though naw deg naw

The new style of numbers is the most common with temperature, with the number placed before gradd (f.), “degree.” In
Welsh, the international spellings Celsius and Fahrenheit are the most common, but Selsiws and Ffarenheit are also found,
though they are abbreviated as °C / °F, never °S / °FF.

The vigesimal system is more likely to break down the higher you go, but the numbers are:

ugain ugainfed
un ar hugain (note the H) though pedwar ar bymtheg ar hugain unfed ar hugain, etc.
deugain deugainfed
un ar ddeugain though pedwar ar bymtheg ar ddeugain unfed ar ddeugain, etc.
(occasional exception: hanner cant hanner canfed)
trigain trigainfed
un ar drigain though pedwar ar bymtheg ar drigain unfed ar chwegain, etc.
pedwar ugain pedwar ugainfed
un ar bedwar ugain though pedwar ar bymtheg ar bedwar ugain unfed ar bedwar ugain, etc.

The ordinal numbers follow the pattern of 1–20.

This isn’t too much worse than French 99 (quatre-vingt dix neuf, “four-twenty ten nine.”) As with the teens, the singular
noun goes after the first part of the number, so pedwar balŵn coch ar bymtheg ar bedwar ugain, “99 red balloons.” For
higher numbers, especially new style, it is more common to use the plural noun after oL: naw deg naw o falŵnau coch. For
really complicated numbers, you also have the option of using a simpler number plus namyn un (less one): cant namyn un,
99 (lit. 100 less 1)—can balŵn coch namyn un. Namyn un can go before the number, so namyn un deugain (less 1 40 =
39). For example, namyn dwy flynedd deugain: 38 years old (less two years forty).

At 100, the old system more or less stops, though the numeral chweugain is found occasionally for 120, and saith ugain for
140. In both systems, 100 is cant; like 5 and 6, it drops the final consonant before nouns: can ci, can cath. “Percentage” is
canran and “percent” is is y cant: deg y cant would be ten percent.
 cant deugant trichant pedwar cant pumcant
chwechant saith cant wyth cant nawcant mil

For all of these, there are some variations in spacing and even in internal mutations of cant. To join the numbers, use aH / ac
“and” after the hundreds: nawcant a phedwar ci ar ddeugain, 944 dogs. Some of these numbers can function as nouns, with
plurals: ugeiniau, scores / lots; cannoedd, hundreds; miloedd, thousands. As nouns, 20 and 100 are masculine, but 1000 is
feminine. Ordinals are canfed (100fed), milfed (1000fed), etc.

Years are typically counted using 1000, unlike English: mil naw cant ac ugain / mil naw cant dau ddeg 1920; yn y flwyddyn
dwy fil a phymtheg, in the year 2015. So you might say:

Ces i fy geni ym mil naw cant a thrigain—I was born in 1960.

Fy mhenblwydd yw yr 21ain [unfed ar hugain] o fis Mehefin—my birthday is the 21st of June.

Vocabulary:

Frequency

cychwyn (cychwyn·), v. set out, start off

cerdd, -i, f. song, poem, music
polisi, polisïau, m. policy
blaen, -au, m. front; end
o flaen, prep. in front of

Theme: Numbers

deg ar hugain, adj., thirty

deugain, adj., forty
hanner cant, adj., fifty
trigain, adj., sixty
deg ar drigain, adj., seventy
pedwar ugain, adj., eighty
deg ar bedwar ugain, adj., ninety
cant, adj. hundred
cant, cannoedd, n.m., hundred
deugant, adj. two hundred
mil, -oedd, n.f., thousand
miliwn, miliynau, n.m., million (1 000 000)
biliwn, biliynau, n.m., billion (1 000 000 000 or 1 000 000 000 000)
 Lesson Fifteen: Telling & Measuring Time
Diagnostic Page, Lesson 15

No: Go to Level A

Question 1:
Can you tell time in Welsh?
Yes: See Question 2

No: Go to Level B
Question 2:
Can you say how old you are in
Welsh?
Yes: See Question 3

No: Go to Level C

Question 3:
Can you say 2 + 2 = 4 in Welsh?
Yes:
Skip Lesson Fifteen
 Lesson Fifteen, Level A
Faint o’r gloch yw hi? What time is it? Not too difficult: the number plus “o’clock” (o’r gloch)—un o’r gloch, dau o’r gloch,
tri o’r gloch, etc. Cloch, literally “bell,” is feminine, as is awr, but the names of the hours are masculine, presumably to agree
with trawiad (“strike”). Time tends to use the old numerals, so eleven and twelve are un ar ddeg o’r gloch and deuddeg o’r
gloch. For the question “What time is it,” you can also ask Faint yw hi o’r gloch or, following English, beth yw’r amser,
literally “what is the time.”

Using the twelve-hour clock, it is helpful to specify yn y bore (in the morning / a.m.), yn y pnawn (in the afternoon / p.m.),
yn yr hwyr (in the evening / p.m.), yn y nos (at night / p.m.).

Pryd mae X? (When is X?) Note: the conjunction “when” is a different word in Welsh, pan
Am faint o’r gloch mae X? (What time is X?)

At (specific time): Am X o’r gloch.

am un am bedwar am saith am ddeg
am ddau am bump am wyth am un ar ddeg
am dri am chwech am naw (am ddeuddeg, but specify:) am hanner nos (midnight)
am hanner dydd (noon)
At (part of day): gyda(g)
gwawr, dawn gyda’r wawr, at dawn
dydd, day gyda’r dydd, at day, daytime (adj.)
cyfnos, dusk gyda’r cyfnos, at dusk
nos, night gyda’r nos, at night, in the evening (default phrase for “at night”; specific)

This construction is very old: several verses of the Welsh epic poem Y Gododdin begin gwŷr a aeth Gatraeth gan wawr,
“men went to Catterick [now in Yorkshire] at dawn.”

At (period of time): yn yn y dydd, in the daytime

yn y nos, at night, nighttime (general; in contrast to “during the day”)
(with numbers): — deg y nos, ten at night

Around: TuaH / tuag X o’r gloch.

tuag un tua phedwar tua saith tua deg
tua dau tua phump tuag wyth / tua wyth tuag un ar ddeg
tua thri tua chwech tua naw (tua deuddeg) tua hanner dydd (noon)
tua hanner nos (midnight)
During: yn ystod yn ystod y dydd, during the day
Over-: dros dros nos, overnight

For (duration): am
am ddydd, for a day am ddeuddydd, for two days am dridiau, for three days
am wythnos, for a week am bythefnos, for a fortnight (two weeks) am benwythos (weekend)
am fis, for a month am ddeufis, for two months
am flyddwyn, for a year

By erbyn erbyn dau o’r gloch, by two o’clock

In (at the end of X amount of time): ymhen ymhen mis, in a month [less good, mewn mis, following English]
Within: o fewn o fewn wythnos, within a week

In (with numbers): — tri y bore, three in the morning; pedwar y pnawn, four in the afternoon
Since: ers
specific Ers pryd wyt ti wedi bod yma? Since when (i.e. how long) have you been here? (since what time)
indefinite Ers faint wyt ti wedi bod yma? Since when (i.e. how long) have you been here? (what period of time)
Until: hydL / tanL tan y bore, until morning; hyd dri o’r gloch, until three o’clock [use either]

How to say “half past” the hour:

5.30 Mae hi’n hanner awr wedi pump
11.30 Mae hi’n hanner awr wedi un-ar-ddeg
Note: You can’t use the British “half six” in Welsh any more than you can in North American English!

How to say “past” and “to” the hour

3.15 Mae hi’n chwarter wedi tri
8.15 Mae hi’n chwarter wedi wyth
3.45 Mae hi’n chwarter i bedwar
11.45 Mae hi’n chwarter i ddeuddeg
1.05 Mae hi’n bum munud wedi un
6.10 Mae hi’n ddeg munud wedi chwech
11.20 Mae hi’n ugain munud wedi un-ar-ddeg
12.25 Mae hi’n bum munud ar hugain wedi deuddeg
9.35 Mae hi’n bum munud ar hugain i ddeg
6.40 Mae hi’n ugain munud i saith
2.50 Mae hi’n ddeg munud i dri
4.55 Mae hi’n bum munud i bump

Parts of the Day: dydd (day) nos (night) / noswaith (evening / nighttime)
-2 Echdoe Day before yesterday Echnos Night before last
-1 Ddoe* Yesterday Neithiwr Last evening / last night
±0 Heddiw Today Heno Evening, nighttime
+1 Yfory (Fory) Tomorrow Nos ’fory Tomorrow night
+2 Drennydd* Day after tomorrow Nos drennydd Night after tomorrow
+3 Dradwy* Two days hence Nos dradwy Two evenings hence
*These are lenited to show adverbial usage: as nouns, they are doe, trennydd, and tradwy.

There is also trannoeth, as an adverb drannoeth, which means “the following day”—it can be “tomorrow” or “the day after
tomorrow,” depending on context. As in French, there are two words for “day” and “evening.” Dydd is the same as jour, the
general concept of “day”; the duration of a day is diwrnod, like French journée. Similarly, noswaith is an evening (soir), while
noson is the duration of an evening, or of a night (soirée).

Greetings: bore da / pnawn da / noswaith dda [dydd da and hwyr da are possible but unlikely in Modern Welsh]
Leave-takings: nos da

bore (morning) prynhawn / pnawn (afternoon) nos (night)

-2 Bore echdoe Pnawn echdoe → Echnos

-1 Bore ddoe Pnawn ddoe → Neithiwr
±0 Y bore ’ma / heddiw’r bore Y pnawn ’ma / Heddiw’r pnawn → Heno
+1 Bore ’fory Pnawn ’fory Nos ’fory
+2 Bore drennydd Pnawn drennydd Nos drennydd
+3 Bore dradwy Pnawn dradwy Nos dradwy

wythnos (week) pythefnos (fortnight) mis (month) blwyddyn (year)

last yr wythnos diwetha’ y pythefnos diwetha’ y mis diwetha’ → (y) llynedd
this yr wythnos hon y pythefnos hon y mis hwn → eleni
next yr wythnos nesa’ y pythefnos nesa’ y mis nesa’ blwyddyn nesa’
Vocabulary:

Frequency

meddwl (meddyli·), v. think

deall (deall·), v. understand
stori, straeon / storïau, f. story
Cymro, Cymry, m. Welshman, Welsh person (m.)
Cymraes, -au, f. Welshwoman, Welsh person (f.)
gwir, adj. true; genuine
ifanc / ieuanc, young (pl. ifainc / ieuainc; equ. ieued / ieuenged, comp. iau / ieuengach, superl. ieuaf / ieuengaf)

