1 INTERSECTION DESIGN

1.1 General

An intersection is defined as the general area where two or more highways join or cross, within
which are included the roadway and roadside facilities for traffic movements in that area. An
intersection leg is that part of any one of the roadways radiating from an intersection which is
outside of the area of the intersection proper.

The efficiency of operation, safety, speed, cost of operation and capacity are directly governed by
the design. Since an intersection involves conflicts between traffic in different directions, its
scientific design can control accidents and delay and can lead to orderly movement of traffic.
Intersections are potentially dangerous locations, with over half the fatal and serious road
accidents in built-up areas occurring at junctions.

The following principles should be considered in a good design:

(i) The number of intersections should be kept a minimum.

(ii) The geometric layout should be so selected that hazardous movements by drivers
are eliminated.
(iii) The design should permit the driver to discern quickly either from the layout or from
traffic signs the path he should follow and the actions of merging and diverging.
(iv) The layout should follow the natural vehicle paths.
(v) The number of conflict points should be minimized by separating some of the many
cutting, merging or diverging movements
(vi) Vehicles that are forced to wait in order to cross traffic stream should be provided
with adequate space at the junction.

1.2 At-Grade and Grade Separated Junctions

At-grade intersections are those where roadways join or cross at the same level, while grade-
separated intersections permit crossing manoeuvres at different levels. The choice between the
two depends on factors such as traffic, economy, safety, aesthetics, delay etc.

Grade-separated junctions have a higher capital cost, and are justified as follows:

(i) On high type facilities such as expressways, freeways and motorways

(ii) At-grade intersections which have reached their maximum capacity and where it is
not possible to improve the capacity further by retaining the at-grade crossing
(iii) At at-grade junctions with a history of bad accidents
(iv) Heavy volume junctions with delays economically justifying grade-separation
(v) Topographical situations where it is logical to provide a grade-separated structure
rather than an at-grade intersection, to minimise earthworks or acquisition of land

1.3 Basic Forms of At-Grade Intersections

The figure below shows the basic forms of at-grade intersections

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1.4 Alignment and Vertical Profile

The horizontal alignment and vertical profile of the intersecting roads should permit the drivers to
discern danger and make the manoeuvres necessary for safety. The alignment should preferably
be as straight and gradients as low as practicable.

It is desirable that the intersecting roads meet at or nearly at right angles. Hence it may be
necessary to modify the alignment as shown in Fig. 7.32.

Fig. 7.32. Modification in alignment of intersecting roads to give a nearly right angle crossing.

1.5 The Design Vehicle

1.5.1 Definition

A Design Vehicle is a selected motor vehicle whose weight, dimensions and operating
characteristics are used to establish highway design controls. The dimensions and operating
characteristics of a vehicle influence the geometric design aspects such as radii, pavement width,
clearances, parking geometry, etc. The axle weight and gross vehicle weight affect the structural
design of the pavement and structures, and operating characteristics of vehicles on grades.

Therefore the standardization of dimensions and weights of design vehicles is the first step in
formulating geometric design standards. In Kenya this is specified in the Road Design Manual
(MoRPW, 1984). AASHO standards represent American practice. In U.K., the Ministry of
Transport Regulations govern the features of the design vehicle.

1.5.2 Types of design vehicles

The AASHTO Standard (adopted in Kenya) classifies the following types of design vehicles:

1 Passenger Car P

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 2 Single Unit Truck SU
3 Single Unit Bus BUS
4 Semi-trailer combination, intermediate WB-12
5 Semi-trailer combination, large WB-15
6 Semi-trailer-full trailer combination WB-18

The Kenya Standard contains only commercial vehicles of the following types:
 Single unit truck
 Semi-trailer
 Truck-trailer combination

1.5.3 Summary of Standards for Dimensions of Vehicles

Table 11-4 gives a summary of standards of dimensions for design vehicles for various
authorities

Table 11.4 Standards of Dimensions for Design Vehicles by Various Authorities (in metres)

Authority Maximum Maximum Maximum Overall Length

Country Width Height Passenger Single Semi- Truck Single
Car Unit Truck Trailer Trailer Unit Bus
AASHTO 2.6 4.1 5.8 9.1 15-2-16-7 19.9 18.3
U.K. 2.5 4.87 (Bus) 5.5 11.0 13.0 18.0
Indian Road 2.5 3.8 – 4.2 - 11.0 16.0 18.0 12.0
Congress (Truck)

The turning radii for the various AASHTO design vehicles are given in Table 11-5.

