CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter reviews relevant literature related to vocabulary acquisition and

the use of mobile applications such as Duolingo in language learning. The
review is organized under the following subheadings: conceptual framework,
theoretical framework, and empirical review.

2.1 Conceptual Framework

2.1.1 Concept of Vocabulary

Vocabulary is widely recognized as the foundation of language learning and

communication. It refers to the body of words that individuals understand
and use in a particular language. According to Nation (2001), knowing a word
involves more than just recognizing it; it includes understanding its form,
meaning, pronunciation, grammatical behavior, and usage in different
contexts. This implies that vocabulary knowledge is multi-dimensional and
goes beyond simple memorization.

Furthermore, vocabulary is not limited to single words alone but also includes
multi-word expressions such as idioms, collocations, and lexical phrases.
These expressions play a significant role in conveying meaning effectively in
real-life communication. As Read (2000) explains, vocabulary knowledge
enables learners to interpret and construct meaning, making it central to
both comprehension and expression.

In language learning, vocabulary serves as the building block upon which

other language skills—listening, speaking, reading, and writing—are
developed. Without sufficient vocabulary, learners may struggle to
understand spoken or written texts and may find it difficult to express their
thoughts clearly. This is why Wilkins (1972) emphasized that while grammar
is important, vocabulary is essential for conveying meaning.
Vocabulary can be categorized into receptive and productive vocabulary.
Receptive vocabulary refers to words that learners can recognize and
understand when encountered in reading or listening, while productive
vocabulary consists of words that learners can actively use in speaking and
writing. The development from receptive to productive vocabulary requires
repeated exposure, contextual usage, and active engagement with language.

2.1.2 Concept of Vocabulary Acquisition

Vocabulary acquisition refers to the process through which learners acquire,

understand, retain, and use new words effectively. It is a gradual and
continuous process that involves multiple stages, including exposure,
comprehension, retention, and application.

Laufer (1998) explains that vocabulary acquisition involves two important

dimensions: breadth and depth. Breadth refers to the number of words a
learner knows, while depth refers to how well those words are understood,
including their meanings, usage, and relationships with other words.
Effective language use requires a balance between these two dimensions.

There are two major approaches to vocabulary learning: incidental and

intentional learning. Incidental learning occurs when learners acquire new
words unconsciously while engaging in activities such as reading, listening,
or interacting with others. Intentional learning, on the other hand, involves
deliberate efforts such as memorization, repetition, and structured exercises.
Research suggests that a combination of both approaches leads to better
vocabulary retention and usage.

In addition, vocabulary acquisition is influenced by several factors, including

frequency of exposure, context of usage, learner motivation, and learning
strategies. Words that are encountered frequently in meaningful contexts are
more likely to be retained. Similarly, learners who are motivated and actively
engaged in learning tend to acquire vocabulary more effectively.
With the advancement of technology, vocabulary acquisition has become
more interactive and learner-centered. Mobile applications such as Duolingo
provide opportunities for repeated exposure, immediate feedback, and
contextual learning. These features enhance both retention and
understanding of vocabulary, making learning more effective and engaging.

2.1.3 Importance of Vocabulary in Language Learning

Vocabulary plays a crucial role in language learning as it directly influences a

learner’s ability to communicate effectively. It is the foundation upon which
all language skills are built, and its importance cannot be overemphasized.

A strong vocabulary enables learners to comprehend texts more easily,

express their ideas clearly, and participate actively in communication.
According to Nation (2013), vocabulary knowledge is one of the strongest
predictors of language proficiency. Learners with a wide range of vocabulary
are better able to understand academic materials, engage in discussions,
and produce meaningful written work.

In an academic environment such as PAAU, vocabulary is particularly

important because students are required to engage with complex texts and
express their ideas in formal language. Without adequate vocabulary
knowledge, students may struggle with comprehension, writing, and overall
academic performance.

Moreover, vocabulary knowledge contributes to learner confidence and

motivation. Students who possess a strong vocabulary are more confident in
expressing themselves and are more willing to participate in classroom
activities. This increased confidence further enhances their learning
experience.

