Department of Mechatronics Engineering Module - 3

Module 3
Machine Tools

Lathe: Working Principle, Specifications, and Operations

A lathe machine is one of the most important and widely used machine tools in manufacturing
industries. It is primarily used for producing cylindrical, conical, and flat surfaces by
removing excess material from a rotating work piece using a stationary single-point cutting
tool. Lathes are often referred to as the “mother of all machines” because many machining
processes are based on the same principle.

Working Principle

The working principle of a lathe is based on the concept of rotating the work piece against a
cutting tool. The work piece is held securely in the chuck or between centers and rotated by
the spindle driven by an electric motor. The cutting tool, mounted on the tool post, is fed into
the rotating work piece to remove material in the form of chips. The relative motion between
the tool and work results in the desired shape and surface finish.

The main parts of a lathe include the bed, headstock, tailstock, carriage, lead screw, feed
rod, and tool post. The headstock houses the spindle and motor, while the tailstock supports
the other end of the work piece. The carriage moves the tool longitudinally and crosswise to
perform different cutting operations.

Fig: Working principle of a lathe

A lathe removes material from a rotating work piece using a stationary cutting tool (single-
point or multi-point). The basic elements and their roles:

 Headstock: holds the spindle and drive; provides rotational speed to the work piece.
 Spindle & Chuck: the spindle rotates; the chuck (or faceplate) holds the work piece.
 Bed: rigid base that aligns all components.

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Assistant Professor
 Department of Mechatronics Engineering Module - 3
 Carriage: moves the cutting tool longitudinally (along the axis) and crosswise; consists
of saddle, cross-slide, compound rest and toolpost.
 Tailstock: supports the free end (centers, drill, reamer) or holds tooling for
drilling/boring.
 Lead screw & Apron: convert spindle rotation to longitudinal feed (for threading and
power feeds).
 Feed gearbox / change gears: select feed rates and thread pitches.

Basic cycle: clamp workpiece → select spindle speed and feed → bring tool to cut → control
longitudinal/cross feed to remove material → measure/finish.

Fig: Late Machine

Typical lathe specifications

When specifying a lathe, these are the key parameters and what they mean:

 Swing over bed (mm): maximum diameter that can be rotated above the bed (e.g., 300
mm).
 Swing over carriage/ cross slide: slightly less than bed swing.
 Distance between centers (mm): maximum workable length (e.g., 1000, 1500, 3000
mm).
 Spindle bore (mm): hole through spindle for long bar work.
 Spindle speeds (rpm): range & number of steps (e.g., 50–2500 rpm stepless or stepped).
 Motor power (kW/HP): available cutting power.
 Lead screw pitch & threads: determines thread cutting capability.
 Feed rates (mm/rev & mm/min): longitudinal and cross feed ranges.
 Toolpost type: 4-jaw, quick change toolpost, etc.
 Tailstock quill travel (mm): how far the dead centre or drill can be advanced.
 Machine accuracy & repeatability: straightness, alignment tolerances.

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Assistant Professor
 Department of Mechatronics Engineering Module - 3
Lathe machine operations
Facing
Facing: Is the operation of machining the ends of a piece of the work to produce a flat surface
perpendicular with the axis. This is also used to cut the work to the required length. The
operation involves feeding the tool perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the work piece.

Fig: Facing
Purpose: produce a flat end face perpendicular to the axis of rotation (square end).
Tooling: facing tool (short, with radius for finish) mounted in tool post.
Procedure
1. Mount work piece; ensure axial alignment.
2. Set tool at center height and position slightly above the face at outer diameter.
3. Start at outer diameter and feed tool inwards (cross feed) toward the center.
4. For center finish, use very light cuts and possibly reduce spindle speed to avoid tearing.
5. If using between-centers, use a tailstock center to support and avoid spring.
Tips
 Use continuous light feed on the final pass.
 Back off and clear chips frequently to avoid built-up edge and surface burn.

Turning (plain turning / cylindrical turning)

The process of metal removal from the cylindrical jobs is called straight or plain turning. The
work piece is supported in between the two centres which permit the rotation of the work piece.
A single point cutting tool is fed perpendicular to the axis of work piece to a known
predetermined depth of cut and is moved parallel to the axis of the work piece.
Purpose: reduce diameter, produce a cylinder of specified diameter/finish.
Tooling: single-point turning tool (HSS or carbide insert), nose radius chosen to control finish,
toolholder to locate cutting edge at center height.
Setup and procedure
1. Mount workpiece in chuck or between centers. Ensure concentricity.
2. Select spindle speed based on material and diameter (higher speed for small diameters,
lower for large/hard materials).
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 Department of Mechatronics Engineering Module - 3
3. Set longitudinal feed (mm/rev) and depth of cut (axial reduction).
4. Bring tool in cross-feed until light scrape then retract and set zero.
5. Make roughing passes: larger depth, higher feed to remove bulk material.
6. Finish pass: shallow depth, finer feed for surface finish; measure diameter and adjust.