Table 11.5 Turning Radii of AASHTO Vehicles

Design Vehicle Type Passenger Single Unit Semi-trailer Semi-trailer

Car Truck (large) full-trailer
(P) (SU) (WB-15) (WB-18)
Minimum Turning Radius (m) 7.3 12.8 13.7 13.7
Minimum Turning Radius (Inside) (m) 4.2 8.5 5.8 6.8

The turning radii for some of the vehicles in common use are given in Fig. 11-2 (Ref. 4).

1.5.4 Axle loads and weights of vehicles

Examples of maximum axle loads of vehicles specified in some countries are given below.

Single Axle Tandem Axle

AASHTO 9.0 14.5
U.K. 1.00 -
IRC (1983) 10.2 18.0

The maximum weight of vehicles depends upon the number, configuration and spacing of axles.

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1.5.5 Selection of the design vehicle

The selection of the design vehicle for the design of a highway is governed by the type and
volume of traffic that is expected to use the highway. E.g. design of superior facility such as a
motorway or an expressway should be based on the largest design vehicle; and design of streets
and junctions in primarily residential areas can be done using the passenger car as the design
vehicle.

Example of design specification using the Semi-Trailer Combination Large (WB-50)

1.5.6 Design speed

(a) Speed as a design factor

The level of service of a highway is largely indicated by the speed, safety and convenience
afforded by the facility for travel. Speed is important for economic operation and has a great
bearing on the safety of the highway. It plays a vital role in determining the geometrical design.

(b) Design speed

The speeds adopted by different drivers and by different types of vehicles are varied. Therefore
the speed value selected should accommodate nearly all demands with reasonable adequacy
while the design should not fail under the severe or extreme condition. The speed adopted
should satisfy nearly all drivers, excepting, of course, those few who drive at extremely high
speed.

Design speed is a speed determined for design and correlation of the physical features of a
highway that influence vehicle operation. It is the maximum safe speed that can be maintained
over a specified section of a highway under favourable conditions, where highway design
features govern. The design speed should be correlated with terrain highway classification.

The 95th percentile speed and 98th percentile speeds are frequently chosen as Design Speed.

(c) Suggested design speeds

The table below gives suggested Design Speeds for Rural Highways in a Commonwealth
country. For Rural Highways, the recommendations contain two types of design speeds:

Ruling design speed generally the guiding criterion for correlating design features; and
Minimum design speed adopted where site conditions or economics do not permit using the
ruling design speed.

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 Table 11.7 Suggested Design Speeds in India for Rural Highways (All values in K.P.H.)

Classification of Roads Plain Terrain Rolling Terrain Mountainous Steep Terrain

Terrain
Ruling Min. Ruling Min. Ruling Minimu Ruling Min.
m
1. National and State Highways 100 80 80 65 50 40 40 30
2. Major District Roads 80 65 65 50 40 30 30 20
3. Other District Roads 65 50 50 40 30 25 25 20
4. Village Roads 50 40 40 35 25 20 25 20

For motorways the values adopted in U.K. are as below

Rural motorways 120 KPH.

Urban motorways 80 KPH.

For urban streets, the U.K. design speeds as below:

Primary distributor (Urban motorway) 80 KPH

Primary distributor (All-purpose) 65 KPH
District distributor, local distributor, access road 50 KPH

Reference should be made to the Kenya Road Design Manual specifications

1.6 Visibility at Intersections

The safety of traffic can be ensured only if the visibility is full and unimpeded along both roads.
Any obstructions should be clear of the minimum visibility triangle for a height of 1.2 metres
above the roadway.

1.6.1 Rural road intersections

For rural road intersections, where intersecting roads are almost equal in importance with no
established priority (i.e. uncontrolled intersections) visibility should be provided on the principle
that a driver approaching the intersection on either highway must be able to perceive a hazard
and halt the vehicle, if necessary, before reaching the intersection.

The stopping distance, d1 and d2, appropriate for the design speeds of v1 and v2 respectively in
the two intersecting highways have to be determined.

On priority intersections, traffic is controlled on the minor road by STOP or GIVE WAY signs or
road markings. The visibility provided should allow drivers approaching from the minor road to
see the vehicles on the major road in good time and judge if adequate gaps in the main road

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 stream are available for merging or safe crossing. The current practice is to specify a visibility
distance (e.g. 15 metres) on the minor road.