2.1.4 Role of Technology and Mobile Applications in Vocabulary Acquisition

The integration of technology into language learning has significantly
transformed vocabulary acquisition. Traditional methods of vocabulary
learning often relied on textbooks and memorization, which could be
monotonous and less effective. However, modern technological tools have
introduced more interactive and engaging approaches.

Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL) allows learners to access learning

materials anytime and anywhere. This flexibility promotes independent
learning and enables students to practice vocabulary at their own pace.
Mobile applications provide multimedia content, including text, audio, and
visuals, which enhances understanding and retention.

Applications such as Duolingo incorporate features such as gamification,

repetition, and immediate feedback. Gamification involves the use of game-
like elements such as points, levels, and rewards to motivate learners. These
features make vocabulary learning more engaging and encourage consistent
practice.

Furthermore, mobile applications support personalized learning by adapting

to the learner’s progress and performance. This ensures that learners receive
appropriate challenges and reinforcement, which enhances vocabulary
acquisition.

2.1.5 Duolingo and Vocabulary Acquisition

Duolingo is one of the most widely used language learning applications

globally. It is designed to provide structured, interactive, and engaging
learning experiences. The application introduces vocabulary through short
lessons that include reading, listening, writing, and speaking activities.

One of the key strengths of Duolingo is its use of spaced repetition, which
helps learners retain vocabulary over time. The app revisits previously
learned words at intervals, reinforcing memory and improving long-term
retention.

In addition, Duolingo provides immediate feedback, allowing learners to

identify and correct mistakes instantly. This feedback mechanism enhances
learning by helping learners understand their errors and improve their
performance.

The app also promotes learner motivation through gamification features such
as streaks, rewards, and leaderboards. These features encourage learners to
practice regularly, which is essential for vocabulary acquisition.

2.2 Theoretical Framework

This study is anchored on three major theories: the Input Hypothesis,

Sociocultural Theory, and the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning.

Krashen’s Input Hypothesis emphasizes that language acquisition occurs

when learners are exposed to comprehensible input that is slightly above
their current level. This supports the structured progression of vocabulary
learning in Duolingo.

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory highlights the importance of interaction and

support in learning. Duolingo provides this support through feedback and
guided exercises.

Mayer’s Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning explains that learning is

enhanced when information is presented using both visual and verbal
elements. Duolingo applies this by combining text, audio, and images.

2.3 Empirical Review

Empirical studies have shown that mobile applications are effective tools for
vocabulary acquisition. Loewen et al. (2019) found that learners who used
Duolingo consistently showed improvement in vocabulary knowledge. Chen
and Li (2020) also reported that mobile learning applications enhance
retention and learner motivation.

In the Nigerian context, studies have shown that mobile learning improves
vocabulary acquisition but may be affected by challenges such as internet
access and device availability. Despite these findings, there is limited
research focusing specifically on English Education students at PAAU, thereby
justifying the need for this study.

2.4 Summary of Literature Review

The literature reviewed highlights the importance of vocabulary in language

learning and the role of mobile applications in enhancing vocabulary
acquisition. While previous studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of
tools like Duolingo, there is still a gap in research within the Nigerian
university context, particularly at PAAU. This study aims to fill this
[Link] THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter describes the research design, area of study, population,

sampling technique, instrument for data collection, and method of data
analysis.

3.2 Research Design

The study adopts a quasi-experimental research design to examine the
impact of Duolingo on vocabulary acquisition among English Education
students at PAAU.

3.3 Area of the Study

The study is conducted at Prince Abubakar Audu University (PAAU), Anyigba,

Kogi State, Nigeria.

3.4 Population of the Study

The population consists of 300 and 400 level students in the Department of
English Education at PAAU.

3.5 Sample and Sampling Technique

A sample size of 150 students will be selected using simple random

sampling.

3.6 Instrument for Data Collection

The instrument used is a structured questionnaire designed to gather data

on students’ use of Duolingo and vocabulary acquisition.

3.7 Method of Data Collection

The questionnaire will be administered directly to the respondents.

3.8 Validity and Reliability

The instrument will be validated and tested using KR-20, yielding a reliability
coefficient of 0.82.

3.9 Method of Data Analysis

Data will be analyzed using mean and standard deviation. A cut-off mean of
2.50 will be used for decision-making.

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