Theme: Time

amser, -oedd, f. time

bore, -au, m. morning
doe, m. / adv. yesterday
heddiw, m. / adv. today
heno, f. / adv. tonight
hwyr, m. late afternoon, evening
nos, -au, f. night [does not lenite following adjectives that begin with D]
noswaith, nosweithiau, f. evening
pnawn, -au, m. afternoon
prynhawn, -au, m. afternoon
wythnos, -au, f., week
yfory, m. / adv. tomorrow
 Lesson Fifteen, Level B
Age, like time, tends to prefer the old-style numbers. The word for “age,” as in “years old,” is oed. (“Age,” as in a really long
time, is oes.) In Welsh, you say mae e’nL / mae hi’nL # (years) (of age). The challenges are that the noun for “year” (a) is
feminine, and (b) has a special form with numbers. Normally the singular is blwyddyn and the plural is blynyddoedd.
Specific numbers require blynedd with time and blwydd with age. Moreover, the nasal mutation is used with blynedd and
blwydd in ways that don’t normally apply, which in turn changes numbers ending in –G to –NG. Note that on gravestones,
the age will be in traditional numbers, and so most often followed by mlwydd.
un flwyddyn un flwydd (oed)
dwy flynedd dwy flwydd (oed)
tair blynedd tair blwydd (oed)
pedair blynedd pedair blwydd (oed)
pum mlynedd pum mlwydd (oed) nasal mutation (not usual after 5)
chwe blynedd chwe blwydd (oed)
saith mlynedd saith mlwydd (oed) nasal mutation (not usual after 7)
wyth mlynedd wyth mlwydd (oed) nasal mutation (not usual after 8)
naw mlynedd naw mlwydd (oed) nasal mutation (not usual after 9)
deng mlynedd deng mlwydd (oed) deg changes to deng
un flwyddyn ar ddeg un flwydd ar ddeg (oed)
deuddeng mlynedd deuddeng mlwydd (oed) deuddeg changes to deuddeng
pymtheng mlynedd pymtheng mlwydd (oed) pymtheg changes to pymtheng
ugain mlynedd ugain mlwydd (oed)
deugain mlynedd deugain mlwydd (oed)
trigain mlynedd trigain mlwydd (oed)
can mlynedd can mlwydd (oed)
Most currencies are feminine, as well. These days, all you need are ceiniog, -au, “penny” (plural “pennies” or “pence,”
the same in Welsh), and punt, punnoedd “pound.” You can also talk about doler, -i “dollar(s)” and ewro, -s “euro(s)”; ewro is
masculine. Historically, currency involved a lot of math. When decimal currency came in, all that changed was the value of
the penny, so that a shilling was no longer 12d but 5p. A pound has always been 20s, but went from 240d to 100p.
Gini (m): 21 swllt (un swllt ar hugain) guinea (21 shillings)
Punt (f): 20 swllt (ugain swllt) pound (20 shillings)
Coron (f): 5 swllt (pum swllt) crown (5 shillings)
Fflorin (f): 2 swllt (dau swllt) florin (2 shillings)
Swllt (m): 12 ceiniog (deuddeg ceiniog) shilling (12 pence historically→5 “new” pence)
Chwecheiniog (m): 6 ceiniog (chwe cheiniog) sixpence
Tair ceiniog (f): 3 ceiniog (tair ceiniog) three pence / thruppence
Dwygeiniog (f): 2 geiniog (dwy geiniog) twopence / tuppence
Ceiniog (f): 2 ddimai (dwy ddimai) penny
Dimai (f): hanner ceiniog halfpenny
Ffyrling (f): chwarter ceiniog farthing (¼ penny)

Old style currency, before decimalization, would abbreviate money as pounds, shillings, and pence. A Welsh newspaper story
from 1878 talks about the collection made at a religious meeting with: 3p. 2s. 3c. yn nghyda 10s. oddiwrth Mr. S. Bartley,
“£3 2s 3d (three pounds, two shillings, and three pence), including 10s. (ten shillings) from Mr. S. Bartley.”
Vocabulary:

Frequency

ymateb (ymateb·), v. respond; react

cyflwyno (cyflwyn·), v. introduce; present
mater, -ion, m. matter, affair
capel, -i, m. chapel
erioed, adv. ever (in the past)

Theme: Time

eiliad, -au, f. second

ennyd, m. moment
munud, -au, f. minute
awr, oriau, f. hour
gwanwyn, -au, m. spring
haf, -au, m. summer
hydref, -au, m. autumn
gaeaf, -au, m. winter
tymor, tymhorau, m. season
canrif, -oedd, f. century
 Lesson Fifteen, Level C
After learning to count, tell time, and express age, there isn’t much more that Welsh numbers can do besides math itself. An
excellent source for all sorts of math terminology is here. Contemporary usage follows English:

+ adio (iL / atL) (v.); plws (prep.) add (to); plus

− tynnu (oL) (v.); minws (prep.) subtract (from); minus (sometimes tynnu i ffwrdd, take away)
× lluosi â (v.) multiply by (sometimes lluosi efo, multiply by)
÷ rhannu â (v.) divide by
= yn hafal iL / âH equals (the preposition following “hafal” is usually i, but â is a variant.)
= yn gwneud makes

There are a few different ways to express basic math (with either old or new numerals):

Mae saith plws saith yn bedwar ar ddeg 7 + 7 = 14

Saith adio saith yw pedwar ar ddeg. 7 + 7 = 14

The metric system in Welsh uses the same international terms as everyone else, though in Welsh spelling, with gender and
Welsh plurals: metr, -au, m. It is also worth mentioning some of the older forms of measurement for weight, volume, and
distance, particularly as a lot of the old recipes involve them. Almost all the measurements are borrowed from English or else
share a common source in Latin (e.g. owns, pwys).

distance
modfedd, -au, f. inch
troedfedd ,-i, f. foot (12 inches)
llath, -au, f. yard (three feet)
milltir, -oedd, f. mile (5280 feet)

units of land
erw, -au, f. acre (variable)
tyddyn, -od, m. smallholding / farmstead / croft (4 acres)
rhandir, -oedd, f. portion, section, allotment (4 farmsteads)
gafael, -ion, f. holding (4 sections)
tref, -i, f. township (4 holdings)
maenor / maenol, -au, f. manor (4 townships)
cwmwd, cymydau, m. commote (12½ manors)
cantref, -i, f. hundred (2 or 3 commotes)

weight
dram, -au, m. dram (= ⅟16 ounce)
owns, -ys, f. ounce
pwys, -au, m. pound (16 ounces)
cilo, -s, m. kilogram [found in a few old recipes]
maen, meini, m. stone (14 pounds) [contemporary South Welsh uses stôn]

volume (both dry & liquid)

diferyn, diferion, m. drop
dram, -au, m. dram (= ⅛ fluid ounce)
llwy de, llwyau te, f. teaspoon
llwy fwrdd, llwyau bwrdd, f. tablespoon
llwyaid (de / fwrdd),
llwyeidiau (te / bwrdd), f. (tea/table)spoonful
owns, -ys, f. ounce (Imperial fluid ounce, 28.4 ml, slightly less than the American ounce, 29.6 ml)
gil, -iau, m. gill (quarter pint: 5 fl. ounces)
cwpanaid, cwpaneidiau, m. cup, cupful [the source of paned as in paned o de]
dysglaid, dysgleidiau, f. cup, cupful (lit. “dishful” or “saucerful”) [the source of disgled as in disgled o de]
llonaid llaw, lloneidau llaw, m. handful
peint, -iau, m. pint (20 imperial fluid ounces)
chwart, -iau, m. quart (two pints: 40 fl. ounces)
litr, -au, m. litre [found in a few old recipes]
galwyn, -i, m. liquid gallon (four quarts: 160 fl. ounces)
cibynnaid, cibyneidiau, m. dry gallon; half a bushel (four dry quarts)
hestor, -iau, m. two bushels / sixteen gallons

A lot of the volume measurements are based on the suffix -aid, -eidiau, which is equivalent to English “-ful.” The same thing
can be expressed by placing llond or llonaid* in front of the noun: llond llwy de or llwyaid de, both “teaspoonful.” Llond is
a masculine noun, so it does not cause the soft mutation. Grammatically, llond llwy is literally “the fullness of a spoon,” and
idiomatically “a spoonful.” *(from llawn, “full,” so literally “a fullful”)

Note also:

pinsiaid, pinsieidi, m. pinch

lwmp, -au, m. lump
talp, -iau, f. piece, lump
tamaid, tameidiau, m. little bit
tafell, -i, f. slice, piece
ewin, -edd, m. clove (of garlic)

Vocabulary:

Frequency

cyflawni (cyflawn·), v. fulfil, accomplish, complete

testun, -au, m. text
person, -au, m. person (person, -iaid, m. means “parson”)
olaf, adj. last (= last ever)
diwethaf, adj. last (=latest)

Theme: Time

beunydd, adv. every day

beunyddol, adj./adv. daily
bob tro, adv. always [each time; mutated from pob tro]
byth, adv. ever; never [in the future]
am byth, adv. forever [note the lack of mutation]
trwy’r amser, adv. always [all the time]
mynych, adj. / adv. frequent(ly)
aml, adj. / adv. often
weithiau, adv. sometimes [mutated plural of gwaith, f., “time”]
anaml, adj. / adv. seldom
anfynych, adj. / adv. infrequent(ly)
prin, adj. / adv. rare(ly)
erioed, adv. ever; never [in the past]
ers talwm, adv. since a very long time ago; for a very long time
 Lesson Sixteen: The Subordinate Clause
Diagnostic Page, Lesson 16

No: Go to Level A
Question 1:
Can you translate Mae hi'n fy
ngweld i?
Yes: See Question 2

No: Go to Level B
Question 2:
Can you tranlate Gobeithio dy fod
di'n iawn?
Yes: See Question 3

No: Go to Level C
Question 3:
Do you know the difference
between ni and nis?
Yes:
Skip Lesson Sixteen
 Lesson Sixteen, Level A
Welsh is a VSO language, meaning that its preferred order is for the Verb to come before the Subject, and the subject before
the direct Object. (English is SVO, which is a more common pattern worldwide: there’s map here, with VSO in yellow dots
and SVO in red. Blue dots are SOV.) The word order poses a problem: how do you know where the subject stops and the
object begins?

One way is to use the periphrastic, with its link (yn / ’n, wedi, etc.): Mae e’n gweld y gath “He sees the cat,” with the verb (red)
followed by the subject (blue), then the link and a verb-noun, and finally the object (green). Another way is to use the soft
mutation on the object of an inflected (conjugated) verb: compare “A girl saw a boy on the roof”:
Mae merch wedi gweld bachgen ar y to vs.
Gwelodd merch fachgen ar y do.
The object bachgen becomes fachgen. That way, you can distinguish the occasional ambiguous case: Gwelodd mab Ffred ar y to
“a boy saw Fred on the roof” and Gwelodd fab Ffred ar y to, “[he] saw Fred’s son on the roof.”

