Unit 11

Static and Current Electricity

11.1 Charges in Nature
Electric charges are fundamental properties of matter, present in everything from the objects
around us to our own bodies.

1. Types of Electric Charges

 Positive Charge: Carried by protons.

 Negative Charge: Carried by electrons.
 Neutral Objects: Contain equal amounts of positive and negative charges that neutralize
each other, resulting in no net charge.
 Electrically Charged Objects: Occurs when there is an imbalance between the two
types of charges.

Key Concept: An object becomes negatively charged if it gains electrons and positively
charged if it loses electrons.

2. Units of Charge

 SI Unit: The Coulomb (C).

 Standard Values:
18
o 1 C of charge is carried by 6.25×10 electrons.
−19
o A single electron possesses a charge of −1.6×10 C.
 Common Sub-units:
−6
o Micro-coulomb (μC): 1×10 C.
−9
o Nano-coulomb (nC): 1×10 C.

3. Conservation of Charge

The Law of Conservation of Charge states that during electrification, electric charges are
neither created nor destroyed; they are simply transferred from one material to another.

 Isolated Systems: The total charge in an isolated system (where no particles cross the
boundary) never changes.
 Example: In the "comb and hair" trick, the hair sticks to the comb because charges are
transferred from one to the other, while the total charge of the comb-hair system remains
constant.

4. Quantization of Charge
Charge is not continuous; it occurs in discrete amounts.

 Smallest Unit (e): The magnitude of charge on a single electron or proton is the smallest
possible charge.
 The Quantization Formula: Charge occurs as integral multiples of e, expressed as:

q=ne

 Where q is the total charge, n is a positive or negative integer, and e is the elementary
charge (1.6×10−19 C).

Section Summary

 There are two types of charges: positive and negative.

 Neutral objects have an equal number of both charges.
 The total charge in an isolated system (the algebraic sum of charges) remains constant
over time.
 Electric charges are quantized, meaning they only exist in specific, discrete amounts.

11. 2 Methods of Charging a Body:

Charging is the process of electrifying a body by either removing or adding electric charges.
There are three primary methods used to charge an uncharged object.

1. Charging by Rubbing (Friction)

This process occurs when two different neutral materials are rubbed together, causing a transfer
of electrons from one object to the other.

 Mechanism: Different materials have different levels of attraction for electrons.

o Negative Charge: Materials like silk or plastic combs attract extra electrons.
o Positive Charge: Materials like hair, glass, or ebonite rods are more likely to lose
electrons.
 Result: The two bodies end up with opposite signs of charge.
 Example: Rubbing a comb through hair transfers electrons from the hair to the comb.
The comb becomes negatively charged and can then attract small pieces of paper.

2. Charging by Conduction (Contact)

Charging by conduction occurs when a charged object makes physical contact with a neutral
object.

 Mechanism: When a charged object touches a neutral conductor, electrons migrate to

redistribute the charge across the entire system.
 o If a positively charged plate touches a neutral sphere, electrons move from the
sphere to the plate.
o The sphere, having lost electrons, becomes positively charged.
 Result: The previously neutral object gains the same sign of charge as the original
charged object.
 Strength: The final charge on the newly charged body is weaker than the charge on the
original object.

3. Charging by Induction

Induction is a process where a body is charged without any physical contact between the charged
object and the neutral material.

 Mechanism: 1. A charged object (e.g., a negative ebonite rod) is brought close to a

neutral conductive sphere, causing electrons in the sphere to move to the far side. 2. The
sphere is grounded (connected to the Earth) using a wire. 3. Free electrons leave the
sphere and move into the Earth. 4. The ground wire is removed first, followed by the
charged rod.
 Result: The sphere is left with a net charge of the opposite polarity to the rod.
 Key Feature: The charged object (the rod) does not lose any of its own charge during
this process.

Section Summary Table

Method Contact Required? Final Charge (Relative to Source)

Rubbing Yes (Friction)

Opposite signs

Conduction Yes (Touch) Same sign

Induction No (Proximity) Opposite sign

11.3 Coulomb’s Law of Electrostatics: Study Notes

Charles Coulomb, a French scientist, first investigated the quantitative relationship between
charged objects in 1785. His findings describe how the strength of the electric force changes
based on charge and distance.