Fig: Turning
Cutting parameters guidance
 Use larger depth and lower speed for heavy cuts; smaller depth and higher speed for
fine finishes.
 Keep cutting edge at work center height to avoid chatter and poor finish.
Common mistakes
 Tool below/above center - causes taper or rubbing.
 Too high feed or unsupported workpiece - chatter.
 Improper clamping - eccentric turning.

Taper turning - by swivelling the compound rest

Taper turning is an operation to produce conical surface on the work piece. This can be
machined by either work piece inclined to the axis of the lathe or tool moving inclined to the
axis of the lathe.
When to use: small tapers (short length) and accurate control of taper angle - common for tool
or shaft ends.
Principle: the compound rest (top slide) is swivelled to the required taper angle and the
carriage is fed longitudinally while the cross-slide advances the tool a fixed amount per
revolution determined by the compound angle.
Geometry & formula
 If taper is specified by difference in diameters over a length:

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 Department of Mechatronics Engineering Module - 3
𝐷1 −𝐷2
o Swivel angle 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼= 2𝐿

Where D₁ and D₂ are end diameters, L is taper length along axis.

 Set compound rest to angle α; lock securely.
Procedure
1. Mount and center the work.
2. Calculate swivel angle from taper specification (use formula above).
3. Loosen compound lock, rotate compound to calculated angle and lock.
4. Set tool at outer diameter and engage longitudinal feed.
5. Use compound rest cross feed (usually setting compound parallel to axis so that
longitudinal feed moves tool along axis while compound generates radial feed equal to
taper per revolution). Alternatively, some operators use the compound to feed the entire
cut by turning the handwheel per revolution to produce precise taper (suitable for fine
finishes).
6. Make roughing passes removing most material; finish with fine cuts.

Fig: Taper turning - by swivelling the compound rest

Advantages
 High accuracy for short tapers.
 Easy to measure angle with protractor.
Limitations
 Not suited for long tapers (compound travel limited).
 Requires accurate angle calculation/setup.
Common errors
 Using too steep feed causing tool marks.
 Not locking compound properly (leads to chatter).

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Assistant Professor
 Department of Mechatronics Engineering Module - 3
Thread cutting (single-point threading)
A thread is a helical ridge formed on a cylindrical or conical rod. It is an operation to generate
desired threads on the job. Here the job is firmly held between the chuck and dead centre of
the lathe, it is first plain turned to a diameter equal to the major diameter of the required thread.
A suitable threading tool is fixed in the tool post It is cut on a lathe when a tool is moved
longitudinally with uniform linear motion while the work piece is rotating with uniform speed.
(The threads are classified as V. square, single start, double start, multi start, right hand, left
hand, external and internal).

Purpose: produce external or internal screw threads with specified pitch and profile.
Essential ideas
 Single-point tool profiles must match thread form (e.g., 60° V-thread for metric/UN).
 For metric threads: feed on the carriage = thread pitch (mm/rev).
 Gear train or leadscrew must be set so apron movement matches spindle rotation times
pitch.
Tooling
 Threading tool ground to correct profile and included angle.
 Use toolpost that can hold tool rigidly and index for successive passes.
Setup & procedure
1. Mount workpiece; ensure accuracy and alignment.
2. Fit appropriate change gears or select gearbox setting for desired pitch.
3. Set spindle direction and speed — slow spindle speeds for threading to avoid chatter.
4. Bring tool to starting position; set tool height exactly at center.
5. Engagement method: use half-nuts or threading dial (for lathes with a threading dial).
6. Make successive passes: use roughing passes removing most of the depth, then
finishing pass with final depth. Typically backing off between passes with compound
rest or cross slide to achieve correct depth incrementally.
7. For single-pass finish, ensure correct lead and pitch; for multiple passes, feed
increments are controlled until final depth reached.
8. Use cutting oil appropriate to material for finish and tool life.
Depth of cut & feed
 Feed = pitch (mm/rev).

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 Department of Mechatronics Engineering Module - 3
 Depth per pass is small for finishing (depends on pitch & material). Always take
conservative cuts when approaching full thread depth.
Critical checks
 Verify lead (axial advance per revolution) equals thread pitch.
 For internal threads, use appropriate boring/barrel tools and check interference.
 Use thread gauges for final inspection.
Common problems
 Wrong gear setting → wrong pitch.
 Tool not square to work or wrong profile angle → incorrect thread form.
 Taper in threads due to tool alignment or tailstock drift.

Knurling
Knurling is an operation performed on the lathe to generate serrated surface (embossing
diamond shaped) on the work piece. This is used to produce a rough surface for griping
like the barrel of the micrometre or screw gauge. This is done by a special tool called knurling
tool fed perpendicular to the axis during knurling operation, the hardened rollers of the tool are
pressed against the slowly rotating work pieces.

Purpose: produce patterned grip on a shaft (diamond, straight, or helical knurls).