The visibility needed on the major road at priority intersections depends on the time required by
the driver on the minor road to perceive the traffic conditions on the inter-section, evaluate the
gaps in the vehicle stream, take a decision about the actual crossing and finally accelerate the
vehicle to complete the manoeuvre. A time of 8 seconds may be considered appropriate for this
purpose. Table below gives examples of the visibility distance along the major road

Table 7-35 Minimum visibility distances along major roads at priority intersections on rural roads

Design speed of major road in K.P.H Minimum visibility distance along u, major road
(metres)
100 200
80 180
65 145
50 110

1.6.2 Urban road intersections

Operating speeds are lower on urban intersections. Current U.K. practice is to limit the visibility
distance along the minor road in a priority intersection to about 4.5 - 9.0m. On the major road, the
visibility distance is provided as shown in Table 7.36.

Table 7.36 Visibility distance along major road on priority junction

Type of road Visibility distance (metres) along the major road

1. All purpose primary distributor 120 - 150
2. District or local distributor 90
3. Access Road 60

1.7 Radii of Curves

The design of intersection curves influences speed. Curve radii are, therefore, selected to control
speed and ensure safety of operation. Generally, design of curves falls into the following
categories:

(i) Design of curves for a minimum speed and sharpest turn

(ii) Design of curves to permit different operating speeds.

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1.7.1 Sharpest turn curves for minimum speed

When it is necessary to provide for turning vehicles within minimum space, the design vehicle
selected will govern the turning radius. Compound curves, which are generally three-centred, are
provided.

Table 7.37 Minimum edge of pavement designs for turns at Intersections - AASHTO

AASHO Design Angle of Turn Radius of Simple 3-centred compound curve 3-centred compound curve
Vehicle (degrees) curve (m) symmetric asymmetric
Radii (m) Offset (m) Radii (m) Offset (m)
P 30 18 .
SU 30 - - - -
WB-40 45 - - - -
WB-50 60 - - - -
P 45 15 ^^ -
SU 23 - - - -
WB-40 36 - - - -
WB-50 52 60-30-60 0.9 - -
P 60 12 - - - -
SU 18 - - - -
WB-40 27 - - - -
WB-50 - 60-23-60 1.7 60-23-84 0.6-1.8
P 75 10.5 30-7.5-30 0.6 - -
SU 17 36-14-36 0.6 - -
WB-40 26 36-14-36 1.5 36-14-60 0.6-2.0
WB-50 - 45-15-45 1.8 46-15-70 0.6-3.0
P 90 9 30-6-30 0.75 - -
SU 15 36-12-36 0.9 - -
WB-40 - 36-12-36 1.5 36-12-60 0.6-1.8
WB-50 -^ 55-18-55 1.8 36-12-60 0.6-3.0
P 105 - 30-6-30 0.75
SU - 30-10.5-30 0.9
WB-40 - 30-10.5-30 2.5 30-10.5-60 0.6-2.5
WB-50 - 55-14-55 2.5 45-12-64 0.6-3.0
P 120 - 30-6-30 0-6
SU - 30-9-30 0-9
WB-40 - 36-9-36 1.8 30-9-55 0.6-2.7
WB-50 - 55-15-55 2.6 45-10.5-67 0.6-3.7
P 135 - 30-6-30 0.45
SU - 30-9-30 1.2
WB-40 - 36-9-36 2.0 30-7.5-55 0.9-4.0
WB-50 - 50-10.5-50 2.7 40-9-57 0.9-4.3
P 150 - 23-5.5-23 0.6 - -
SU - 30-9-30 1.2 - -
WB-40 - 30-9-30 1.8 27-7.5-50 0.9-3.4
WB-50 - 50-10.5-50 2.1 36-6-55 0.9-4.3
P 180 - 15-4-5-15 0.15 - -
SU - 30-9-30 0.45 - -
WB-40 - 30-6-30 2.9 26-6—45 1.8-4.0
WB-50 - 40-7.5-40 2.9 30-7.5-55 1.8-4.0

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 Sharpest turns are usually provided for unchannelized intersections and for curbs of urban
streets intersections. In residential streets, the minimum curb radius should be 6m, though 3 -
4.5m radii are satisfactory. For junctions-used by commercial vehicles, a radius of 10.5 metres
will suffice.

1.7.2 Minimum design for turning roadways

Where the inner edges of pavement for left turns at intersections are designed to accommodate
semi-trailer combinations, or where the design permits passenger vehicles to turn at speeds 25
K.P.H. or more, the pavement area at the intersections may become excessively large for proper
control of traffic. To avoid this, a corner island is provided to form a separate turning roadway, i.e.
a connecting roadway for traffic turning between two intersection legs.