You can also say Gwelodd mab e “a boy saw him,” but that is awkward in Welsh. When the object is a pronoun, there is
another option. English mostly has separate words for subject and object prounouns. Welsh does not, e.g.:
we & are both ni in Welsh they & are both nhw in Welsh
→us →them

To get around this, Welsh uses the possessive pronouns to be the object, accompanied by their mutations.
Mae hi’n fy ngharu i She loves me Mae hi’n ein caru ni She loves us
Mae hi’n dy garu di She loves you Mae hi’n eich caru chi She loves you (pl.)
Mae hi’n ei garu e She loves him Mae hi’n eu caru nhw She loves them
Mae hi’n ei charu hi She loves her

(The extra independent pronoun on the end is optional, added for clarity or emphasis.) So the literal “our loving” is
understood as “loves us.” In very colloqual Welsh, the English grammar has been borrowed, so you will occasionally find
people saying caru fi instead of fy ngharu, the same way they say car fi instead of fy nghar, but learners should avoid this.

Bod & the subordinate clause

A clause is like a sentence, complete with subject, verb, and predicate. All clauses are either the main clause, which means
they could stand on their own as full-fledged sentences, or subordinate, which means they could not. (The terms
“independent” and “dependent” clauses are another way of saying the same thing.) The sentence I like fish but Fred prefers
ice cream contains two independent clauses, I like fish and Fred prefers ice cream, joined by a conjunction, but. Each works
as a full sentence. Other clauses are subordinate to the main clause: I like fish that come from rivers. The clause “that
(subject) come (verb) from rivers (predicate)” doesn’t work as an independent sentence: it depends on (i.e. modifies / tells
more information about) fish.

Conjunctions are used to join clauses. They can be simple, for example “and” (aH/ac), “but” (ond) & “or” (neuL), which join
two independent clauses. These work exactly as in English barring minor Welshisms such as the mutation and the change in
form (a→ac) before vowels. Remember that ac is pronounced as if it were written ag; the medieval spelling has been
retained to avoid confusion with the preposision âH/ag. The negative (“and not”) is the same: naH/nac, with the latter
pronounced as if written nag but written with a C to avoid confusion with naH/nag “than”.

Subordinating is trickier. Welsh doesn’t have a specific word that means the “that” that holds a subordinate clause. Most
commonly, it uses the verb-noun bod to replace the original conjugated verb “am,” “is,” or “are.” (For another way to
subordinate, see Lesson 17B).
Independent (conjugated verb + subject) → Dependent (possessive pronoun + verb-noun)
Dw i ‘I am’ → fy mod i ‘that I am’ (then followed by yn, wedi, etc.)
Rwyt ti ‘you are’ → dy fod di ‘that you are’
Mae e ‘he is’ → ei fod e ‘that he is’
 Mae hi ‘she is’ → ei bod hi ‘that she is’
Dyn ni ‘we are’ → ein bod ni ‘that we are’
Dych chi ‘you are’ → eich bod chi ‘that you are’
Maen nhw ‘they are’ → eu bod nhw ‘that they are’

In subordinate clauses, bod is verb and conjunction rolled together, to be translated “that. . . is.” In other words, fy ngharu is
best translated as “loves me,” but fy mod is best translated “that I am.” For the negative, “that . . . is not,” the construction is
slightly different. In the spoken language, a simple ddim follows the subject before the link, but in the written language the
negative uses naL / nad plus the conjugated present tense of the verb.

Positive:
Rwyt ti’n gwybod ei fod yn Ffrainc. You know that he is in France (literally “his being in France”)
Interrogative:
Wyt ti’n gwybod ei fod yn Ffrainc? Do you know that he is in France? (literally “his being in France”)
Negative:
spoken: Dw i’n gwybod [ei] fod e ddim yma. I know that he is not here. (literally “being he not here”)
written: Rwyf yn gwybod nad yw (or nad ydy) yma. I know that he is not here. (literally “which-not is here”)

Mae e’n dweud bod glaw yn dod yfory. He says that rain is coming tomorrow.
Dw i’n gweld bod dim cwmwl i’w weld. I see that there is not a cloud to be seen.
(formal: Rwyf yn gweld nad oes cwmwl i’w weld)

Vocabulary:

Frequency

bwyta (bwyta·), v. eat

gadael (gadaw·), v. leave
sylw, -adau, m. notice
adroddiad, -au, m. report
uchel, adj. high (equ. cyfuwch / cuwch, comp. uwch, superl. uchaf)
wedyn, adv. afterwards

Theme: Birds

aderyn, adar, m. bird

alarch, elyrch, m. swan
brân, brain, m. crow, raven
eryr, -od, m. eagle
gwalch, gweilch, m. hawk
gwylan, -od, f. gull
hwyaden, hwyaid, f. duck
pioden, piod, f. magpie
tylluan, -od, f. owl
gŵydd, gwyddau, f. goose
 Lesson Sixteen, Level B
Phrases

When a set of words is functioning as a unit, but does not have its own conjugated verb, it is known as a phrase. If that phrase
is headed by a preposition, it is a prepositional phrase, which can function as a single part of speech:

I am {here} (here is an adverb saying where I am)

I am {in the room} ({in the room} is an adverb saying where I am)
in is a preposition, the is an article, & room is a noun

{Soon} it will be hot. (soon is an adverb saying when it will be hot)

{By noon} it will be hot. ({by noon} is an adverb saying when it will be hot)
by is a preposition, & noon is a noun

I am travelling {fast}. (fast is an adverb saying how I am travelling)

I am travelling {by train}. ({by train} is an adverb saying how I am travelling)
by is a preposition, & train is a noun

In Welsh, prepositional phrases are used more extensively than in English. The dictionary form of a verb is called the verb-
noun (berfenw), which has properties of both parts of speech. In prepositional phrases it is acting as a noun rather than a
verb, though like a verb it can still have an object. If the object of the verb-noun is a pronoun, Welsh uses the possessive
pronoun. Sometimes the translation into English requires a bit of a logical leap: wrth “by, at” becomes “as, upon”; gan
“with, by” becomes “since”; almost every preposition gets pressed into use and slightly transformed in this way.

Heddiw, mae Sioned yn gwenu {Today}, Janet is smiling

Wrth fy ngweld i, mae Sioned yn gwenu. {Upon seeing me}, Janet smiles. adverb, when

Mae e ’n drist He is {sad}

Mae e heb dy weld di. He is {without seeing you} adverb, how
= He has not seen you

The English equivalent of prepositional phrases with the verb-noun bod are not phrases at all but dependent clauses, with the
Welsh verb-noun rendered as an English verb. In other words, although there is no verb in the Welsh phrase (bod is being a
noun), English requires it to be translated as a finite verb, making it a clause.

Welsh: prepositional phrase English: dependent clause

Er fy mod i’n hwyr, roedd popeth yn iawn. {Though I was late}, everything was fine.
adverb: how clause: modifies the predicate was fine
Gan dy fod di yma, helpwch fi. [You,] {Since you are here}, help me.
adverb: where clause: modifies the subject (unexpressed you)

In Welsh, you can start a sentence with just the verb-noun to mean “I. . . that” and follow it with bod:

Gobeithio fy mod i’n cael gwobr. I hope that I get a prize (literally “hoping my being getting”)
Tybed pwy yw’r brenin. I wonder who the king is.

Tybed can also be short for ai tybed, introducing a question. The usual translation is “I wonder” or “one wonders,” but other
meanings are possible, including “I suppose” or “it is likely.”

Vocabulary:
Frequency

eistedd (eistedd·), v. sit (dialectal iste)

teimlo (teiml·), v. feel
noson, nosweithiau, f. evening
bellach, adv. farther; now (by now / from now on)
nawr / rŵan / rwan, adv. now (at the moment)

Theme: Birds

cnocell (y coed), -au, f. woo dpecker

cog, -au, f. cuckoo
colomen, -nod, f. pigeon
dryw, -od, m. wren
eos, -ydd, f. nightengale
estrys, -od, f. ostrich
estrys Patagonia, -od P., rhea
hebog, -au, m. falcon
llinos, -od, f. linnet
pâl, palod, m. puffin
ysguthan, -od, f. woodpigeon
 Lesson Sixteen, Level C
There are a few obsolescent verbs which occasionally come up in hymns, quotes from the Bible, and very formal literature.
One of them is the cognate of English is, Irish is, Latin est, French est, et cetera: ys (pronounced like English “us”). In Old
and Middle Welsh, ys is relatively common, as in the poem Stafell Cynddylan, but in the modern language it is very
restricted.

Middle Welsh Modern Welsh English

Stauell Gyndylan ys tywyll heno, Mae Stafell Cynddylan yn dywyll heno, Cynddylan’s Room [=Hall] is dark tonight,
Heb dan, heb wely. Heb dân, heb wely. No fire, no bed.
Wylaf wers; tawaf wedy. Wylaf wers; tawaf wedyn. I’ll lament for a verse; I’ll be silent after.

As with Irish is, ys is used for verb-initial copula sentences. So where Welsh ordinarily says anifail yw llew “a lion is an
animal,” you could also say ys anifail llew, “a lion is an animal.” In the Bible, Romans 7:24 uses the copula ys: Ys truan o
ddyn wyf fi! Literally, “It is a wretch of a man I am!” rendered in the King James Version as “O wretched man that I am!”

It shows up in the occasional proverb, for example, Ys da felin a ballodd, “It is a good mill that has worn out” (more
colloquially, this could be Melin da yw melin sy wedi pallu).

The most common use of ys is in the set phrase ys gwn i (a / ai), “I wonder (whether).” Gwn is the irregular conjugated first
person present tense of gwybod. The ys, however, is a bit of a mystery; it also occurs as os, “if; whether.”

Ys gwn i oes rhywun yn gwybod I wonder if anyone knows

Ys gwn i ai Caerdydd fydd y gant a seithfed I wonder whether Cardiff will be the 107th
Ys gwn i beth ddigwyddodd iddo ef I wonder what happened to him

Another mysterious ys appears in ys dywed X, “as X says.” The Welsh may be a straight borrowing of English “as.”

Usually, when the copula ys appears in Modern Welsh, it is as just -YS or -S in the following words:

canys (in older texts can ys) “since, for, because” < gan ys “since it is” [can is an older form of gan “with”]
ers (in older texts er’s) “since” [time] < er ys “since it is”
megis (in older texts megys) “like, similar to” < (an old word for “largely”) + ys “it largely is”
sef (in older texts yssef) “that is, namely” < ys ef “it is”

If you encounter an independent ys or ydys at all, it is more likely to be as the impersonal present of bod, which, again, is
confined to the literary language; I believe that the impersonal ys is pronounced “iss,” unlike those above, but I can’t find
information to confirm or deny.

There is another -S, which comes from an old form of an object pronoun meaning “him,” “her,” “it,” or “them.” This ’s is
unusual on several counts: Welsh does not normally have grammatical case or specific object pronouns; when pronouns are
suffixed (attached to the previous word), it is usually not the personal pronouns but the possessive pronouns instead (i + fy
= i’m “to my”; o + ei = o’i “from his”; i + eu = i’w “to their,” etc.).