Types of knurls
 Diamond knurl: cross-hatch pattern (most common for grips).
 Straight knurl: longitudinal ridges (for bearing surfaces).
 Helical knurl: at an angle — produces ridges at a helix.
Tooling
 Knurling tool with hardened knurl wheels; mount in toolpost or special knurling holder.
 Wheels must be aligned and matched to work diameter.
Procedure
1. Mount work squarely in chuck; support long work with tailstock if needed.
2. Position knurling tool so knurls engage at approximately center height (or slightly
above).
3. Use very light axial feed - knurling transfers pattern by plastic deformation, not heavy
cutting.

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 Department of Mechatronics Engineering Module - 3
4. Rotate the work at moderate speed; advance the knurling tool into the work to the
required impression depth. Avoid deep initial penetration - increase gradually until
pattern is complete.
5. Withdraw tool and check pattern - if shimmering or slipping, reduce pressure or adjust
feed.
Key points
 Knurling is a cold forming process; work piece material must be ductile enough.
 Maintain steady axial feed to avoid irregular or doubled patterns.
 Do not reverse spindle while knurling in contact — tool may jam.
Common mistakes
 Too much pressure → excessive work hardening and tool breakage.
 Misaligned knurls → double or smeared pattern.
 Using knurling on brittle materials → cracking.

Drilling Machine -Working Principle

A drilling machine (also called a drill press) is a machine tool used for producing round holes
in solid materials using a rotating multi-point cutting tool called a drill bit. It is one of the
most common and essential machine tools used in workshops, manufacturing, and maintenance
work.
Working Principle
The working principle of a drilling machine is based on the concept of rotary motion
combined with feed motion. The drill bit rotates about its own axis to provide the cutting
speed, while it is fed axially into the stationary workpiece to produce a hole. The material is
removed in the form of small chips due to the combined cutting action of the drill’s lips and
cutting edges.
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 Department of Mechatronics Engineering Module - 3

Fig: working principle of a drilling machine

Fig: Vertical drilling machine

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 Department of Mechatronics Engineering Module - 3
The drilling machine consists of the following main parts:
 Base: Provides support and rigidity to the entire machine.
 Column: Vertical member that supports the arm, table, and head.
 Table: Supports the workpiece and can be adjusted vertically or rotated around the
column.
 Spindle: Holds and rotates the drill.
 Drill head: Houses the spindle and driving motor.
 Feed mechanism: Provides downward movement of the drill bit into the workpiece.
 Chuck: Holds the drill bit securely during operation.
When the machine is switched on, the electric motor drives the spindle, which in turn rotates
the drill. The drill is then fed into the work piece either manually or automatically to create the
required hole.
Specifications of a Drilling Machine
The specifications of a drilling machine generally include:
1. Drilling capacity: Maximum diameter of the drill that can be used (e.g., 13 mm, 25
mm, 50 mm).
2. Spindle speed range: Range of spindle rotation speeds (in rpm).
3. Feed range: Rate of downward feed of the drill (mm/rev).
4. Type of spindle drive: Belt-driven or gear-driven.
5. Distance between spindle nose and table/base: Determines the size of the work piece
that can be accommodated.
6. Number of speed steps: Number of different speed settings available.
7. Type of table: Fixed, adjustable, or radial.
8. Motor power: Determines the capacity of the machine.

Operations Performed on a Drilling Machine

Drilling
Drilling is the operation of producing a circular hole in a solid work piece using a rotating
cutting tool known as a drill bit. It is one of the most basic and widely used machining processes
in manufacturing industries.
Working Principle:
The drill rotates at high speed and is fed axially into the stationary work piece. The drill’s two
cutting edges remove material in the form of chips, producing a cylindrical hole. The chips

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 Department of Mechatronics Engineering Module - 3
travel along the helical flutes of the drill and are expelled from the hole. A cutting fluid is often
used to reduce temperature, friction, and to remove chips effectively.

Fig: Drilling
Types of Drill Bits:
 Twist Drill: Most common, having two helical flutes.
 Flat Drill: Simple design, used for soft materials.
 Center Drill: Used for producing a starting hole to guide larger drills.
 Step Drill: Used for drilling holes of different diameters in thin sheets.
 Core Drill: Used to enlarge existing holes.
Procedure:
1. Mark the hole location using a center punch.
2. Mount and align the work piece on the drilling table.
3. Select appropriate drill bit, speed, and feed rate.
4. Apply cutting fluid and start the drilling operation.
5. Use peck drilling for deep holes.
6. Withdraw the drill slowly to remove chips and burrs.
Applications:
Drilling is used for creating holes for bolts, rivets, or fasteners, and as a preliminary step for
reaming, boring, or tapping.
Advantages:
 Simple and fast operation.
 Can be automated using CNC drilling centers.

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 Department of Mechatronics Engineering Module - 3
 Produces accurate and repeatable holes.