Fig. 7-36. Turning Roadway.

Table 7-38 Minimum design for turning roadways - AASHTO

Angle of turn 3-centered Width of lane (m) Approx. island size

(degrees) compound Curve (m2)
Radii (m) Offset (m)
75 A 45-22.5-45 1.1 4.25 5.5
B 45-22.5-45 1.5 5.5 4.5
C 55-27.5-55 1.1 6.0 4.5
90 A 45-15-45 0.9 4.25 4.5
B 45-15-45 1.5 5.5 7.5
C 55-20-55 1.8 6.0 11.5
105 A 36-12-36 0.6 4.5 6.5
B 30-11-30 1.5 6.5 4.5
C 55-14-55 2.5 9.6 5.5
120 A 30-9-30 0.75 5.0 11.0
B 30-9-30 1.5 7.5 8.5
C 55-12-55 2.6 10.5 20.0
135 A 30-9-30 0.75 5.0 43.0
B 30-9-30 1.5 8.0 34.0
C 50-11-50 2.75 11.0 60.0
150 A 30-9-20 0.75 5.0 130.0
B 30-9-30 1.8 9.0 110.0
C 50-11-50 2.2 11.5 160.0

A Primarily passenger vehicles; permits occasional design single units trucks to turn with
restricted clearances
B Provides adequately for SU; permits occasional WB-50 to turn with slight encroachment
on adjacent traffic lanes.
C Provides fully for WB-50

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1.7.3 Curves designed for different speeds

The speeds for which intersections curves should be designed depend largely upon the vehicle
speeds on the approach legs, type of intersection, and volumes of through and turning traffic.
Generally, a desirable turning speed for design is the average running speed, which may be
roughly taken as 0 7 of the design speed. Design at such speeds offers little hindrance to smooth
flow of traffic and may be justified on some intersections for certain movements involving little or
no-conflict with pedestrians or other vehicular traffic.

Table 7-39 Minimum radii for intersection curves for various turning speeds - AASHTO

Design turning speed (K.P.H.) 25 30 40 50 60 65

Side friction factor, f 0.32 0.27 0.23 0.20 0.18 0.16
Assumed minimum superelevation, e 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.09
Total e+f 0.32 0.29 0.27 0.26 0.26 0.25
Calculated min R (.m), 14 28 47 70 96 129
R=V2/[127(e+f)]
Suggested minimum, R (m) 15 27 45 70 95 130

1.7.4 Widths of carriageways in junctions

The carriageway width needs to be increased in curves. The following values of carriageway
widths are as per U.K. practice.

Table 7.40 Width of carriageways at intersections

Inner Radius Single lane width Two lane-width for one or two
(m) (m) way traffic
(m)
10-5 5.5 11.5
15 5.2 10.6
20 5.0 10.0
30 4.6 9.1
40 4.5 8.7
50 4.5 8.4
75 4.5 8.4
100 4.5 8.0
125 4.5 7.8
150 4.5 7.6
Straight 4.5 7.3

1.7.5 Speed change lanes

Drivers entering into or leaving an intersection have to change their speed. In the former case,
they will reduce the speed to a safe value at which the intersection can be negotiated. In the
latter case, they will increase the speed until the desired open highway speed is reached. Such
deceleration or acceleration on the highway disrupts traffic and may cause a hazard. Speed
change lanes are normally provided on superior facilities such as expressways and other main
highways.

Speed-change lanes are either acceleration lanes or deceleration lanes, and are usually provided
with a taper. The length of a deceleration lane depends upon the manoeuvring speed and the

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 deceleration characteristics. The length of an acceleration lane depends upon the speed at which
the drivers merge with through traffic and the acceleration characteristics.

Table 7 41 Design lengths of deceleration and acceleration lanes (Grade: 2 per cent or
less) - AASHTO

Design speed of turning Stop 25 30 40 50 60 65 75 80

roadway curve, K.P.H. condition
Minimum curve radius (m) 15 27 45 79 95 130 170 210
-Design speed Length of Total length of deceleration lane, including taper (m)
of highway Taper (m)
(K.P.H.)
65 60 100 90 85 75 60 - - - -
80 70 130 120 115 110 100 85 - - -
100 80 150 150 145 140 130 120 100 90 -
110 90 165 165 160 150 145 140 115 100 -
Design speed Length of Total length of acceleration lane, including taper (m)
of highway Taper (m)
(K.P.H.)
65 60 - 100 75 70 - - - - -
80 70 - 210 190 180 150 120 - - -
100 80 - 340 320 300 270 210 180 120 -
110 90 - 465 450 420 400 370 300 250 175

The width of speed change lane should not be less than a normal traffic lane, i.e. 3.75 metres.