Usually, when ’s appears in Modern Welsh, it is in the following words:

nas “which. . . not” < na + ’s

nis “not” < ni + ’s
onis “unless,” “if. . . not” < o + ni + ’s
os “if” < o + ’s
pes “if” < pe + ’s

Of these, os is now the standard form, and o is rarely used on its own, so the -S is entirely meaningless. In contrast oni and pe,
other words for “if,” are almost never found as onis and pes in modern texts, so it rarely comes up. Nis and nas do occur, and
they are subtly different from the plain ni and na. For one thing, they can only be used with transitive verbs, that is, verbs
that can take an object (though remember that gallu “to be able” is transitive in Welsh), and that object cannot be “me,”
“you,” or “us.” This construction is found especially when the object is abstract or complex. Nis and nas are often found with
the impersonal, which in effect requires the verb to be translated as a passive. Nis defnyddir, “it is not used,” literally “[one]
uses it not.”

Vocabulary:

Frequency

cyhoeddi (cyhoedd·), v. publish

traddodiad, -au, m. tradition
llythyr (llythr), -au / -on, m. letter
cyffredin, adj. common

Theme: Birds

ciconia, -id, m. stork

cigfran, cigfrain, m. raven
cornchwiglen, cornchwiglod, f. lapwing
crëyr, crehyrod, m. heron
drudwen, -nod, m. starling
ehedydd, -ion, m. lark
garan, -od, m. crane
glas y dorlan, gleision y dorlan, m. kingfisher
gwyach, -od, f. grebe
paun, peunod, m. peafowl
pibydd, -ion, m. sandpiper
 Lesson Seventeen: Focus and Emphasis
Diagnostic Page, Lesson 17

No: Go to Level A
Question 1:
Do you understand sy in y gath sy’n
eistedd ar y gadair?
Yes: See Question 2

No: Go to Level B
Question 2:
Do you understand a in y gath a
eisteddai ar y gadair?
Yes: See Question 3

Question 3: No: Go to Level C

Do you understand the difference
between:
dw i'n gweld bod y gath ar y gadair &
Yes:
dw i'n gweld mai ar y gadair yw'r gath?
Skip Lesson Seventeen
 Lesson Seventeen, Level A
You have learned several ways to say “is,” the third-person singular of the indicative present tense “to be,” in Welsh:

Bod subordinating conjunction + verb Dw i’n gweld bod Owain yn drist. I see that Owain is sad.
Does negative indefinite form Does dim bwyd yma. There is no food here.
Dydy negative form (variant dyw) Dydy Owain ddim yn bwyta. Owain is not eating.
Mae positive form Mae e’n chwilio am fwyd. He is looking for food.
Oes positive / interrogative indefinite form Oes bwyd yn y stafell nesaf? Is there food in the next room?
So negative form (S. Wales dialect; var. smo) So fe’n dod o hyd i fwyd. He isn’t finding food.
Ydy interrogative form (also copula in N. Wales) Ydy e’n mynd i farw? Is he going to die?
Yw copula form (variant ydyw) Ydy, celain yw Owain nawr. Yes, Owain is a corpse now.

There are more. Lots more: mai, taw, ydys, ys, though most are relatively infrequent. One that is common is the relative
form, sy or sydd (the two are interchangeable).

Sy relative form (variant sydd) Pwy sy’n mynd i gladdu Owain? Who is going to bury Owain?

In Welsh, whenever you break the ordinary word order, anything that moves left, to the front of the sentence, gets a mild
emphasis or focus. Sy is a way of allowing this. The question words pwy and beth are the focus of the sentence, which is why
they get put in that emphatic position. Because they come in front of the verb they require sy to connect them. They are
pronouns, but nouns and other parts of speech can appear in the same position.

Pwy sy’n dod i’r noson lawen? Who is coming to the party?
Owain sy’n dod i’r noson lawen. Owain is coming to the party.

You can use sy for more ordinary emphasis:

Mae Owain yn dod i’r noson lawen. Owain is coming to the party. (neutral)
Owain sy’n dod i’r noson lawen. Owain is coming to the party. (Owain, as opposed to someone else)

You can also do this with the personal pronouns:

Fe sy’n dod i’r noson lawen. He is coming to the party. (He, as opposed to someone else)

Another key use of sy is for present-tense relative subordinate clauses. Essentially, this means providing more information
about a noun (including verb-nouns and pronouns) with a clause (set of words containing subject, verb, and predicate). The
clauses in blue below modify the words in red. Sy includes both the subject (the relative pronoun, “who” or “which” or
“that”) and the verb (“is”). The negative just adds ddim after the subject.

Dyma’r dyn sy wedi lladd y brenin. Here’s the man who killed the king.
(Who killed this king? The man.)
Wyt ti’n gweld y ci sy’n cerdded yn araf? Do you see the dog that is walking slowly?
(What is walking slowly? The dog.)
Mae Nia yn canu, sy’n well na weithio. Nia is singing, which is better than working.
(What is better than working? Singing.)
Mae’r gath sy’n eistedd ar y gadair yn ddiog. The cat that is sitting on the chair is lazy.
(What is sitting on the chair? The cat.)
Mae’r gath sy ddim yn eistedd ar y gadair yn ddiog. The cat that is not sitting on the chair is lazy.
(What is not sitting on the chair? The cat.)
Compare:
Dydy’r gath sy’n eistedd ar y gadair ddim yn ddiog. The cat that is sitting on the chair is not lazy.
(What is sitting on the chair? The cat.)
Fair warning: there are other ways to indicate relative clauses, and there are other subordinating words that can be transated
as “who,” “which,” and “that,” though only sy combines the relative pronoun with the verb.

Vocabulary:

Frequency

dangos (dangos·), v. show

cyrraedd (cyrhaedd·), v. arrive, reach
maes, meysydd, m. field
wyneb, -au, m. face; surface
duw, -iau, m. god
ymlaen, adv. on, onward, forward
hir, adj. long (pl. hirion; equ. cyhyd; comp. hwy; superl. hwyaf)

Theme: Nature

afon, -ydd, f. river

bryn, -iau, m. hill
carreg, cerrig, f. stone
craig, creigiau, f. rock
haul, heuliau, m. sun
lleuad, -au, f. moon
lloer, -iau, f. moon
llyn, -iau, m. lake
mynydd, -oedd, m. mountain
seren, sêr, f. star
 Lesson Seventeen, Level B
A focused sentence is one where you mess with the ordinary word order to emphasize, stress, or just highlight a word or a
phrase. In Welsh, that means putting the key word at the beginning of the sentences, as in beth sy’n digwydd? To create a
focused sentence in Welsh, sy only works with the present tense of bod. For any other tense of bod, or any other verb, you
need to use the relative pronoun aL (“who, whom; which”) or the particle y (“that”; often untranslated). Y becomes yr before
vowels, though unlike the definite article it never loses its Y to become ’r. Both aL and y are frequently skipped altogether,
though, almost always in speech and quite often in writing (in front of oedd, for example); usually all you see is the soft
mutation left over from aL. In the negative, both aL and y are naL, or nad before vowels. In spoken Welsh, the na(d) is often
omitted, and ddim is added after the subject.

The rules for deciding whether to use aL or y are simple:

subject + verb + predicate ⇨ subject + aL + verb + predicate

object + verb + predicate ⇨ object + aL + verb + predicate
anything else + verb + predicate ⇨ anything else + y(r) + verb + predicate
anything +verb + not + predicate ⇨ anything + naL(d) + verb (+ ddim) + predicate

Beth sy’n digwydd? What is happening? What ~which is~ happening: subject + sy
Beth a ddigwyddodd? What happened? What ⇨ happened: subject + aL
Beth na ddigwyddodd? What didn’t happen? What ⇨ did not happen: -subject+naL
Carw a welaist? Did you see a deer? Did you see ⇨ a deer: object + aL
Yr anifail a welais i oedd ci. The animal I saw was a dog.
/ The animal that I saw was a dog. I saw ⇨ the animal: object + aL
Anifail na welais i oedd carw. An animal (that) I did not see was a deer. I did not see ⇨ an animal -object + naL
Anifail welais i ddim oedd carw. An animal (that) I did not see was a deer.
Mae’n amlwg y gwelsoch chi garw. It’s obvious that you saw a deer. It’s obvious ↬ you saw ⇨ a deer: phrase + y
Mae’n amlwg na welsoch chi garw. It’s obvious that you did not see a deer. It’s obvious ↬ you did not see ⇨ a deer: -phrase + naL

Some words which are originally verbal phrases, like efallai (ef a allai), require y, as do some conjunctions such as fel “as,”
and some prepositions acting as conjunctions such as hyd (“as far as”).

Efallai y diflannodd y carw. Perhaps the deer disappeared. / It could be that the deer disappeared.
Fel y gwelwch, mae ceirw yn hudol. As you see, deer are magical.
Hyd y gwn i, Rwdolff sydd yr unig garw hudol. As far as I know, Rudolph is the only magical deer.

Technically, y is really the preverbal particle. In the examples above, the “that” is sort of an illusion, as the main +
subordinate clauses are really just two independent clauses shoved together:
Mae’n amlwg. Y gwelsoch chi garw. It’s obvious. You saw a deer.
Ef a allai. Y diflannodd y carw. It could be. The deer disappeared.
In Welsh, however, the preverbal particle can turn into a relative pronoun (“that”) and the independent sentence becomes a
dependent clause. The difference is in the way the sentences are spoken, with no pause before the y, and in the fact that (as
here), the two sentences are often rather clunky if set independently.

AL cannot be used for “whose,” the possessive case of who; there is no word for “whose” in Welsh, and the concept can only
be expressed in the same roundabout way as y clauses. In a sentence like “this is the man whose house I bought,” you have to
say “This is the man that I bought his house.”

Dyma’r dyn y prynais ei dŷ e. This is the man whose house I bought.

Vocabulary:
Frequency

digwydd (digwydd·), v. happen, occur

sefyll (sef·), v. stand
mwyn, -au, m. mine (ore, etc.); benefit, advantage
er mwyn for the sake of / for the benefit of
mwyn, adj. kind, gentle
hanner, haneri, m. half
posibl, adj. possible (colloq. posib)

Theme: Nature

awyr, f. air; sky

cors, -ydd, f. marsh, bog
cwm, cymoedd, m. (narrow) valley
cwmwl, cymylau, m. cloud
dyffryn, -oedd, m. valley
nant, nentydd, f. brook
ogof, -au, f. cave
ynys, -oedd, f. island
wybren, f. sky
 Lesson Seventeen, Level C
Sometimes you want to put a focused sentence into a subordinate clause. If you can create a subordinate clause with bod
(Lesson Sixteen A), this is easy: just substitute the word mai for bod, or, if you are in some parts of South Wales, use taw
instead. (A homonym of the imperative of tewi, “be silent”—Taw!—and of a noun meaning “silence.”) Note that, unlike bod,
neither mai nor taw can be be possessed, because the verb + subject comes later in the clause.