Reaming
Reaming is a finishing operation performed to enlarge and accurately size an existing drilled
hole with a smooth surface finish using a multi-edge tool called a reamer.
Purpose:
 To achieve close dimensional accuracy.
 To improve surface finish and roundness.
 To remove small amounts of material (0.2–0.5 mm typically).
Working Principle:
The reamer is rotated at a slower speed than drilling and fed into the pre-drilled hole. The
multiple cutting edges remove a small layer of material to achieve a fine finish and exact
diameter.

Fig: Reaming
Types of Reamers:
 Hand Reamer: Used manually with a tap wrench.
 Machine Reamer: Used on drilling machines.
 Adjustable Reamer: Can vary diameter slightly.
 Taper Reamer: Produces tapered holes.
Procedure:
1. Drill the hole slightly undersized.
2. Apply lubricant.
3. Mount reamer and feed it slowly into the hole.
4. Do not reverse rotation during reaming.
5. Withdraw reamer after operation.
Advantages:
 High accuracy (IT7–IT8 tolerance).
 Improved surface finish.
 Removes tool marks and irregularities.
Applications:
Used in automotive and aerospace industries for precision holes in engine blocks, bushings,
and bearings.
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Assistant Professor
 Department of Mechatronics Engineering Module - 3
Boring
Boring is the process of enlarging an existing hole using a single-point cutting tool called a
boring bar. It corrects errors such as hole misalignment or roughness from drilling.
Working Principle:
A boring bar, mounted on a spindle, rotates and removes material from the internal surface of
an existing hole. Feed is provided along the axis of rotation.

Fig: Boring
Types of Boring:
 Straight Boring: Produces straight internal holes.
 Taper Boring: Produces tapered holes.
 Line Boring: Used for machining multiple aligned holes.
Procedure:
1. Mount work piece securely.
2. Align boring tool with the drilled hole.
3. Feed the boring bar slowly.
4. Measure diameter periodically.
5. Use coolant for smoother operation.
Advantages:
 Produces large, accurate holes.
 Corrects hole eccentricity.
 Suitable for internal surface finishing.
Applications:
Used in automotive engine blocks, cylinder bores, and heavy machinery components.

Counterboring
Counterboring enlarges the upper portion of an existing hole to form a flat-bottomed recess.
This allows the head of a bolt, screw, or nut to sit flush with or below the work surface.

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 Department of Mechatronics Engineering Module - 3
Working Principle:
A counterbore tool with a pilot aligns with the drilled hole, while a flat cutting edge enlarges
the upper portion to a specified depth and diameter.

Fig: Counterboring
Procedure:
1. Drill the initial hole.
2. Replace drill with a counterbore cutter.
3. Align pilot with the existing hole.
4. Feed tool until the required depth is achieved.
Advantages:
 Ensures bolts and nuts sit flush.
 Improves assembly and aesthetics.
 Prevents protrusions on machine surfaces.
Applications:
Used in machine tool housings, gearboxes, and structural assemblies.

Countersinking
Countersinking enlarges the mouth of a drilled hole into a conical shape to allow flat-head
screws to fit flush with the surface.
Working Principle:
A countersink tool with a conical cutting edge (commonly 82°, 90°, or 100°) is fed into the
drilled hole, cutting the conical recess.

Fig: Countersinking
Procedure:
1. Drill hole to the required diameter.

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 Department of Mechatronics Engineering Module - 3
2. Mount countersink tool.
3. Feed it slowly to the desired depth.
4. Withdraw tool gently to avoid chatter marks.
Advantages:
 Eliminates sharp edges.
 Provides a clean seating surface for screws.
 Improves appearance.
Applications:
Used in sheet metal, aircraft panels, and machine parts.

Tapping
Tapping is the operation of cutting internal threads in a previously drilled hole using a tool
called a tap.
Working Principle:
The tap, having multiple cutting edges, is rotated and fed axially into the hole. Each cutting
edge removes a small amount of material, forming threads.

Fig: Tapping
Procedure:
1. Drill hole slightly smaller than thread’s minor diameter.
2. Select correct tap size.
3. Apply lubricant (especially for metals).
4. Rotate tap clockwise (for RH threads), reversing slightly after each turn to break chips.
5. Withdraw and clean.
Advantages:
 Produces accurate threads.
 Simple and quick operation.
 Can be done manually or on a drilling machine.

Applications:
Used in machine parts, jigs, fixtures, and assemblies requiring threaded fasteners.