1.7.6 Right-turn (Storage) lanes

Storage lanes for right-turning traffic enable the vehicle to slow down to the necessary turning
speed without impeding the flow of through traffic and for waiting when signals are provided. The
length of such right turn lanes as per current U.K. practice is given below.

Design speed of major road (K.P.H.) 80 65 50

Length of right-turn lane, including 30m taper (m) 120 100 80

1.8 Channelization

Channelization is the direction of traffic flow at intersections to definite paths, by means of traffic
markings, islands or other means. An unchannelised intersection is simple but dangerous and
inefficient. Important junctions should therefore be channelized.

Channelization serves the following purposes

(i) Separation of conflicts

(ii) Control of angle of conflict
(iii) Control of speed
(iv) Protection of traffic for vehicles leaving or crossing the main traffic stream.
(v) Protection of pedestrians
(vi) Elimination of excessive intersectional areas
(vii) Blockage of prohibited movements
(viii)Location of traffic control devices

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Fig. 7-38. Channelising island with funnel entrance and wider exit throat.

Fig. 7-39. Control of radius of entry and exit for control of speed.

Fig. 7-40. Channelising to protect right turning traffic.

Fig. 7-41. Unused pavement areas converted to channelising islands.

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1.8.1 Features of Channelising islands

Channelising islands may be of many different shapes and sizes guided by the geometry of the
intersection. They should be sufficiently large to command attention. An area of about 5 - 7 sq.
m. should be the minimum. Elongated or divisional islands, introduced on undivided highways to
alert drivers and regulate traffic through the intersections, should be at least 1.2 m wide and 3.5
to 6 m long.

In rural intersections, island curbs should always be of a mountable type, except where there is a
need for a barrier, as at structures or pedestrian crossings. For urban intersections, mountable
curbs are preferable for most situations, but a barrier type may be provided, where speeds are
low and protection of pedestrians, signal and lighting standards and signs is needed. The island
is referred to as a refuge island when used for protection of pedestrians.

The edges of the island are usually offset 0.3 to 0.6 m from the edge of the carriageway to
reduce the risk of overriding the islands.

The approach noses of islands should be rounded off to a minimum radius of 0.6 - 0.9 m, and the
merging end nose should be rounded off to a radius of at least 0.3 m. The approach to the nose
should be marked for additional guidance of traffic by means of diagonal markings and chevrons.

1.8.2 Median openings

(a) Minimum design

Where nearly all the traffic travels on the divided highway and volume is below capacity, an
occasional vehicle may use the median opening either to come to the through road from the
cross-road or to go to the cross-road from the through road. A simple median opening designed
for the minimum turning path is provided. The length of the opening depends upon the width of
the median.

Table 7 43 Minimum length of median opening for SU Design vehicles - AASHTO

Median width M (.in metres) L= Minimum length of median openings (in

metres) (Bullet nose ends)
1.2 30
1.8 23
2.5 21
3.0 19
3.6 18
4.3 16
5.0 15
6.0 13
7.2 and above 12 minimum

(b) Design for U-turns

Median openings designed only to accommodate vehicles making U-turns are needed on
expressways at the following locations:

1. Near to all terminal junctions

2. At regular intervals, of say 1.5km, between junctions to facilitate maintenance operations,
policing, repair of stalled vehicles etc.
3. Beyond important intersections to enable drivers unfamiliar with the locality to correct any
mistake in manoeuvring

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 4. For accommodating minor turning movements.