Rwy’n gwybod dy fod di’n gyrru car i Gaerdydd. I know that you are driving a car to Cardiff.
Rwy’n gwybod mai gyrru car i Gaerdydd wyt ti. I know that you are driving a car to Cardiff.

To practice, here are a few literary sentences with complex subordination. Focused elements are highlighted. Beneath, the
subordinate clauses are re-written as if they were main clauses, gradually untangling the complexity of the original sentence.

① Mae y Germaniaid oll yn gynhyrfus iawn, am eu bod yn ofni taw dechreu aflonyddu y mae y Ffrancod.
“Helyntion yr Amseroedd,” in Y Beirniad, 1860, p. 87

All of the Germans are very agitated, because they are afraid that the French are beginning to grow restless.

Mae y Germaniaid oll yn gynhyrfus iawn. Maen nhw’n ofni taw dechreu aflonyddu y mae y Ffrancod.
Mae y Germaniaid oll yn gynhyrfus iawn. Maen nhw’n ofni. Dechreu aflonyddu y mae y Ffrancod.
Mae’r Germaniaid oll yn gynhyrfus iawn. Maen nhw’n ofni. Y mae’r Ffrancod yn dechrau aflonyddu. [spelling modernized]

② Dywed rai mai yn ei dy cwrdd y canodd hi, ond tebyg mai anwiredd yw hyny; dywed y rhai mwyaf adnabyddus a’r
amgylchiad taw mewn cwrw bach y canodd hi.
T. D. Thomas, Bywgraffiad Iolo Morgannwg, 1857, p. 49

Some say that it was in his meetinghouse that she sang, but its likely that that is a falsehood; the majority familiar with the
situation say that it was in an ale night [fundraiser] that she sang.

Dywed rai mai yn ei dy cwrdd y canodd hi. Ond tebyg mai anwiredd yw hyny. Dywed y rhai mwyaf adnabyddus a’r
amgylchiad taw mewn cwrw bach y canodd hi.
Dywed rai. Yn ei dy cwrdd oedd. Y canodd hi. Ond tebyg anwiredd yw hyny. Dywed y rhai mwyaf adnabyddus a’r
amgylchiad. Mewn cwrw bach oedd. Y canodd hi.
Dywed rai. Roedd yn ei dŷ cwrdd. Y canodd hi. Ond tebyg anwiredd yw hynny. Dywed y rhai mwyaf adnabyddus â’r
amgylchiad. Roedd mewn cwrw bach. Y canodd hi. [modernized spelling]

③ . . . os “Tylwyth Teg” y gelwid hwy, ymddengys i ni mai nid Teg iawn oedd llawer i ystranc o’u heiddo. . . .
Cyfaill yr Aelwyd 1:1 (16 October 1880), p. 20

. . . if they were called “Fair Family,” it seems to us that many of the tricks they had were not very Fair. . . .

os “Tylwyth Teg” y gelwid hwy. Ymddengys i ni mai nid Teg iawn oedd llawer i ystranc o’u heiddo
os “Tylwyth Teg” y gelwid hwy. Ymddengys i ni. Nid Teg iawn oedd llawer i ystranc o’u heiddo
os “Tylwyth Teg” y gelwid hwy. Ymddengys i ni. Nid oedd llawer i ystranc o’u heiddo yn Deg iawn

Vocabulary:

Frequency

gofalu (gofal·), v. take care of

Prydain, f. Britain
adnawdd / adnodd, adnoddau, m. resource

Theme: Nature

aber, -ydd, m. estuary, rivermouth

allt, elltydd, f. (wooded) cliff, steep hillside
anialwch, m. desert
ffynnon, ffynhonnau, f. spring, fountain, well
golygfa, golygfeydd, m. viewpoint, vista (sight or place)
gorwel, -ion, m. horizon
llosgfynydd, -oedd, m. volcano
machlud, -oedd, m. sunset
machludo (machlud·), v. set (sun)
rhaeadr, -au, f. waterfall
rhiw, -ydd, f. slope, hillside
 Lesson Eighteen: Translation and Idioms
Diagnostic Page, Lesson 18

No: Go to Level A
Question 1:
Can you say “I own a cat” in
Welsh?
Yes: See Question 2

No: Go to Level B
Question 2:
Do you know when the Welsh for
“for” is i and when it is am ?
Yes: See Question 3

Question 3: No: Go to Level C

If you are wrth eich bodd yn gwneud
eich gorau glas i redeg nerth eich traed,
do you know what you are doing and
how you are feeling? Yes:
Skip Lesson Eighteen
 Lesson Eighteen, Level A
Since “to have” in Welsh is expressed in a roundabout way, and still to a very slight degree implies possession of a physical
object, how would you convey more abstract notions of belonging and ownership? How do you say “this is mine” or “that is
yours”?

The answers are simple on a practical basis, though less so grammatically. As with eisiau, nouns get pressed into service as
not-quite-verbs, which then take on a life of their own; possessive pronouns likewise get morphed into verbs; and, as so often
in Welsh, a form of the verb bod gets permanently stuck to another part of speech and creates a word which bridges different
parts of speech. Here are six options for possessing something:

bod (irregular), v. + various prepositions have (general): see Lesson Eight

cael (irregular), v. have (abstract): see Lesson Eight
eiddo, pron. his, its
n.m. property
v. mine, yours, his, hers, etc. / belongs to
meddiannu (meddiann·), v. possess, occupy
perchen, -ion, n.m. owner
v. owns / belongs to
(the noun for “owner” is more generally perchennog (m) / perchnoges (f), pl. perchnogion)
piau, pronoun + v. who is it that > belongs to / owns

Eiddo, as a rule, means “property”: eiddo fy ffrind yw’r rhain, these are my friend’s property.
It can also be used as a possessive predicate: eiddo fy ffrind yw’r rhain, these are my friend’s.
In general, eiddo is definite, and takes the definite article unless (as above) it is possessed by another definite noun.
It conjugates like a preposition, though in the spoken language this is rare:
eiddof mine eiddom ours
eiddot yours eiddoch yours
eiddo his eiddynt theirs
eiddi hers
[The third-person forms are older versions of the possessive pronouns ei / eu. The old first and second persons were mau, tau, einym, and einwch.
These were originally placed following the noun they modified, not before it as with the modern possessive pronouns, and with the article could be
used predicatively: y mau, “mine.” In “Trafferth mewn Tafarn,” Dafydd ap Gwilym uses ‘mau’ instead of ‘fy’ in mau enaid teg, “my fair soul.”]

In spoken Welsh, it is more common to use eiddo alone, to the exclusion of the other forms:
Mae’n eiddo i mi, it is mine (lit. it is property to me)
This construction is identical to what it would look like if eiddo were a verb, and it is perfectly sound to translate this as:
Mae’n eiddo i mi, it belongs to me
You can do the same thing with an expressed noun. Consider this sentence from Y Dysgedydd [“The Pupil”], May 1865,
p. 151, which can be validly translated in two ways:
Heb hynny bydd y capel yn eiddo i’r ymddiriedolwyr.
Without that, the chapel will {be the trustees’ property} / {belong to the trustees}.
While the first option more closely matches the grammar of the Welsh, the second is more natural in English.

Another option, avoiding eiddo altogether, is to say fy un i / fy rhai i, “mine” (literally “my one” or “my ones”).

Meddiannu is an actual verb. It derives from the noun meddiant, “possession,” and the sense is “take possession of” or “have
possession of,” in both concrete and abstract senses. (Demons use meddiannu when they possess people.) Ultimately the root
is medd “authority, power,” or even “possession” in the sense of something you have authority over. The sense with all of
these words is related to possessions that have been acquired, and does not necessarily have a sense of permanence—it’s often
used for the verb occupy, as in what protestors or the military do.

Perchen refers not to the possession but to the possessor. Be careful with the prepositions, though: to own something is bod yn
berchen arL «something», but with the preposition iL + «possessor» it has the opposite meaning. Because the part of speech is
in flux, it does not always take the soft mutation after yn:
Mae Sioned yn berchen ar gath. / Mae Sioned yn perchen ar gath. “Sioned owns a cat.”
Mae’r gath yn berchen i Sioned. / Mae’r gath yn perchen i Sioned. “The cat belongs to Sioned.”

The final form, piau, is a compressed form most closely related to pwy yw “who is.” Piau rarely mutates, and the word
follows the owner:
Sioned piau’r gath. Sioned owns the cat / The cat belongs to Sioned.
When piau has a possessive pronoun, as with other verbs, that is the object. A common construction is «possessor» + a
[relative pronoun] + infixed possessive pronoun + piau, which is always unmutated:
Efe a’n piau We belong to him (literally “he who our piau”).
Idiomatically, piau hi (literally “owns it”) means something like “is the best option.” The Welsh idiom Pwyll piau hi, literally
“Common sense owns it,” means something like “Proceed cautiously.”

Vocabulary:

Frequency

eiddo, pron. / n.m. (predicate) his, its, etc.; property

piau, v. whose is / are; owns
datblygu (datblyg·), v. develop
cofio (cofi·), v. remember
cynllun, -iau, m. plan
golwg, golygon, f. / m. sight, view, vision, appearance (note: google search for yr olwg (f.), 55%; y golwg (m.), 45%)
gwybodaeth, -au, f. knowledge
pwysig, adj. important
diweddar, adj. late

Theme: Geography

cyfeiriad, -au, n.m. direction; address

gorllewin, adj. / n.m. west
dwyrain, adj. / n.m. east
gogledd, adj. / n.m. north
de, adj. / n.m. south
de, adj. / n.f. right
i’r dde, adj. to the right
chwith, adj. left
i’r chwith, adj. to the left
syth ymlaen, adv. straight (on), forward
daear, -au, f., earth
gwlad, gwledydd, f. country
 Lesson Eighteen, Level B
Speaking a foreign language requires turning off your English brain, which can be difficult to do. One of the reasons foreign
languages are such good mental exercises are that some words don’t translate one-to-one, and they force you out of your
mental comfort zone. Prepositions are especially notorious.

For example, there is no specific word for “for” in Welsh. I “to, for” is the go-to preposition (and be careful that your spell-
check doesn’t capitalize it mid-sentence), but am “about, around” is also frequent. I compiled the list below by looking at
translations I have made where the word “for” appears in the English and trying to figure out what, precisely, was the
distinction. As such, treat this as a rough guide!