Machine Tools 15 Dr. Chethan Kumar N

Assistant Professor
 Department of Mechatronics Engineering Module - 3
MILLING
Milling is one of the most important and widely used metal cutting processes in modern
manufacturing industries. It involves the removal of material from a work piece by means
of a rotating multipoint cutting tool known as a milling cutter. Unlike turning, where the
work piece rotates and the tool remains stationary, in milling the cutter rotates while the work
piece is fed against it in a controlled manner. This process is capable of producing flat,
contoured, helical, and irregular surfaces, and it can also perform operations like slotting,
gear cutting, keyway cutting, and contouring with high accuracy.
The milling process is generally carried out on a milling machine, which is available in
different designs and sizes depending on the type of job, production requirements, and accuracy
levels desired. Milling is an essential machining process used to generate accurate surfaces,
slots, profiles, and gear teeth using a rotating multi-point cutter. Depending on spindle
orientation, milling machines can be vertical or horizontal, and based on cutting direction,
operations can be up (conventional) or down (climb) milling.
Indexing, on the other hand, complements milling by allowing precise angular rotation of the
work piece between consecutive cuts. Using an indexing head, one can achieve simple,
compound, or differential indexing, which is fundamental for gear cutting, polygonal
machining, and other repetitive circular divisions.
Together, milling and indexing form the backbone of precision component manufacturing in
industries such as automotive, aerospace, tool making, and machinery production.
Principle of Milling
The principle of milling is based on the relative motion between the rotating cutter and the
workpiece.
 The cutter, having multiple cutting edges, rotates at high speed.
 The workpiece is fed slowly past the cutter, and with each revolution, the cutter teeth
remove small chips from the surface of the workpiece.
 The feed motion can be given to the table or the spindle, depending on the machine
configuration.
The combination of these two motions (rotation of cutter and linear feed of workpiece)
results in material removal and surface generation.

Various Milling Operations

Milling operations can be broadly classified according to the type of surface generated and the
manner of cutter engagement.

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 Department of Mechatronics Engineering Module - 3
Plain or Slab Milling
 In this operation, the surface machined is parallel to the axis of the rotating cutter.
 The cutter used is a plain milling cutter having teeth on its periphery.
 It is used to machine flat horizontal surfaces of large work pieces.

Face Milling
 The surface generated is perpendicular to the axis of the cutter.
 The cutter has teeth both on the periphery and the face.
 This operation produces a better surface finish and is ideal for machining flat surfaces
and faces of work pieces.

Fig: Face milling Fig: End milling

End Milling
 In this operation, an end mill cutter with teeth on both its end and periphery is used.
 It is suitable for machining slots, pockets, keyways, and profiles.
 It can also be used for contour milling and engraving.
Angular Milling
 The axis of the cutter is set at an angle to the surface being machined.
 It is used to produce angular grooves, chamfers, or dovetail surfaces.

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 Department of Mechatronics Engineering Module - 3

Form Milling
 This operation uses specially shaped form cutters designed to reproduce the desired
profile.
 It is used to produce irregular contours, gear teeth, concave, or convex surfaces in a
single pass.
Slot Milling
 In slot milling, a slot or groove is produced on the workpiece.
 A side and face cutter or an end mill is typically used for this operation.

Straddle Milling
 Two or more side cutters are mounted on the same arbor to machine two parallel
surfaces simultaneously.
 Commonly used for machining opposite sides of a component, such as hexagonal or
square sections.
Gang Milling
 Several cutters of different shapes are mounted on the same arbor.
 All the cutters work together to machine multiple surfaces of the workpiece in one
pass.
 It enhances productivity and is suitable for mass production.
Profile Milling
 Used for machining curved or irregular surfaces.
 Cutters of appropriate shape follow the contour of the part.

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 Department of Mechatronics Engineering Module - 3

Gear Milling
 Special form cutters are used to produce gear teeth.
 It requires precise indexing to divide the workpiece periphery equally.

Classification of Milling Machines

Milling machines can be classified according to the construction, orientation of spindle, or
application as follows:
Column and Knee Type Milling Machine
 The most common type found in workshops.
 The name comes from its major components: the column (main supporting frame) and
the knee (adjustable support carrying the table).
 The table can move longitudinally (X-axis), crosswise (Y-axis), and vertically (Z-
axis).
Subtypes:
1. Horizontal Milling Machine – Spindle is horizontal and supports the arbor on which
cutters are mounted.
2. Vertical Milling Machine – Spindle is vertical and the cutter is mounted directly on it.
3. Universal Milling Machine – Table can be swiveled in different directions, suitable
for helical and angular milling.
Fixed Bed Type Milling Machine
 The table is directly mounted on a solid bed and has limited movement.
 Used for heavy-duty and large workpieces where rigidity is essential.

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 Department of Mechatronics Engineering Module - 3
Planer Type Milling Machine
 Large and rigid machine resembling a planer.
 Several spindles can operate simultaneously, suitable for large, flat surfaces.
Special Type Milling Machines
 Include Drum type, Rotary table, Tracer controlled, and CNC milling machines
designed for specific tasks and high-precision operations.

Vertical and Horizontal Milling Machines

In a vertical milling machine, the spindle is oriented vertically (perpendicular to the table).
The cutting tool moves up and down along the vertical axis (Z-axis), while the workpiece is
mounted on a horizontal table that moves in the X and Y directions.