A minimum width of 9 m is needed, but reduced to 6m for passenger vehicles only. The
accommodations for U-turns provided by minimum design are summarised below

Table 7 44 Median opening for U-turn design - AASHTO

Median Type of manoeuvre accommodated on 4 lane divided AASHTO design vehicle

width (m) highway provided for
18 Permits nearly all vehicles to U- turn from inner to inner lane All vehicles.
12 Permits all passenger vehicles to U-turn from inner to inner P and SU
lane; permits some trucks to turn from outer to outer lane, with
large trucks partially encroaching on shoulders.
10 Permits passenger vehicles to U-turn from inner to inner lane; P and SU
permits all trucks to U-turns with encroachment on shoulders
6 Permits passenger vehicles to U-turn from inner to outer lane; P only
U-turn impossible for large trucks without backing

(c) Gap in median at junctions

To allow large vehicles to turn right without difficulty to/from a major road, the gap in the median
should normally extend 3m beyond the continuation of both kerb lines of the minor road to the
edge of the major road and should also be determined by 12-15m radius control circles tangential
both to the centre line of the minor road (or to the sides of any refuge or Island) and the side of
the central reserve away from the minor road.

Gap in median at junction.

1.9 T Intersection
Unchannelised T-junctions are used for very light traffic and for minor and local roads. Obviously
it is hazardous to use this in locations where speeds are high and turning movements are large.

1.10 Staggered Intersection

Many crossroads can be conveniently converted into a properly designed staggered intersection.
This will increase the safety.

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1.11 Rotary Intersection (Roundabout)

1.11.1 General

A rotary intersection is a special form of at-grade intersection where traffic moves in one direction
round a central island. The vehicles from the converging areas are forced to move around the
central island in a clockwise direction in an orderly manner and weave out of the rotary
movement into their desired directions.

1.11.2 Definition of terms

A sketch of the rotary along with some of its elements is given below

Fig. 7.68. Rotary Elements

The definitions of some of the common terms in rotary design; are given below:

Diverging: The dividing of a single stream of traffic into separate streams.

Merging: The converging of separate streams of traffic into a single stream.
Weaving: The combined movement of merging and diverging of traffic streams moving in
the same general direction.
Weaving Length: The length of a section of a rotary in which weaving occurs.

1.11.3 Advantages of rotary intersections

The advantages of rotary intersections are:

(i) Rotary one-way movement provides an orderly and regimented traffic flow
(ii) Normally, all traffic proceeds simultaneously and continuously at fairly uniform,
'though low, speed
(iii) Weaving movements replace the usual angular crossings typical at grade
intersections
(iv) All turns can be made with ease, although little extra travel distance is required
(v) A rotary is especially suited for intersections with five or more intersection legs,
and/or where there arc heavy right-turning movements
(vi) For moderate traffic, rotaries are self-governing and need no control by police or
traffic signals

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1.11.4 Disadvantages of rotary intersections

(i) As the flow increases and reaches the capacity, the rotary may 'lock up'.
(ii) A rotary can have the same capacity as a properly designed channelized layout
(iii) A rotary requires more land and may not be feasible in built-up locations.
(iv) Topography limits use of rotaries as they require large and relatively flat land area
(v) Where pedestrian traffic is large, a rotary by itself is not sufficient to control traffic and
has to be supplemented by traffic police
(vi) Where used on high-speed roads, rotaries require extremely large size.
(vii) Where the angle of intersection between two roads is too acute, it becomes difficult to
provide adequate weaving length
(viii) They impede traffic flow when provided at close intervals
(ix) Traffic turning right has to travel a little extra distance
(x) A rotary requires many warning and directional signs for safety
(xi) The rotary is not readily adaptable to stage development. Attempts at stage development
generally result in some over-design when viewed from immediate traffic needs.

1.11.5 Guidelines for selecting a rotary type of intersection

Considering some of the above advantages and disadvantages, the following general guidelines
may be kept in view when selecting a rotary type of intersection:

(i) Rotaries are most appropriate where volumes entering from different intersection legs
are approximately equal.
(ii) The maximum practical capacity for high type rotaries is about 3000 veh/hr entering from
all the intersection legs
(iii) A rotary design is most appropriate when the proportion of turning traffic is very high
(iv) A rotary is a good choice when there are more than four approaches to the junction.
(v) When the approach widths are restricted and it is impossible to provide separate lanes
for through and turning traffic, a rotary may be desirable.
(vi) Rotaries are not generally warranted for intersections carrying very light traffic - the
lowest traffic volume for which a rotary design should be considered is about 500 vph
(vii) Rotaries could be a good choice for moderately busy intersections in urban and
suburban areas, in place of complicated channelised layouts or traffic signals.

1.11.6 Shape of Rotary Island

The shape and layout of the rotary island depends upon the layout of the intersecting roads and
the traffic flow pattern.

