BIT University Physics I — Formula Reference Priority Order: High → Low

University Physics I
Complete Formula Reference — Exam Priority Order
Beijing Institute of Technology — Based on 2018–2024 Past Papers

Red = formula Blue = symbol Gray italic = note / meaning Cream box = must-know Mint box =
important Pink box = supplementary

Essential Constants
R = 8.314 J mol−1 K−1 Universal gas constant kB = 1.38 × 10−23 J K−1 Boltzmann constant
NA = 6.022 × 1023 mol−1 Avogadro’s number g = 9.80 m s−2 Gravitational accelera-
tion
G = 6.674 × 10−11 N m2 kg−2 Newton’s grav. constant 1 atm = 1.013 × 105 Pa Standard atmosphere
c = 3.00 × 108 m s−1 Speed of light 0◦ C = 273.15 K Temperature conversion

PRIORITY 1 — MUST MASTER | Carnot · Kinetic Theory · Ideal Gas · Waves

· SHM · Rotation

1. Carnot Cycle & Heat Engines Appears every single year

Thermal Efficiency of Any Heat Engine

W |QC |
η= =1−
QH QH
η Thermal efficiency (dimensionless, between 0 and 1)
W Net work output per cycle (J)
QH Heat absorbed from the hot reservoir per cycle (J)
QC Heat rejected to the cold reservoir per cycle (J), always positive here
Carnot Efficiency (Maximum Possible)

TC
ηCarnot = 1 −
TH
TH Temperature of hot reservoir in Kelvin
TC Temperature of cold reservoir in Kelvin
Always convert Celsius to Kelvin: T (K) = T (◦ C) + 273.15

Carnot Relation Between Heats and Temperatures

QH TH
=
QC TC

Work per Cycle

W = QH − |QC |

Coefficient of Performance — Refrigerator

QC TC
COPref = = (Carnot)
W TH − TC
QC Heat removed from cold space (J) — the useful effect of a refrigerator
W Work input to the refrigerator (J)
Coefficient of Performance — Heat Pump

QH TH
COPHP = = = COPref + 1 (Carnot)
W TH − TC

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BIT University Physics I — Formula Reference Priority Order: High → Low

COPHP is always > 1; a heat pump delivers more heat than the electrical energy it consumes.
Power of a Refrigerator Running at n Cycles per Second

P = W · ncycles
ncycles Number of cycles per second (Hz)
Two Engines in Series (net efficiency)

ηnet = η1 + (1 − η1 )η2
The heat output of engine 1 feeds engine 2. Each engine may run at a fraction of ideal Carnot efficiency.

2. Kinetic Theory of Ideal Gases Appears every single year

Ideal Gas Law

P V = nRT = N kB T
P Pressure (Pa)
V Volume (m3 )
n Number of moles (mol)
N Number of molecules
T Temperature (K)
Number of Molecules in a Volume

PV
N=
kB T

Mass of One Molecule

Mmolar
mmolecule =
NA
Mmolar Molar mass (kg/mol). E.g. N2 : 0.028; H2 : 0.002; O2 : 0.032 kg/mol
Average Translational Kinetic Energy Per Molecule

3
K̄trans = kB T
2
Total Translational Kinetic Energy of All Molecules

3 3 3
Ktotal = N kB T = nRT = P V
2 2 2
3
The last form 2
PV is the fastest to compute — no need to find N or n separately.

Root-Mean-Square Speed
r r
3kB T 3RT
vrms = =
mmolecule Mmolar

Mean (Average) Speed

r r
8kB T 8RT
v̄ = =
πm πMmolar

Most Probable Speed

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BIT University Physics I — Formula Reference Priority Order: High → Low

r r
2kB T 2RT
vp = =
m Mmolar
Speed ranking: vp < v̄ < vrms . For exam purposes, vrms is most commonly asked.