When “for” implies metaphysical movement towards (This is a gift for you), the preposition is i
When “for” implies “among” or a quality possessed (It is common for people to be happy), the preposition is i
When “for” implies means (Here’s something for you to use), the preposition is i
When “for” implies purpose (Here’s something for you to do), the preposition is i
When “for” implies delegation (Working for you), the preposition is i
When “for” implies result (The consequences for you are bad), the preposition is i
When the same verb or adjective has both “to” and “for” (I’m grateful to you for this), “to” is i and “for” is am
When “for” implies exchange (I am swapping this for that), the preposition is am
In the sense of “for the reason of,” “as for,” or “since,” “for” is am
This can extend to “for the sake of” (but see er mwyn below): am eu hoedl, “for dear life” / “for their lives” am
With English verbal expressions (“look for,” “pay for”), the preposition is usually am
With expressions of time, distance, and money (“for a week,” “for a mile,” “for a pound”), the preposition is am
With expressions of time that do not have an end point (I’ve been living here for ten years), the preposition is ers
With English nominal expressions (“name for,” “explanation for”), the preposition is usually ar
When “for” restrictively implies “specifically for” (A prize for students, tips for writing), the preposition is ar gyfer
When “for” implies in the stead of (I’m doing this for my absent friend), the preposition is ar ran
When “for” implies on behalf of (I’m playing for Wales = I represent Wales), the preposition is dros
When “for” implies concern for (I’m taking responsibility for this), the preposition is dros
When “for” implies benefit (I’m doing this for you), the preposition is dros or i
When “for” implies “for the occasion of” (I wrote this for the festival), the preposition is erbyn
When “for” means “moving in the direction of, toward,” (setting out for home) the preposition is tua(g)
and in some South Wales dialects sha
Idiomatically, the preposition is often er
“For the benefit of” is er budd
“For example” is er enghraifft
“For the sake of” and “for” in that sense is er mwyn
“In order to” is er mwyn
“Except for” is ac eithrio
“Except for” can also be namyn
“For one thing” is yn un peth
When “for” is a conjunction (For he’s a jolly good fellow = since he’s good), use “because” oherwydd
When “for” is a conjunction, literary Welsh can also use canys

Several of the above conjugate: iddi hi, amdani hi, arni hi, ar ei chyfer, ar ei rhan, drosti hi, er ei mwyn, a’i heithrio, o’i
herwydd. Of the prepositions here, only namyn does not. Tua and sha cause aspirate mutation; many of the others cause soft
mutation.

Consider: Mae Owain yn gweithio dros yr achos i Nia am pythefnos am yr arian.

Owain is working for the cause for Nia for a fortnight for the money. (Nia is the boss; the cause gets the benefit.)
Another difficult word is “with,” this time because in Welsh you are spoiled for choice.

The differences between the four Welsh words for “with” (âH, (h)efo, ganL, & gydaH) are both subtle and regional. Gyda is
largely a South Welsh form, and efo is more or less North Welsh. About ⅓ of the time efo is hefo, with an H; nothing to do with
vowels, mutations, or meaning, just speaker’s choice. The meaning is essentially the same as that of gydaH. These two are
used for physical proximity (efo / gyda Nia, “(together) with Nia”), while âH expresses the instrument (â phensil, “with a
pencil”) and attributes (â chynffon, “with a tail”); ganL expresses the manner in which something is done (gan ofal, “with
care”) or agent who does something (gan Mihangel, by Michael). Possession (“have”) is ganL in North Wales, gydaH in South
Wales.

Mae gan Owain gar â phedwar drws Owain has a car with four doors.
Roedd Nia gydag Owain yn y damwain. Nia was with Owain in the accident.

Vocabulary:

Frequency

gweithredu (gweithred·), v. act, operate

talu (tal·), v. pay
rheswm, rhesymau, m. reason
natur, f. nature
ynglŷn, adj. connected, joined
ynglŷn â, prep. regarding, concerning, with respect to

Theme: Geography

dinas, -oedd, f. city

tref, -i, f. town
pentref, -i, f. village
prifddinas, -oedd, f. capital city
Athen, Athens
Caerdydd, Cardiff
Caeredin, Edinburgh
Caersalem, Jerusalem
Jeriwsalem, Jerusalem
Dulyn, Dublin
Efrog Newydd, New York
Llundain, London
Rhufain, Rome
 Lesson Eighteen, Level C
Every language has idioms, set phrases which cannot be translated literally. Well, you can, but it won’t help you understand
what they mean. Mae hi’n bwrw hen wragedd â ffyn, for example, is literally “she is throwing old women with sticks,” but
means “it is raining heavily.” The English idiom, “it’s raining cats and dogs,” is similarly nonsensical when taken literally.

The hundreds of Welsh idioms add colour and flavour to the language. They need to be learned one by one, but here are a
few of the common ones (though I’m afraid they tend to be less exotic than rhoi’r ffidl yn y tô, “give up,” literally ‘put the
fiddle in the roof”). I have used eu for the examples, but you can always substitute any other possessive pronoun with the
appropriate mutations, and sometimes changing the noun from plural (e.g. pennau) to singular (pen). For example, “ar fy
mhen fy hun” (I, alone) vs. “ar eich pennau eich hunain” (you, alone).

Idiom Literal meaning Figurative meaning / translation

a dweud y gwir and speaking the truth frankly / actually / in fact
(S. Wales occasionally a gweud y gwir)
ar ben on a head over, finished, done
ar eu pennau eu hun(ain) on their own heads alone, on their own
arian gleision blue silver (blue money) coins, change
arian parod ready silver (ready money) cash
awyr iach healthy air fresh air
bola’r goes the belly of the leg calf [body part]
bore bach little morning early morning
brith gof speckled memory faint memory
byth a hefyd ever and also continually
coch red of poor quality or taste; in some colour contexts brown
codi cefn raise a back gain strength
defaid gwynion white sheep whitecaps [white horses]
dod o hyd i rywbeth come across to something find something
does dim ots gyda X there are no odds with X X doesn’t mind [British English] / doesn’t care [North American]
er fy (mawr) syndod despite my (great) surprise to my (great) surprise
er mwyn popeth for the sake of everything for goodness’ sake
gefn nos at back of night in the middle of the night [heart of the night, dead of the night]
glas blue early; in some colour contexts grey; green
gweld eisiau see a lack of miss [feel bad that someone/-thing isn’t present]
gwneud (eu) gorau glas do (their) blue best do (their) level best / very best
gwyn (eu) byd white (their) world blessed, very happy
gyda llaw with a hand by the way
hud a lledrith magic and magic magic
llygad yr haul the sun’s eye direct sunlight, full sun
mae’n debyg (bod) it’s likely (that) probably
(i) maes o law field of hand [out of hand] in a little while, in due course
nerth (eu) pennau strength of (their) heads as loud as (they) can / could
nerth (eu) traed strength of (their) feet as fast as (they) can / could go
pam lai? why less? why not?
pob migwrn ac asgwrn every knuckle and bone every bone in one’s body
rhoi’r gorau i rywbeth give the best to something give something up
taro ar hit upon / strike upon encounter, meet by chance
wrth eu boddau at their pleasures in their element; thrilled; overjoyed
wrth gwrs by course of course
ych y fi! / ach y fi! ugh me! yuck! / eww!
note: ach a fi is recommended by Geiradur Prifysgol Cymru, and ach y fi is more common, but I prefer ych y fi.
yn gwylltio’n gacwn to grow wild waspily to be furious [mad as a hornet]
Vocabulary:

Frequency

helpu (help·), v. help

gweinidog, -ion, m., minister
dylanwad, -au, m., influence
sicr, adj., sure

Theme: Geography

Note: The gender of some countries is variable.

Yr Ariannin, f. Argentina
Patagonia, f. Patagonia
Lloegr, f. England
Cymru, f. Wales
Yr Alban, f. Scotland
Iwerddon, f. Ireland
Y Derynas Unedig (y DU) United Kingdom (UK)
Ffrainc, f. France
Llydaw, m. Brittany
Ynys Manaw, m. Isle of Man
Cernyw, m. Cornwall
Yr Ysbaen, f. Spain
Yr Almaen, f. Germany
Yr Eidal, f. Italy
Canada, f. Canada
Yr Unol Daleithiau (UDA) USA
 Lesson Nineteen: Poetry
Diagnostic Page, Lesson 19

No: Go to Level A
Question 1:
Do you know the difference
between Welsh rhyme and English
rhyme?
Yes: See Question 2

No: Go to Level B
Question 2:
Do you know what cynghanedd
sounds like?
Yes: See Question 3

No: Go to Level C

Question 3:
Can you write an englyn in Welsh?
Yes:
Skip Lesson Nineteen
 Lesson Nineteen, Level A
Wales has a unique cultural instition, the Eisteddfod (literally, “Session”), a sort of festival of language and literature. The
heart of the festival is the composition of poetry; poets compete for prizes in several categories of both traditional and new
forms of Welsh poetry. Poetry, in other words, is a big deal in Wales. Most of the forms of poetry found in English exist in
Welsh, but Welsh has a long and distinctive poetic tradition of its own, and it is well worth learning some of the ins and outs.

The first thing is to discard some English-based assumptions about rhyme and metre. Metre first: in English, metrical feet are
made up of a pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables. This doesn’t exist in traditional Welsh poetry.1 Like Old English
verse, Welsh poetry is based on syllable count, not stress count. The various named metres have lines of three through ten
syllables, but seven-syllable lines dominate Welsh poetry. They are everywhere, from poems to idioms to proverbs to set
phrases, reinforced by their usage in the popular metres known as the cywydd and englyn. For example:

Nid rhy hen neb i ddysgu, “No one is too old to learn.” This proverb uses the poetic line and abnormal word order to sound
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 distinct from ordinary speech. Poetry takes full advantage of the flexibility of Welsh word order,
meaning that poetry sounds stronger, denser and more deliberate than ordinary prose. Word by word, this proverb is “not too
old anyone to learn,” meaning that “not too old” is the emphasized part of the sentence, which is actually impossible to
convey in English because the negative is caught up in the pronoun “no one.” The proverb also leaves out the main verb; by
including the copula, Nid rhy hen → yw ← neb i ddysgu, the eight-syllable line would sound less poetic and more like an
ordinary sentence.

Y ddraig goch ddyry cychwyn is a line from a medieval Welsh poem. Grammatically, the poem ought to include the
1 2 3 45 6 7 relative particle a: Y ddraig goch → a ← ddyry gychwyn. (Gychwyn because, by modern
Welsh rules, the object of ddyry should also be mutated.) But that a would have been an eighth syllable, and so it was
omitted.

The line itself relies on all sorts of technical aspects of Welsh grammar for its impact. By beginning the sentence with a noun
phrase, it puts emphasis on y ddraig goch “the red dragon.” Dyry is the (irregular and old-fashioned) conjugated present
tense of rhoi “give, put, place” in the third person, which can have a future sense. Cychwyn is a verb-noun meaning “setting
out, starting, initiative” here acting as a noun. So the literal rendering would be something like: “It is the red dragon that
giveth the initiative.” That, of course, is very awkward, and so conventionally it is translated, correctly, as “The red dragon
will lead the way.” In the English, though, you cannot see the emphasis on the dragon which is so clear in the Welsh, and you
can’t see the subtle distinction between “leading the way,” where the focus is on the dragon’s leadership, and ddyry gychwyn,
where the poet is really talking about the cychwyn, the start of a real or metaphorical journey that the dragon will lead. The
line compresses the ideas “Who is starting us off on our journey, or else giving us the inspiration for it, which might be now
but might also be in the future? The red dragon.” (All of this is quite divorced from the line in the context of its original poem,
some lines about the amorous efforts of cattle, where cychwyn probably has a rather different meaning.)