Type Remarks
1. Circular Suited where roads of equal importance carrying approximately equal
volumes intersect at nearly equal angles.
2. Squarish with rounded edges Suited for predominantly straight ahead flows.
3. Elliptical, elongated, oval or Intended to favour through traffic. They may be provided to suit the
rectangular geometry of the intersecting legs or to provide long weaving lengths.
Elongated central island will be appropriate for a scissors junction.
4. Irregular Shape is dictated by the existence of a large number of approaches.

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 Elliptical Rectangular

Irregular

1.11.7 Mini roundabouts

A serious drawback of the conventional roundabout is that very often the traffic locks itself. The
conventional roundabout is thus not exactly self-regulatory at all times.

A major change in the approach to roundabout design was the introduction of the “offside priority”
rule in 1966. This rule was intended to get over the drawback of locked roundabouts, but other
advantages came with it. The absence of 'weaving' under the new rule made possible a drastic
reduction in the size of the central island and an availability of greater-carriageway space within
the existing layout. The entry width could be increased, rendering a multi-vehicle flow into the
roundabout.

Experiments initiated at the TRRL demonstrated that using small diameter islands could bring in
higher capacities. This formed the basis of current U.K. practice.

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 Typical mini-roundabout as per U.K. practice.

The basic principles of design of a mini-roundabout illustrated above are:

(i) Provision of small diameter island, about 1/3 of a hypothetical circle inscribed within the
outer carriageway boundaries, but normally not less than 8 m.
(ii) An increase in the number of lanes at the Give-Way line.
(iii) A minimum stopping distance of 25 m between the Give-Way line and the point of
conflict with a vehicle from the left. This is the dimension X in figure above
(iv) A width between traffic islands and the roundabout which is not less than the total lane
width at the entry preceding it, i.e. dimension shown as .Z
(v) An entry taper (about 1 in 6) that is about twice as sharp as the exit taper (about 1 in 12).
(vi) A deflection island (shown as B) intended to ensure that straight-through movements do
not occur.
(vii) To maintain junction capacity, a single lane approach should be tapered to give at least
three lanes at the junction and a 2-lane approach tapered to at least four lanes at the
junction. At the exits, the merge should normally be from four lanes to two lanes and two
lanes to one lane.

The capacity of a mini-roundabout is expressed with a general equation as follows:

q = K(w+a1/2), where

q = total entry volume in PCU/hour

w = sum of the basic road width used by traffic in both directions, in metres.
a = area of the junction widening, i.e., the area within the intersection outline (including
islands) which lies outside the area of the basic crossroads, in sq. m.
K = efficiency coefficient which depends upon site conditions.

Typical values are:

K values (PCU/hr)
3 way junction 80
4 way junction 70
5 way junction 65

The practical capacity is about 80 per cent of that given by above equation.

(a) Advantages of Mini-roundabouts

(i) Increased capacity: Wherever mini-roundabouts have replaced large diameter

roundabouts, a general increase in the capacity has been noted. As compared to
signalised junctions too, mini-roundabouts can bring about higher capacities.

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 (ii) Accident rates. A trend of decrease in the number of fatal and serious injury
accidents has been noticed after conversion of junction into mini-roundabouts.

(b) Limitations for use

As indicated earlier, mini-roundabouts are the result of the introduction of the "offside priority"
rule. They can be introduced only where such rules are in force and are strictly followed. Non-
observance of this rule can lead to chaos and serious accidents.

Mini-roundabouts require careful consideration on the design speed. High standard pavement
markings and road signing, and great care in provision of guide islands, alignment of the kerbs
and location of the central island are necessary for the satisfactory functioning.

Adequate visibility to the approaching drivers is of prime importance.

1.12 Grade Separated Intersections

1.12.1 Criteria for provision

The general criteria for providing grade separation across streets and highways are as follows:

Urban streets. Grade separation to be provided if the estimated traffic volumes within the next 5
years are in excess of the capacity of the intersection; when traffic projections show that volumes
within the next 20 years will exceed the capacity of an at-grade intersection, the need for a grade
separated facility should be kept in view for future construction.

Rural highway. Grade separation should be provided at intersections of divided rural highway if
the ADT (fast vehicles only) on the cross road within the next 5 years exceeds 5000. Where this
figure will be reached within the next 20 years, the need for such facilities should be kept in view.

Grade-separation is of great importance across railway lines. As a general guide Indian practice
for rural highways requires grade-separation to be provided across existing railway lines if the
product of ADT (fast vehicles only) and the number of trains per day exceeds 50,000 with the
next 5 years. For new constructions such as bypasses, grade separations should be provided
when this figure is greater than 25,000.