Number of Molecules with Speed in [v1 , v2 ]

Z v2
∆N = N f (v) dv
v1

f (v) Maxwell speed distribution function (a normalised probability density)

Internal Energy of an Ideal Gas

fdof
U= nRT
2
fdof Degrees of freedom: monatomic = 3; diatomic = 5; polyatomic = 6
Molar Specific Heats (Equipartition)

Gas type fdof CV CP = CV + R γ = CP /CV

3 5
Monatomic 3 2R = 12.47 J/mol·K 2R 5/3 ≈ 1.667
5 7
Diatomic 5 2R = 20.79 J/mol·K 2R 7/5 = 1.400
Polyatomic 6 3R = 24.94 J/mol·K 4R 4/3 ≈ 1.333

3. Ideal Gas Thermodynamic Processes Appears every single year

First Law of Thermodynamics

∆U = Q − W
∆U Change in internal energy (J); for ideal gas ∆U = nCV ∆T always
Q Heat added to the system (J); negative
R if heat leaves
W Work done by the system (J) = P dV ; negative if work done on system
Process Summary Table

Process Condition Work W Heat Q

Isochoric V = const, W = 0 0 nCV ∆T

Isobaric P = const P ∆V = nR∆T nCP ∆T
V2
Isothermal T = const, ∆U = 0 nRT ln =W
V1
Adiabatic Q=0 −nCV ∆T 0

∆U = nCV ∆T applies to all processes for an ideal gas — not just isochoric.

Adiabatic Process Relations

P V γ = const, T V γ−1 = const, T γ P 1−γ = const

Useful Rearrangement for Adiabatic

 γ−1  (γ−1)/γ
T2 V1 P2
= =
T1 V2 P1

Work in Isothermal Process

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BIT University Physics I — Formula Reference Priority Order: High → Low

V2 P1
W = nRT ln = nRT ln
V1 P2

Heat Added and Specific Heat

Q = mc∆T (general calorimetry)

m Mass of substance (kg)
c Specific heat capacity (J kg−1 K−1 ); for air: ≈ 1020 J kg−1 K−1
Latent Heat

Q = mL
L Specific latent heat (J/kg); fusion of water: Lf = 334 × 103 J/kg

4. Transverse Mechanical Waves Appears every single year — often identical question

Wave Speed, Frequency, Wavelength

ω
v = fλ =
k
v Wave speed (m/s)
f Frequency (Hz)
λ Wavelength (m)
ω Angular frequency (rad/s) = 2πf
k Wave number (rad/m) = 2π/λ
Period and Angular Frequency

1 2π 2π
T = = , ω = 2πf, k=
f ω λ

Wave Function — Travelling in −x Direction

y(x, t) = A cos(kx + ωt + ϕ0 )

Wave Function — Travelling in +x Direction

y(x, t) = A cos(kx − ωt + ϕ0 )
A Amplitude (m)
ϕ0 Initial phase constant (rad); set by initial condition at x = 0, t = 0
How to find ϕ0 : At t = 0, x = 0: if displacement is maximum upward, ϕ0 = 0 (cosine). If displacement is zero going
positive, ϕ0 = −π/2 (or use sine).

Transverse Velocity of a Particle

∂y
vy = = ∓Aω sin(kx ± ωt + ϕ0 ), vy,max = Aω
∂t
Wave Speed on a String
s
FT
v=
µ

FT Tension in string (N)

µ Linear mass density (kg/m) = m/L
Time for Particle to Reach Next Maximum from Phase ϕ

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BIT University Physics I — Formula Reference Priority Order: High → Low

2π − ϕcurrent
∆t =
ω
Find current phase: ϕcurrent = kx + ωt (mod 2π). Time to next max = remaining phase divided by ω.

5. Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) Appears every single year

Defining Equation of SHM

F = −kx =⇒ ẍ + ω 2 x = 0

Angular Frequency, Period, Frequency

r r
k 2π m 1
ω= , T = = 2π , f=
m ω k T
k Spring constant (N/m)
m Mass (kg)
ω Angular frequency of oscillation (rad/s) — not the wave number here
Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration

x(t) = A cos(ωt + ϕ0 )
v(t) = −Aω sin(ωt + ϕ0 )
a(t) = −Aω 2 cos(ωt + ϕ0 ) = −ω 2 x
A Amplitude (m) — maximum displacement
ϕ0 Initial phase (rad); ϕ0 = 0 if x(0) = A; ϕ0 = π/2 if x(0) = 0 going negative
Speed at Position x
p
v=ω A2 − x 2

Amplitude from Given x and v

r
v2
A= x2 +
ω2
Use this when a problem gives you position and velocity at some instant and asks for amplitude.

Energy in SHM

1 2 1 1 1
E= kA = mω 2 A2 = mv 2 + kx2 = const
2 2 2 2
√
E ∝ A2 . To double energy, increase amplitude by 2.