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 Department of Mechatronics Engineering Module - 3
Main Parts:
 Base: Supports the entire machine and absorbs vibrations.
 Column: Vertically mounted structure that houses the spindle and motor.
 Knee: Moves up and down to adjust the height of the table.
 Saddle: Mounted on the knee, provides movement in the Y-direction.
 Table: Holds the workpiece and allows movement in X and Y directions.
 Spindle: Vertically oriented; holds the milling cutter.
 Overarm: Supports the spindle head and provides rigidity.
Types of Vertical Milling Machines:
1. Plain (or Vertical knee-type) Milling Machine:
Used for general-purpose milling where the cutter is held directly in the spindle.
2. Turret Milling Machine (Bridgeport type):
The spindle can be tilted, and the head can be swiveled for angular operations.
3. Bed-type Milling Machine:
The table moves longitudinally, but the spindle moves vertically used for heavy-duty
operations.
Advantages:
 Easy to set up and operate.
 Suitable for precision milling and die-sinking operations.
 Ideal for machining slots, grooves, and flat surfaces.
 Versatile for both small and medium-sized components.
Disadvantages:
 Limited depth of cut compared to horizontal mills.
 Less rigid, hence not suitable for heavy cuts.
 Tool wear can be faster due to the upward cutting action.
Applications:
 Engraving, die-sinking, and cavity machining.
 Slot and keyway cutting.
 Face and surface milling.
 Drilling and boring operations.

Horizontal Milling Machine

In a horizontal milling machine, the spindle is mounted horizontally and parallel to the table
surface. The cutting tool rotates on a horizontal axis and is usually mounted on an arbor that
extends from the spindle.

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 Department of Mechatronics Engineering Module - 3

Main Parts:
 Base: Provides support and stability to the machine.
 Column: Houses the spindle drive and supports the overarm.
 Knee: Supports the saddle and table, allowing vertical adjustment.
 Saddle: Provides cross movement (Y-axis).
 Table: Holds and moves the workpiece longitudinally (X-axis).
 Spindle: Horizontally oriented to hold the arbor and cutter.
 Overarm and Arbor Support: Support long cutters and prevent deflection during
heavy cutting.
Types of Horizontal Milling Machines:
1. Plain Horizontal Milling Machine:
Suitable for simple and heavy-duty operations.
2. Universal Horizontal Milling Machine:
The table can be swiveled to mill helical grooves or gears.
3. Ram-Type Horizontal Mill:
The spindle can move forward and backward on a ram, allowing better flexibility.
Advantages:
 High rigidity suitable for heavy and deep cutting operations.
 Better surface finish and higher material removal rate.
 Longer tool life due to horizontal cutting action.
 Can perform multiple operations simultaneously using multiple cutters on the arbor.
Disadvantages:
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 More expensive and complex to set up.
 Requires larger floor space.
 Less suitable for intricate or small part machining.
Applications:
 Gear cutting, slotting, and keyway machining.
 Heavy milling operations on large work pieces.
 Grooves, profiles, and contour milling.
 Machining of flat and angular surfaces.

Feature Vertical Milling Machine Horizontal Milling Machine

Spindle
Vertically oriented spindle Horizontally oriented spindle
Orientation
Directly on spindle using collet or On an arbor supported by an
Cutter Mounting
arbor overarm
Table can move in X, Y, and Z
Feed Direction Table moves in X and Y directions
directions
Suitable for end milling, face milling, Suitable for slab, straddle, and
Operation Type
and drilling gang milling
Coarser finish but faster metal
Surface Finish Generally better finish
removal
Suitable for large-scale and heavy
Applications Ideal for tool rooms and precise work
machining
Ease of Setup Easier to operate More setup time needed
Examples Turret milling, CNC vertical mill Universal and horizontal plain mill

Up Milling and Down Milling

Milling operations are also categorized based on the direction of cutter rotation relative to
the feed direction.
Up Milling (Conventional Milling)
 The cutter rotates against the direction of feed.
 Chip thickness starts at zero and increases towards the end of the cut.
 The cutting force tends to lift the workpiece from the table, hence strong clamping is
necessary.
 Advantages:
o Suitable for roughing operations.
o Longer tool life for hard materials.
 Disadvantages:
o Poor surface finish.
o Cutter starts with a rubbing action, increasing friction.

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 Department of Mechatronics Engineering Module - 3

Down Milling (Climb Milling)

 The cutter rotates in the same direction as the feed.
 Chip thickness is maximum at the beginning and reduces to zero at the end of the cut.
 The cutter tends to press the workpiece against the table, ensuring stability.
 Advantages:
o Better surface finish.
o Less tool wear.
o Reduced cutting forces.
 Disadvantages:
o Not suitable for hard or scale-covered surfaces.
o Requires backlash-free feed mechanism (preferably CNC machines).
Comparison Table: Up vs Down Milling
Aspect Up Milling Down Milling
Cutter rotation
Opposite direction Same direction
vs feed
Chip thickness Minimum at start, maximum at end Maximum at start, minimum at end
Cutting force Upward (tends to lift work) Downward (presses work)
Tool wear More Less
Surface finish Poor Good
Work holding Needs strong clamping Comparatively easier
Safety Safer for beginners Requires experienced handling

JOINING PROCESSES
In any manufacturing or fabrication process, joining of components is a critical operation. Most
engineering products are not made from a single piece of material; instead, they are composed
of multiple parts that must be assembled together to achieve the desired shape, strength, and
functionality. The process of combining these parts into one whole is known as joining.