Having gone through that, compare the line to its equivalent sentence in colloquial Welsh:

Y ddraig goch ddyry cychwyn poetry

Mae’r ddraig goch yn rhoi cychwyn not poetry

This line, in its original, is part of a cywydd, a two-line, fourteen-syllable couplet. The word that rhymes with cychwyn is
llwyn. This doesn’t rhyme by English rules, in which rhyme only counts if everything matches from the stressed vowel to the
end of the word. In the cywydd, however, the rhyme is on the pitch accent, which can only be the last syllable of the word,
and cywyddau actually prefer to match one stressed syllable ( llẃyn) with an unstressed (cýchwyn), so that the pitch accent
matches but the stress accent does not.

Welsh poetry uses regular, English-style rhyme, too, but often internally, where the rhyming syllables occur within the same
line, instead of just end rhyme as English prefers. Some types of verse match and end rhyme with an internal one. Ideally, the

1
Perhaps not 100% true technically, but functionally true.
vowels are the same length, so that tân and man don’t rhyme perfectly. There is also a broader sense of rhyme, like English
“slant rhyme” (where nine might rhyme with time: not a perfect rhyme, but closer than nine and cow or nine and pearl). In
Welsh, both vowels and consonants are divided into groups or classes, and anything from the same class can be used for lled-
odl, Welsh slant rhyme, also known as odl Wyddelig, “Irish rhyme.” The formal system is not used in Modern Welsh.

The folk rhyme equivalent to “Red sky at night, sailors’ delight; red sky at morning, sailors take warning” uses both true and
half-rhyme (as does the English).

Coch i fyny, teg yfory Red up [high], fair tomorrow lled-odl of -ny and -ry
Coch i lawr, glaw mawr Red down [low], a great rain rhyme of lawr and mawr

Vocabulary:

Frequency

darllen (darllen·), v. read

ysgrifennu (ysgrifenn·), v. write (colloquial sgrifennu or sgwennu)
cwmni, cwmnïau, m. company
hyd, -au, m. length
ar hyd, prep. along
o hyd, adv. still
dod o hyd (i), v. find, come across
pwyllgor, -au, m. council
unwaith, adj. once
ailL, adj. second

Theme: Travel

brêc, breciau, m. brake

car, ceir, m. car
cerbyd, -au, m. vehicle
cist, -iau, f. trunk (N. Am.) / boot (UK)
ffordd, ffyrdd, m. road
gyrru (gyrr·), v. drive
llyw, -iau, m. steering wheel
peiriant, peiriannau, m. engine / machine
rhod, -iau, f. wheel
teiar, -s, m. tire (UK, tyre)
trwydded yrru / trwyddedau gyrru, f. driving licence
 Lesson Nineteen, Level B
In addition to syllable counting and rhyme, Welsh poetry has a unique degree of admiration for alliteration. The Welsh word
cynghangedd means “harmony,” but refers to a pattern of repeated alliteration in the context of poetry. Essentially, how it
works is that each line is divided into two or three sections, and the consonants in one section are repeated in another, and /
or there is the repetition of a syllable or rhyme. This sounds simple, but the effect is nearly impossible to reproduce effectively
in English, though some have tried. Here is an example by Twm Morys:

I have seen the Diva, sir,

mending your salamander.
I knew she'd been beaten hard
for losing half your lizard.
And I've seen the Diva's sons
drugging komodo dragons
in Peking. They were singing,
and the gecko echoing.
When we kissed I noticed newts
with oboes in her thighboots. (Text from [Link]

The metre here is the cywydd, couplets of seven-syllable lines where a stressed syllable rhymes with an unstressed. This poem
illustrates various types of cynghanedd. There are four main variations: Cynghanedd lusg (“dragging”) slows the poem
down. Syllables repeat as in “gecko echo” or “Peking. . . singing.” Cynghanedd groes (“cross”) (line 4) simply repeats the
consonants from the first half in the second half, though it is normal for the final consonant not to repeat. Cynghanedd draws
(“across”) (lines 1 & 2) is similar, but only covers part of the line. The specific rules are complex, but the pattern is clearly
audible (since it goes by sound, not spelling):

I have seen the Diva, sir, / mending your salamander.

I knew she'd been beaten hard / for losing half your lizard.

Cynghanedd Sain (“sound”) combines cynghanedd lusg and one of the other two: the fourth line, above, alliterates the
pattern F-R-L-Z, rhymes for with your internally, and lizard with hard in the previous line.

The net effect is a highly ornamented poem, where there is something going on in every line, and usually several things: equal
line length, alliterative patterns, internal rhyme, and end rhyme. Cywyddau are usually rather longer than Twm Morys’s
example, and can use repeated patterns to link different sections of the poem. All of this is in addition to the sense of the
words, which (frankly) sometimes gets lost in the sound.

Wales’s greatest poet, Dafydd ap Gwilym, used cynghanedd to great effect. Sadly, one of the reasons he is not known as
Europe’s greatest poet is because of the difficulty of translating his works. Stripped to the bare meaning, or even the meaning
with end rhyme, he’s a nice poet but not special. If you have even a little Welsh, however, you can truly appreciate his
mastery of the craft. Here are lines 13–20 of his poem to the moon. Alliterating consonants are in red, and syllables with
nearby rhymes are underlined, and the repeated vowel oe is in blue. Some of these are added on top of the proper
cynghanedd (e.g. golydan), but you can certainly see the complexity. Almost every word, and most of the consonants, are
part of a rich pattern.

Gwn ddisgwyl dan gain ddwysgoed, I know to wait beneath fine solemn trees,
Gwyw fy nrem rhag ofn erioed. My vision is always feeble from fear.
Gwaeth no’r haul yw’r oleuloer, The bright moon is worse than the sun,
Gwaith yr oedd, mawr oedd, mor oer. Since it was, and this was a big deal, so cold.
Gwelïoedd dagreuoedd dig, The wounds of angry tears,
Gwae leidr a fo gwyliedig. Woe to a thief who is seen.
Golydan ail eirian loer, A wide moon like a radiant maiden,
Goleudapr hin galedoer. A candle of cold, hard weather.
The translation of the poem doesn’t sound like all that much; the poet is complaining about the moonlight, which gets in the
way of his sneaking around to meet his lover. In addition to the complexity of the interlinked sounds, though, the poet uses
inventive compound words such as dwysgoed and goleudapr, and poetic words such as cain, drem, and eirian. To have it
make any sense at all on top of the beauty of the sound is amazing.

Welsh also uses a type of word-end alliteration called proest, the final consonants are the same but the vowels differ.

Vocabulary:

Frequency

chwilio (chwili·), v. look for, seek, try

ennill (enill·), v. earn; win
pwnc, pynciau, m. point
rhaglen, -ni, f. programme
cyd, -iau, n.m. union
cyd- co-; inter-; mutual

Theme: Travel

angor, -au, m. anchor

bad, -au, m. boat
bwrdd, byrddau, m. deck, board
ar fwrdd, adj. aboard
capten, -iaid, m. captain
cwch, cychod, m. (smaller) boat
llong, -au, f. ship
llyw, -iau, m. rudder, tiller
hwyl, -iau, f. sail
hwylio (hwyli·), v. sail
môr, -oedd, m. sea
rhwyf, -au, f. oar
 Lesson Nineteen, Level C
Along with the cywydd, the main Welsh verse forms are the awdl and the englyn. Awdl is just an older pronunciation of the
word odl, “rhyme.” The form of the awdl is relatively complex; there is a good English-language overview of all of the Welsh
metres here, including the complexities of the various types of awdl and some of the other types of cywydd. Another is here,
with examples of the forms from English verse.

From the earliest period in Welsh to the modern era, though, the short englyn has proved to be popular and enduring. It
predates the cywydd by several centuries. There are a few types of englynion. All are short (though, like haiku or limericks,
you can string them together). The englyn unodl union (“englyn of just one rhyme”) is based around four rhyming seven-
syllable lines, with two key exceptions. The first line has an additional three syllables after the rhyme, and the second line is
one syllable short, so it looks like this:

1 2 3 4 5 6 rhyme 8 9 10
1 2 3 4 5 rhyme
1 2 3 4 5 6 rhyme
1 2 3 4 5 6 rhyme

The tail of the first line, after the rhyme, should be echoed in the second half of the second line. Lines three and four are a
cywydd, seven-syllable lines rhyming stressed and unstressed syllable, and all four lines must exhibit some form of
cynghanedd. A variant on this lacks the fourth line.

As a fun metre, it can be played with. Here is Englyn i’r Pryf-Copyn, heb un gytsain (“An Englyn to the Spider, without a
Single Consonant”) [anonymous, 17th century; in Diferion y Beirdd (1842), p. 31]—something to quote at your friends who
complain that Welsh has no vowels.

O’i wiw wy i weu e a—a’i weau From its fine egg it goes to weave—and its webs
O’i wyau e weua It weaves from its eggs
E weua ei we aia’, It weaves its winter web
A’i weau yw ieuau ia! And wefts of ice are its weavings!

(Note that the single word e here is y in Modern Welsh, and aia’ is [g]aeaf, and that the odd idea of weaving spiderwebs from
eggs is mentioned in the Bible.)

The same collection of anonymous poetry gives us englynion from gravestones, for example (p. 58):

Gwraig gu o deulu gwaedoliaeth—dirion A dear woman from a good family—kind

Hyd oriau marwolaeth Up to the hour of death
Dygwyd hi o’i chymdogaeth She was borne from her neighbourhood
I’w bedd yn wir—boddi wnaeth To her grave, truly—she drowned.

Another version of the englyn is four seven-syllable lines, rhyming AABA, with the B rhyme repeated internally in the third or
fourth syllable of the fourth line; the plainest is the soldier’s englyn, just three seven-syllable lines sharing a rhyme. For
example, Arthur (King Arthur) uses the soldier’s englyn to insult Cei (Sir Kay) in the Mabinogion tale of Culhwch & Olwen:

Middle Welsh Modern Welsh English

Kynnỻyuan aoruc kei Cynllyfan a wnaeth Cai Kay made a leash
o uaryf dillus uab eurei O farf Dillus fab Eurai From the beard of Dillus, son of Eurai
pei Jach dy angheu uydei Pe iach, dy angau fyddai If he were healthy, it would be your death

Here, the end rhyme (kei / -rei / -dei) is echoed internally in line 3 with pei. Note that the only difference between the Middle
and Modern Welsh, besides spelling, is the form wnaeth for orug.
There are half a dozen other variants on the englyn, as well.