Angular Frequency from Acceleration

|a|
a = −ω 2 x =⇒ ω 2 =
|x|
Read ω directly from a given a-vs-x relationship without needing k or m.
Simple Pendulum (small angle)
s
L
T = 2π
g

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BIT University Physics I — Formula Reference Priority Order: High → Low

L Length of pendulum (m)

g Gravitational acceleration (m/s2 )
Period is independent of mass and amplitude (small angles). Spring-mass period unchanged on Mars; pendulum period
does change on Mars.
Physical (Compound) Pendulum
s
I
T = 2π
M gh

I Moment of inertia about the pivot (kg·m2 )

M Total mass of pendulum (kg)
h Distance from pivot to centre of mass (m)

6. Rotational Dynamics Appears every single year

Key Rotational Quantities

dθ dω v2
ω= , α= , v = rω, at = rα, ac = = rω 2
dt dt r
θ Angular displacement (rad)
ω Angular velocity (rad/s)
α Angular acceleration (rad/s2 )
at Tangential acceleration (m/s2 )
ac Centripetal acceleration (m/s2 )
Rotational Kinematic Equations (constant α)

ω = ω0 + αt, θ = ω0 t + 21 αt2 , ω 2 = ω02 + 2αθ

Newton’s Second Law for Rotation

τnet = Iα

τ Torque (N·m) = rF sin ϕ, where ϕ is angle between ⃗r and F⃗

I Moment of inertia (kg·m2 )
Common Moments of Inertia
Object Axis I
1 2
Slender rod Through centre 12 M L
1 2
Slender rod Through end 3ML
1 2
Solid cylinder / disk Through centre axis 2MR
2
Hollow thin cylinder Through centre axis MR
2 2
Solid sphere Through diameter 5MR
2 2
Hollow sphere (thin) Through diameter 3MR

Parallel Axis Theorem

I = Icm + M d2
Icm Moment of inertia about axis through centre of mass
d Perpendicular distance from cm axis to new axis (m)
Rotational Kinetic Energy

1 2
Krot = Iω
2
Rolling Without Slipping

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BIT University Physics I — Formula Reference Priority Order: High → Low

vcm = Rω, acm = Rα

1 1
Ktotal = mv 2 + Iω 2
2 cm 2

Speed of Rolling Object Down Incline (from rest, height h)

s
2gh
v=
1 + I/(mR2 )
p p
Sphere: v = 10gh/7. Cylinder: v = 4gh/3. Sphere is always faster than cylinder.

Work, Power in Rotation

W = τ θ, P = τω

Angular Momentum

dL
L = Iω, τnet =
dt
Conservation of Angular Momentum

I1 ω1 = I2 ω2 when τnet = 0

7. Momentum, Impulse & Collisions Appears every single year

Linear Momentum

p⃗ = m⃗v

Impulse–Momentum Theorem
Z
J⃗ = F⃗ dt = ∆⃗
p = m⃗vf − m⃗vi

J⃗ Impulse (N·s)
Average Force from Impulse

∆⃗
p
F⃗avg =
∆t
Conservation of Momentum
X
mi⃗vi = const when F⃗ext = 0

Perfectly Inelastic Collision

m1⃗v1 + m2⃗v2 = (m1 + m2 )⃗vf

Force from Fluid Flow (wind on building)

F = ṁ · v = ρAv 2

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BIT University Physics I — Formula Reference Priority Order: High → Low

ṁ Mass flow rate (kg/s) = ρAv

ρ Fluid density (kg/m3 )
A Cross-sectional area (m2 )
v Fluid speed (m/s)
Impulse from Variable Force F = Atn
Z t2
A  n+1 t2
J= Atn dt = t t1
t1 n+1

PRIORITY 2 — VERY IMPORTANT | Thin Film · Rayleigh · Double-Slit ·

Rolling

8. Thin Film Interference Appears in almost every year

Phase Shift Rule (Critical — Learn This First)

Reflection at interface Index change Phase shift

Air → film (denser) nair < nfilm π (half wavelength)
Film → glass (denser) nfilm < nglass π
Film → glass (less dense) nfilm > nglass No shift
Count how many surfaces give a π shift. If one surface gives a shift: constructive and destructive swap (see below). If
zero or two shifts: normal rules apply.