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The main objective of joining processes is to ensure mechanical integrity, structural
stability, and leak-proof connections between components. The method of joining depends
on the material properties, service conditions, joint design, and cost factors.
Joining processes are broadly used in industries such as automotive, aerospace, shipbuilding,
construction, and machinery manufacturing. Depending on the requirement, the joint may be
either permanent (cannot be disassembled without damaging components) or temporary (can
be separated when needed).

Classification of Joining Processes

Joining processes can be classified into two main categories:
(a) Temporary Joining Methods
Temporary joints are those which can be easily dismantled or separated without damaging the
components. These are useful in cases where regular maintenance, repair, or replacement is
required.
Examples:
 Bolted joints
 Screwed joints
 Riveted joints (semi-permanent)
Features:
 Easy assembly and disassembly
 Suitable for parts subjected to periodic maintenance
 Less expensive for simple applications
 Limited strength compared to permanent joints

(b) Permanent Joining Methods

Permanent joints are those that cannot be separated without destroying the joined parts. These
joints provide a more rigid, strong, and durable connection.
Examples:
 Welding
 Brazing
 Soldering
 Adhesive bonding
Features:
 High joint strength and rigidity

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 Suitable for structural and load-bearing applications
 Require skilled operators and careful process control
 Difficult or impossible to dismantle

SOLDERING
Soldering is a low-temperature joining process in which two or more metal pieces are joined
using a filler material called solder. The filler metal has a melting point below 450°C, and the
base metals do not melt during the process. Instead, the molten solder wets and adheres to the
base metal surfaces by capillary action and intermolecular attraction, forming a strong
metallic bond upon solidification.
Working Principle
The basic principle of soldering is the melting of filler metal (solder) at a temperature lower
than that of the base metal. When the solder melts, it flows over the clean surfaces of the base
metals and fills the gap between them due to capillary forces. Upon cooling, it solidifies and
creates a metallic bond that holds the parts together.
Flux is an important material in soldering, used to clean the surfaces by removing oxides and
preventing further oxidation during heating.

Process Steps
1. Surface Cleaning:
The metal surfaces to be joined are cleaned mechanically or chemically to remove dirt,
grease, and oxides.
2. Application of Flux:
Flux (e.g., rosin, zinc chloride, ammonium chloride) is applied to prevent oxidation and
improve the wetting property of the molten solder.
3. Heating the Joint:
The joint is heated using a soldering iron, gas torch, or furnace until the temperature
exceeds the melting point of the solder.

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4. Feeding Solder:
The solder (e.g., tin-lead alloy) is applied to the heated joint area. It melts and spreads
by capillary action.
5. Cooling:
The joint is allowed to cool naturally, allowing the solder to solidify and form a
permanent bond.

Equipment and Materials

 Heat Source: Soldering iron, resistance heater, or torch.
 Solder: Tin-lead alloy (Sn–Pb), lead-free solder (Sn–Ag–Cu).
 Flux: Rosin, zinc chloride, borax.
 Cleaning tools: Files, brushes, or acid solutions.

Advantages
 Requires low temperature and simple equipment.
 Easy operation; does not require highly skilled labor.
 Produces smooth and neat joints.
 Suitable for joining dissimilar metals.
 Minimal distortion since base metals do not melt.
 Can be automated for mass electronic production.

Limitations
 Low joint strength, unsuitable for heavy or load-bearing structures.
 Not suitable for high-temperature service (as the solder softens easily).
 Flux residue may cause corrosion if not properly cleaned.
 Limited gap-filling ability compared to brazing.

Applications
 Electrical and electronic circuit boards.
 Joining of copper wires and terminals.
 Plumbing (joining copper pipes).
 Jewellery and small instrument assembly.
 Radio and television manufacturing.

BRAZING
Brazing is a metal joining process in which two or more metals are joined by melting a filler
metal that has a melting point above 450°C but below the melting point of the base metals.
The filler metal flows into the gap between closely fitted parts through capillary action and
solidifies to form a strong joint.
Unlike welding, the base metal does not melt in brazing, which helps in preserving the
properties of the parent material.

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Working Principle
The process depends on the capillary attraction of the molten filler metal into the narrow
space between the parts being joined. When the assembly is heated above the filler metal’s
melting point, the molten filler flows into the joint and wets the base metal surfaces. On
cooling, a metallurgical bond forms, providing a strong and leak-proof joint.
Flux is used to prevent oxidation and to clean the metal surfaces for proper wetting.