Vocabulary:

Frequency

adnabod (irregular; adna- + bod), v. know (person), recognize (colloquial nabod)

cylch, -oedd / -au, m. circle
llenyddiaeth, -au, f. literature
aml, adj. often

Theme: Travel

awyren, -nau, f. airplane

maes awyr, meysydd awyr, m. airport
bag, bagiau, m. luggage
glanio (glani·), v. land
gwersylla (gwersyll·), v. camp
gwesty, gwestai, m. hotel
hedfan (hedfan·), v. fly
pabell, pebyll, m. tent
taith, teithiau, f. journey
tocyn, -nau, m. ticket
trên, -au, m. train
trwydded deithio, trwyddedau teithio, f. passport
 Lesson Twenty: Proverbs
Diagnostic Page, Lesson 20

No: Go to Level A
Question 1:
Do you know a few Welsh
proverbs?
Yes: See Question 2

No: Go to Level B
Question 2:
Can you translate a proverb using
the a. . . a construction?
Yes: See Question 3

No: Go to Level C
Question 3:
Can you translate a proverb or
proverbial phrase using po? Yes:
Llongyfarchiadau!
Now go to the Bibliography
and start reading grammars.
 Lesson Twenty, Level A
A proverb is a kind of traditional sentence (that is, a more or less set phrase with only minor variations). Set
expressions that are not full sentences are proverbial phrases (and proverbial phrases that cannot be translated
literally are idioms: see Lesson 18 C). Proverbs express wisdom, and very often, take the form of poetry: in Welsh,
they often use the five- or seven-syllable line, with emphatic word order and sometimes alliteration and even
rhyme. Their form as well as their content is what makes them uniquely Welsh.

Adar o’r unlliw hedant i’r un lle. Birds of the same colour fly to the same place
(=Birds of a feather flock together.)
Repeated consonants, internal rhyme: o’R uNLLiw→i’R uN LLe
Abnormal order (emphasizing “birds” + omitted relative pronoun: adar o’r unlliw →a← hedant i’r unlle.

Gwell car yn llys nag aur ar fys. Better a friend in court than gold on a finger.
Internal rhyme; old-fashioned / poetic word car “friend” (derived from the verb caru, “love”) instead of
cyfaill or ffrind.

Nid ar redeg y mae aredig Ploughing is not done on the run

Repeated consonants, internal rhyme: aR ReDeG→aReDiG

Ni wyr yn llwyr namyn llyfr No one but a book knows everything.

7 syllables, repeated consonants, internal rhyme: Ni wyr yN LLwyR nam→yN LLyfR

The majority, however, rely on abnormal word order and old-fashioned language, and sometimes wordplay, for
their poetry.

Gellir yfed yr afon, ond nid ellir bwyta y dorlan The river can be drunk, but the bank cannot be eaten.

Ni thelir gweli tafod namyn i arglwydd A wound of the tongue [insult] is only paid to a lord
(=ordinary people can insult with impunity)

Goreu taw, taw tewi The best silence is the silencing [=ending] of silence

Nid da rhodio yn y gwawl Walking in the light is no good

Lle dalo diawl y ganwyll Where the devil holds the candle
(note the subjunctive mood of “hold”)

Llyswen mewn dwrn yw arian Money is an eel in a fist

(=it’s hard to hold onto money)

Ig ar blentyn cryfiant, ar henddyn methiant A child’s hiccough is strength;

internal rhyme an old man’s hiccough means he is failing
Llais deilen yn y gwynt A leaf’s voice [=rustling] in the wind
A darf gydwybod euog Disturbs a guilty conscience

Ni ddaw doe byth Yesterday will never come again.

(Note the rare use of doe as a noun rather than in adverbial form as ddoe.)

Ni bydd y dryw heb ei lyw The wren would not be without his tail
(=be it every so humble, there’s nothing like one’s own self / stuff)
(Note: lyw is from llyw, not glyw)

Gwell ci da na dyn drwg Better a good dog than a bad man

Gŵr dieithr yw yfory Tomorrow is a stranger

There are hundreds more published in books and online, for example here.

Vocabulary:

Frequency

cymryd (cymer·), v. take (formal cymeryd)

clywed (clyw·), v. hear; sense, feel
cyfle, -oedd, m. opportunity
tir, -oedd, m. land
ochr, -au, f. side
prif, adj. main
drwg, adj. bad; evil (equ. cynddrwg, comp. gwaeth, superl. gwaethaf)

Theme: Seaside
lawr, m. laver (seaweed)
bara lawr, m. laver bread
cragen, cregyn, f. shell
cragen wen, cregyn gwynion, f. cockles
cragen gocos, cregyn cocos, f. cockles
glan y môr, glannau’r môr, f. seashore, seaside
pysgodyn, pysgod, m. fish
lliain, llieiniau, m. towel
nofio (nofi·), v. swim
ton, -nau, m. wave
traeth, -au, m. beach
tywodyn, tywod, m. sand
 Lesson Twenty, Level B
A very common form of proverb is one that uses the relative pronoun aL twice in the two halves of the line: a. . . a, literally
meaning “who «verbs» . . . who «verbs»,” but connoting “The person who «verbs», «verbs».” This is similar to the English
proverbial “He who. . .” but much more widespread (and not gendered). “Who” can also be rendered “[that] which” or
“what,” depending on context.

A bryn gig a bryn esgyrn The person who buys meat buys bones.
(=Take the bad with the good.)
Poetry: a seven-syllable line with the repetition of a bryn

A ddwg wy a ddwg fwy The person who steals an egg will steal more
(=Minor character flaws are an indication of major character flaws.)
Poetry: repetition of a ddwg, rhyme of wy and fwy

A fyn Duw, a fydd What God wills, will be.

A fynno Duw, a fydd (a variant with mynnu in the subjunctive)
Poetry: alliteration of F.

A gâr a gerydd The person who loves, rebukes

Poetry: alliteration of G.

A gyfodes a golles ei le The person who got up has lost his place
Poetry: internal rhyme (in -es, an archaic dialectal variant of -odd)

A few are expressed in the negative:

Ni feddwl, ni adfeddwl The person who doesn’t think doesn’t have second thoughts.
Poetry: internal rhyme / repetition of (-)feddwl.

A does not have to be echoed in the second half of the line:

A fynno barch, bid gadarn Let the person who wants respect be strong.
(More literally, “he who would obtain respect, let him be strong.”
Poetry: alliteration of B, seven-syllable line

Vocabulary:

Frequency

sefydlu (sefydl·), v. establish

cynhyrchu (cynhyrch·), v. produce
cwbl, m. whole
barn, -au, f. judgement, opinion
parod, adj. ready

Theme: Seaside

brithyll, -od, m. trout

cimwch, cimychod, m. lobster
corgimwch, corgimychiaid, m. shrimp; prawn
cranc, -od, m. crab
eog, -iaid, m. salmon
lleden, lledenod, f. flatfish
lleden frech, lledenod brech, f. plaice
lleden goch, lledenod cochion, f. plaice
lleden chwithig, lledenod chwithig, f. sole
lleden dwyod, lledenod tywod, f. dab
llysywen, -nod / llysywod, f. eel
morfil, -od, m. whale
môr-hwch, môr-hychod, m. dolphin, porpoise
morlo, -i, m. seal
wystrysen, wystrys, f. oyster
 Lesson Twenty, Level C
Another fairly frequent proverbial construction uses the word poL, a form of byddo, the third-person present subjunctive of
bod. The literal meaning of (y) byddo is “(that) it be.” Normally, this form is contracted to bo, but in front of superlative
adjectives, it takes the form poL, usually translated as “the” in this context (and with the superlatives rendered as
comparatives in English). It is especially found in proverbs and set phrases.

Gorau po gyntaf The sooner, the better

Note that this is a copula construction, and the subject is the end of the phrase, following the verb. Literally “Best that it
be soonest.”

Po fwyaf y cwsg, hwyaf yr einioes The greater the sleep, the longer the life
Poetic features: rhyme of fwyaf and hwyaf

Po callaf y dyn anamlaf ei eiriau The wiser the man, the rarer his words

Po fwyaf y bai, lleiaf y cywilydd The greater the fault, the less the shame

Po fwyaf y defaid, drutaf fydd y gwlân The larger the sheep, the richer will be the wool

Po dyfnaf y môr, diogelaf fydd y llong The deeper the sea, the safer the boat will be

Po hynaf fydd y dyn, gwaethaf ei bwyll The older the man is, the worse his sense
(These would sound more proverbial without the fydd, but that’s what was in the source)

Po tynnaf fo y llinyn, cyntaf y tyr The tighter the cord is, the sooner it breaks

Po mwyaf fo y llanw, mwyaf fydd y trai The greater the tide is, the greater the ebb

Po mwyaf y brys, mwyaf y rhwystr The greater the hurry, the greater the hindrance [=haste makes waste]

Melysaf y cig, po nesaf i’r asgwrn The sweeter [tastier] the meat, the nearer the bone

Po also occurs in songs. The folksong “Merch y Melinydd” (“The Miller’s Daughter”), collected in the nineteenth century, has
a line which reads:

Po decaf bo nhw’n d’wedyd, The fairer that they speak

O, gwaetha’i gyd y daw Oh, the worse that is to come [literally “the worst of all”]
(From p. 37 of the programme of the National Eisteddfod of Wales held in London on August the 9 th, 1887).

It is worth noting that this line has morphed into po deced, with the equative degree of the adjective teg “fair” instead of the
superlative. The equative is a variant for the superlative in this construction, not promoted in the grammars but nevertheless
found in books, newspapers, and orally collected texts.

Bo is also found in idiomatic contexts, of which the most common is probably cyn bo hir, before long.

Vocabulary:

Frequency

darparu (darpar·), v. prepare, furnish, equip

medd (defective), v. said
llwybr, -au, m. path
ateb, -ion, m. answer
cryf, adj. strong (fem. cref, pl. cryfion)

Theme: Seaside

brwyniad, brwyniaid, / môr-f., m. anchovy

hadog, -s, m. haddock
honos, -iaid, m. ling
macrell, mecryll, f. mackerel
merfog, m. bream
morgath, -od, f. skate
morlas, môr-leisiaid, m. pollock
penfras, -au, m. cod
penhwyad, penhwyaid, m. pike
siwin, -iaid, m. sewin
ysgadenyn / sgadenyn, ysgadan / sgadan, m. herring
 Bibliography
In English:

Gareth King, Modern Welsh: A Comprehensive Grammar (London: Routledge, 1993).

David A. Thorne, A Comprehensive Welsh Grammar (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1993).
Stephen J. Williams, A Welsh Grammar (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1980).

In Welsh:

Peter Wynn Thomas, Gramadeg y Gymraeg (Caerdydd: Gwasg Prifysgol Cymru, 1996).