Optical Path Difference in Film

δ = 2nfilm e
nfilm Refractive index of the film
e Thickness of the film (m)
Case 1: One π Phase Shift (e.g. plastic film on car window)
Constructive (bright/maximum reflection):
 
1
2nfilm e = m− λ, m = 1, 2, 3, . . .
2

Minimum thickness (m = 1):

λ
emin =
4nfilm
Destructive (dark/cancellation of reflection):

2nfilm e = mλ, m = 1, 2, 3, . . .

Case 2: Zero or Two π Phase Shifts

Constructive:
2nfilm e = mλ, m = 0, 1, 2, . . .

Destructive:  
1
2nfilm e = m+ λ
2

Successive Thicknesses for Same Condition

λ
em+1 − em =
2nfilm

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BIT University Physics I — Formula Reference Priority Order: High → Low

Exam shortcut: Always identify which surfaces give a phase shift before writing any formula. Draw a quick diagram
with arrows showing the two reflected beams.

9. Rayleigh’s Criterion & Optical Resolution Appears in almost every year

Minimum Resolvable Angle (Circular Aperture)

λ
θmin = 1.22
D
θmin Minimum resolvable angular separation (rad)
λ Wavelength of light (m)
D Diameter of the aperture/lens/pupil (m)
Minimum Resolvable Spatial Distance at Range s

1.22 λ s
ymin = s θmin =
D
s Distance from aperture to object (m)
ymin Minimum separation between resolvable points (m)
Minimum Aperture for Required Resolution

1.22 λ s
D=
ymin

Resolving Power of Diffraction Grating

λ
R= = mN
∆λ
R Resolving power (dimensionless)
∆λ Minimum wavelength difference that can be resolved
m Diffraction order (integer)
N Total number of slits in the grating
Comparing telescopes: smaller λ/D ⇒ better resolution.

10. Double-Slit & Single-Slit Diffraction Appears most years

Double-Slit: Bright Fringe Condition

d sin θ = mλ, m = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .

d Slit separation (m) — centre to centre
θ Angle from central maximum
m Order number (integer)
Fringe Position on Screen (small angle: sin θ ≈ y/L)

mλL
ym =
d
L Distance from slits to screen (m)
ym Position of mth bright fringe from centre (m)
Fringe Spacing

λL
∆y =
d

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BIT University Physics I — Formula Reference Priority Order: High → Low

Dark Fringe (Destructive) Condition

 
1
d sin θ = m+ λ, m = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
2

Oblique Incidence at Angle θi

d(sin θm − sin θi ) = mλ

Wavelength from Fringe Position

ym d
λ=
mL

Single-Slit: Dark Fringe (Minima)

a sin θ = mλ, m = ±1, ±2, . . .

a Width of single slit (m)
Width of Central Maximum on Screen

2λL
2y1 =
a
Double-Slit + Diffraction Envelope

d
Number of bright fringes in central peak = 2 −1
a
For 7 fringes in central peak: 2(d/a) − 1 = 7 ⇒ d/a = 4.

Diffraction Grating Principal Maxima

dg sin θ = mλ
dg Grating spacing (m) = 1/(lines per metre)

11. Rolling Without Slipping — Extended Appears most years

Rolling Condition

vcm = Rω, acm = Rα

Slipping Wheel — Time to Begin Rolling (solid cylinder/disk)

A wheel with initial spin ω0 and no translational speed placed on ground with friction µk :
Rω0
t∗ =
(1 + I/mR2 ) µk g

For solid cylinder (I = 21 mR2 ):

Rω0 Rω0
t∗ = , vf =
3µk g 3
µk Kinetic friction coefficient
t∗ Time at which rolling without slipping begins
vf Final translational speed
Energy Method for Rolling Down Incline

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BIT University Physics I — Formula Reference Priority Order: High → Low

 
1 2 1 2 1 2 I
mgh = mv + Iω = mv 1 +
2 2 2 mR2

PRIORITY 3 — IMPORTANT SUPPORTING TOPICS | Kinematics ·

Work-Energy · Gravitation · Doppler

12. Kinematics Foundation of all mechanics

1D Constant Acceleration (SUVAT)

v = v0 + at, x = x0 + v0 t + 12 at2 , v 2 = v02 + 2a(x − x0 )

v0 Initial velocity (m/s)

a Constant acceleration (m/s2 )
x0 Initial position (m)
Centripetal Acceleration

v2
ac = = rω 2
r
Projectile Motion

x = v0 cos θ0 · t, y = v0 sin θ0 · t − 21 gt2

Range (same launch and landing height)

v02 sin 2θ0

R=
g

2D Vectors
 
⃗ = Ax î + Ay ĵ, ⃗ =
q Ay
A |A| A2x + A2y , θ = arctan
Ax
Check quadrant when finding angle: if Ax < 0, add 180◦ .