Fig: Braze welding process

Process Steps
1. Preparation of Surfaces:
The surfaces to be joined must be clean and free from oil, grease, or oxides.
2. Assembly and Fixturing:
The components are properly aligned with a small gap (0.025–0.125 mm) for capillary
action.
3. Application of Flux:
Flux (borax, fluoride compounds) is applied to the joint area to prevent oxidation and
promote wetting.
4. Heating the Assembly:
The joint is heated using a torch, furnace, or induction heater to above the filler’s
melting temperature.
5. Filler Metal Application:
The filler metal melts and is drawn into the joint by capillary action.
6. Cooling:
The assembly is cooled to room temperature, solidifying the filler and forming a strong
bond.
7. Cleaning:
Residual flux is removed to prevent corrosion.

Filler Metals and Fluxes

 Filler metals: Copper-zinc (brass), silver alloys, aluminium-silicon, nickel-based
alloys.
 Fluxes: Borax, boric acid, fluorides, or chlorides.

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Methods of Heating
 Torch brazing
 Furnace brazing
 Induction brazing
 Resistance brazing
 Dip brazing

Advantages
 Strong joints, stronger than soldered joints.
 Dissimilar metals can be joined effectively.
 Produces leak-proof joints ideal for fluid systems.
 Minimal thermal distortion as base metal does not melt.
 Good appearance and surface finish.
 Can join complex assemblies with multiple joints in one operation (furnace brazing).

Limitations
 Joint strength is lower than welded joints.
 High temperature may cause oxidation or warping.
 Flux residues can cause corrosion if not removed.
 Not suitable for joints with large gaps.
 Requires careful cleaning and joint preparation.

Applications
 Pipe fittings, valves, and refrigeration systems.
 Heat exchangers and air-conditioning components.
 Electrical connectors and instruments.
 Aerospace and automobile assemblies.
 Tools, carbide tips on cutting tools, and hydraulic systems.

ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

Electric Arc Welding (EAW) is a fusion welding process in which metals are joined by
melting their edges with the heat produced by an electric arc formed between an electrode
and the work piece. The temperature of an electric arc can reach 6000°C or more, sufficient
to melt almost all metals. Upon cooling, the molten metal solidifies to form a strong, permanent
joint.

Working Principle
When an electric current passes through a gap between the electrode and the work piece, a
high-intensity arc is created. The arc produces intense heat that melts the base metal and the
electrode (if consumable).
The molten metals mix together to form a weld pool, which upon cooling, solidifies into a
fusion joint. In most cases, a shielding gas or flux coating is used to protect the molten weld

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pool from atmospheric contamination (oxygen and nitrogen), which can cause porosity or
brittleness.

Fig: Electric arc welding

Equipment Used
1. Power Source:
Supplies either AC or DC current for arc generation.
2. Electrode:
o Consumable electrodes (MMAW, MIG) – melt and act as filler.
o Non-consumable electrodes (TIG) – tungsten electrodes that do not melt.
3. Electrode Holder:
Holds the electrode and conducts current.
4. Ground Clamp:
Completes the electrical circuit.
5. Cables and Connectors
6. Protective Equipment:
Helmet, gloves, apron, and safety goggles for operator safety.

Types of Arc Welding

 Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMAW or SMAW): Uses flux-coated electrodes; most
common.
 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW or MIG): Uses wire electrode and shielding gas.
 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW or TIG): Uses non-consumable tungsten
electrode.
 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW): The arc is shielded under a blanket of granular flux.

Advantages
 Produces strong and permanent joints.
 Suitable for both ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
 Applicable to thick and heavy sections.
 Can be performed in different positions (flat, vertical, overhead).
 Equipment is portable and flexible.
 Allows high productivity and can be automated.

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 Department of Mechatronics Engineering Module - 3
Limitations
 Requires skilled operators and safety precautions.
 May cause distortion or residual stresses due to high heat.
 Weld defects such as porosity, cracks, and slag inclusion may occur.
 Expensive power consumption for continuous operation.
 Not suitable for thin sheets due to heat concentration.
 Need for protective environment (shielding gas or flux).

Applications
 Structural steel fabrication (bridges, frames, buildings).
 Shipbuilding and offshore structures.
 Pressure vessels and pipelines.
 Repair and maintenance of machinery.
 Automobile and aerospace industries.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF JOINING METHODS

Parameter Soldering Brazing Electric Arc Welding
Permanent (low Permanent (medium Permanent (high
Type of Joint
strength) strength) strength)
Temperature Above 450°C, below
Below 450°C Up to 6000°C
Range base metal
Base Metal
No No Yes
Fusion
Tin-lead alloy, Sn-
Filler Material Cu-Zn, Ag, Al-Si alloys Electrode metal
Ag-Cu
Flux Sometimes (flux coating
Yes Yes
Requirement or gas)
Joint Strength Low Moderate High
Distortion Negligible Low Possible
Electrical, HVAC, plumbing, Structural, heavy
Applications
electronics aerospace fabrication

 Soldering is a low-temperature process used mainly in electronics and plumbing

applications where minimal heat and low strength are acceptable.
 Brazing is a medium-temperature process that provides stronger and leak-proof joints,
suitable for dissimilar metals and thin sections.
 Electric Arc Welding is a fusion process that produces very strong joints by melting
the base metal, widely used for structural and heavy-duty applications.

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