1.12.2 Types of grade-separated intersections

Basically two types are met with:

(i) Grade-separated intersections without interchange

(ii) Grade-separated intersections with interchange.

Interchange is a system whereby facility is provided for movement of traffic between two or more
roadways at different levels in the grade-separated junction. A structure without interchange is an
over-bridge or underpass or flyover, whereby the traffic at different levels moves separately
without a provision for an interchange between them.

The different forms of a grade-separated junction can be considered under the number of legs
the intersection serves. Thus the interchanges can be classified as three-leg, four-leg and multi-
leg, and these in turn can be subdivided into various types as below:

A. Three-leg interchange.

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1. T interchange.
2. Y interchange.
3. A partial rotary interchange.

B. Four-leg interchange
1. Diamond interchange.
2. Half cloverleaf interchange.
3. Clover leaf interchange.
4. Rotary interchange.
5. Directional interchange.

C. Multi-leg interchange
1. Rotary interchange. These types will be discussed in detail.

(a) Three-leg interchange

If one of the intersection legs meets a highway at approximately a right angle but does not cross
it, and if the junction is provided with interchanging facility, the junction is called a T interchange.
If the intersection angle is acute or obtuse, the junction is called a Y interchange. A widely used
form of a T or Y interchange is "trumpet".

Fig. 7.79. Trumpet interchange.

Fig. 7-80. Y-shaped interchange

A design convertible to full clover when the junction is likely to become four-leg, is indicated
below

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 Fig. 7-81. Three-leg interchange that can be converted to a clover

An alternative to the arrangement is a partial bridged rotary intersection shown below

(b) Diamond interchange

A popular form of interchange in urban locations involving a major-minor crossing is a diamond

interchange. It can be designed for a relatively narrow right-of-way of the major road.

(c) Half Cloverleaf interchange

When a major road crosses a minor road (not more than 2 lanes) it is possible to provide a partial
cloverleaf.

(d) Cloverleaf interchange

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The cloverleaf interchange is a 4-leg interchange with a single structure and is very popular. It is
used when two high volume and high-speed facilities intersect each other. Some of its
advantages are:
(i) Through traffic on both roads is unimpeded.
(ii) Only one structure is required
(iii) Left-turning traffic has a direct path
(iv) It is very simple to use and does not confuse the drivers.

The disadvantages of (his type of interchange are:

(i) Relatively large area is needed.
(ii) The carriageway area required is also higher than a rotary interchange
(iii) Weaving manoeuvres are involved, some of them on the roadway of the structure
and some underneath the structure
(iv) The weaving capacity is limited to about 1200 PCUs/hour, but may be increased by
providing an ancillary lane.
(v) The U-turns are long and operationally difficult.
(vi) Loop design speeds have to be low, and speeds above 50 K.P.H. are likely to
increase the cost.
(vii) Right-turning traffic has to travel extra distance.
(viii) The capacity of the loop is also restricted.

A capacity of 800 - 1200 veh per hour is almost the limit. Fig. 7.87 gives the layout of cloverleaf
interchange.

(e) Rotary interchange

A rotary interchange is another form of 4-leg interchange popular in some countries, especially in
U.K. It can also be used for multi-leg interchange.

The advantages claimed for this type of interchange are:

(i) It occupies relatively less land area
(ii) The carriageway area is also less than many other types
(iii) U- turns are easy
(iv) Suitable for most sites.

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 The advantages are:
(i) The capacity is limited by the capacity of the roundabout itself
(ii) The straight through traffic on one road is required to weave with turning traffic from the
other road

A 2-level interchange can be improved to a 3-levels rotary interchange, where through traffic on
each road is unimpeded and the weaving takes place in the rotary only for the turning traffic. The
number of structures required is five.

Fig. 7'89. Three-level rotary

(f) Directional interchange

An interchange which gives direct or semi direct connections for the major right-turning
movements is called a directional interchange. These interchanges are rather complex and
involve complicated multi-level structures

1.12.3 Design considerations

(i) Radii of curves on ramps

(ii) Sight distance on ramps
(iii) Gradients on ramps. Guidelines are:
(a) Ramp gradients should desirably be limited to 6 per cent in areas subject to snow
and ice
(b) Where heavy truck tram; is likely, the upward gradient should be limited to 4 per
cent.
(c) In exceptional cases, grades may be as steep as 10 per cent, on minor ramps and
low volume ramps.
(iv) Width of ramps
(v) Capacity.

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