13. Work, Energy & Power Foundation topic

Work by Variable Force

Z x2
W = F dx
x1

For F = −αx2 : W = − α3 (x32 − x31 ). For F = − 21 αx2 : W = − α6 (x32 − x31 ).

Work–Energy Theorem

1 1
Wnet = ∆K = mv 2 − mv 2
2 f 2 i

Gravitational PE (near surface)

Ug = mgh

Gravitational PE (general)

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BIT University Physics I — Formula Reference Priority Order: High → Low

GM m
Ug = −
r

Work by Gravity (general, not approximation)

 
1 1
Wg = GM m −
rf ri

Elastic (Spring) PE

1 2
Us = kx
2
Conservation of Mechanical Energy

K1 + U1 = K2 + U2 (no friction)

Power

dW
P = = F⃗ · ⃗v = F v cos ϕ
dt

14. Newton’s Laws & Forces Foundation topic

Newton’s Second Law

F⃗net = m⃗a

Weight and Normal Force

W = mg, fk = µk N, fs ≤ µs N

Centripetal Force

mv 2
Fc = = mrω 2
r

Conical / Rotating System: Balance of Forces

g
N sin θ = mrω 2 , N cos θ = mg =⇒ cos θ =
ω2 r

Pendulum — Force Balance (quasi-static)

F = mg tan θ
F Horizontal force needed to hold bob at angle θ
θ Angle from vertical

15. Gravitation Appears occasionally

Newton’s Law of Gravitation

GM m
F =
r2
Escape Speed

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BIT University Physics I — Formula Reference Priority Order: High → Low

r
2GM
vesc =
R
M Mass of the body to escape from (kg)
R Radius of the body (m)
Gravitational PE and Work
 
GM m 1 1
U =− , W = GM m −
r rf ri
Use general formula (not mgh) whenever the height is comparable to Earth’s radius.

16. Doppler Effect Appeared in 2024; likely to recur

General Doppler Formula

v ± vobs
fobs = fs
v ∓ vsource
v Speed of sound in medium (m/s)
vobs Speed of observer (m/s)
vsource Speed of source (m/s)
Sign rule: upper signs (+ numerator, − denominator) when observer/source approach each other. Lower signs when
they move apart.
Source Moving Toward Stationary Observer

v
fobs = fs
v − vs

Source Moving Away from Stationary Observer

v
fobs = fs
v + vs

Sound Reflected Off a Wall (source moves toward wall)

Step 1 — Wall receives at higher frequency (approaching source):
v
fwall = fs
v − vs

Step 2 — Wall re-emits; stationary observer behind source receives:

v + vs
freflected = fs
v − vs

The wall acts first as a stationary observer (receiving), then as a stationary source (re-emitting).

QUICK-REFERENCE: THE 10 MOST REPEATED FORMULAS IN BIT EXAMS

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BIT University Physics I — Formula Reference Priority Order: High → Low

1. Carnot efficiency 6. SHM speed at position x

TC p p
η =1− v = ω A2 − x2 , ω = k/m
TH

2. Ideal gas law 7. Rotational dynamics

P V = nRT = N kB T τ = Iα, L = Iω, Krot = 21 Iω 2

3. Translational KE per molecule 8. Thin film (one phase shift)

K̄ = 32 kB T, Ktotal = 23 P V λ
emin = , 2ne = (m − 21 )λ
4n
4. rms speed
r 9. Rayleigh criterion
3RT
vrms = λ 1.22λs
Mmolar θmin = 1.22 , D=
D ymin
5. Wave function (−x direction)
10. First Law of Thermodynamics
y = A cos(kx + ωt), f = v/λ
∆U = Q − W, ∆U = nCV ∆T

All formulas verified against BIT University Physics I past papers 2018–2024.
Priority order reflects actual frequency of appearance across finals and midterms.

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