1. Statement of Coulomb’s Law

The electrostatic force between two point charges is:

  Directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the charges.
 Inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers.
 Directed along the straight line joining the centers of the two charges.

2. Mathematical Representation

The magnitude of the electric force (F) between two charges (q1 and q2) separated by distance
(r) is expressed as:

F=k∣q1∣∣q2∣/r2

Key Variables and Constants:

 F: The magnitude of the electric force, measured in Newtons (N).

 q1,q2: The magnitude of the two point charges.
 r: The distance between the charges.
 k: The electrostatic constant, approximately 9×109 Nm2/C2.
 ϵo: The permittivity of free space, valued at 8.85×10−12 C2/Nm2.

3. Nature of the Force

The direction of the force depends on the signs of the interacting charges:

 Attractive Force: Occurs between unlike (opposite) charges.

 Repulsive Force: Occurs between like (same) charges.

4. Example Calculation

If charges q1=5.0μC and q2=−12.0μC are separated by 30 cm (0.3 m):

1. Identify Given Values: q1=5×10−6 C, q2=−12×10−6 C, r=0.3 m.

2. Apply Formula: F=(9×109)(0.3)2(5×10−6)(12×10−6).
3. Result: F=6.0 N.
4. Conclusion: Because the charges have opposite signs, the force is attractive.

Section Summary

 The force is determined by both the amount of charge and the distance between them.
 Increasing the distance significantly weakens the force because it is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance (r2).
 The SI unit for this electrostatic force is the Newton.

11. 4 The Electric Field:

An electric field is defined as a region where an electric charge experiences an electric force. It
serves as a way to describe how the space around a charge differs from empty space.

1. The Test Charge

To detect and measure an electric field, a test charge ($q_0$) is used.

 Definition: A small, positive point charge.

 Function: It tests for the existence of a field; if $q_0$ experiences a force, a field is
present.
 Requirement: It must be extremely small so that its own presence does not significantly
disturb the charges creating the field it is trying to detect.

2. Electric Field Lines

Electric field lines, introduced by Michael Faraday, are a visual tool used to represent the nature
of electric fields.

Properties of Field Lines:

 Direction: Lines originate at positive charges and terminate at negative charges.

 Orientation: Lines are always perpendicular to the surface of the charge.
 Intersection: Field lines never intersect or cross each other.
 Density: The number of lines is proportional to the magnitude of the charge.
 Interaction: * Lines bend together when unlike charges attract.
o Lines bend apart when like charges repel.

3. Electric Field Strength (E)

The strength of an electric field at any point is the force per unit charge exerted on a positive test
charge.

 General Formula:

$$E = F/q

 SI Unit: Newton per Coulomb N/C.

 Vector Nature: Electric field strength is a vector quantity.
o If the charge is positive, $E$ has the same direction as the force.
o If the charge is negative, $E$ is opposite to the direction of the force.

4. Field Strength due to a Point Charge

To calculate the field produced by a specific point charge $q$ at a distance $r$, the following
formula is used:

E = k q/r2

 Radial Field: The field extends radially outward from a positive point charge and
radially inward toward a negative point charge.
 Example: For a 2.0 nC charge at a distance of 5.0 mm, the field strength is
approximately 7.2 x105 N/C, directed away from the charge.

Section Summary

 An electric field is visualized through field lines that show the direction of force on a
positive test charge.
 The magnitude of the field depends on the source charge and decreases with the square of
the distance from that charge.

11.5 Current, Voltage, and Ohm’s Law: Study Notes

This section explores the fundamental relationship between the flow of electricity, the energy
that drives it, and the factors that oppose it.

1. Electric Current (I)

Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of electric charge through a point in a conducting
medium.

 Direction of Flow:
o Conventional Current: Flows from the positive terminal to the negative
terminal. This is the standard used in physics.
 oElectron Current: In reality, electrons flow from the negative terminal to the
positive terminal.
 Formula:

I=ΔtΔQ

oI: Current in Amperes (A)

oΔQ: Net charge in Coulombs (C)
oΔt: Time in seconds (s)
 Measurement: Measured using an ammeter.

2. Potential Difference / Voltage (V)

Potential difference is the "electric pressure" that makes charges flow. It is the work done to
move a unit charge from one point to another.

 The Battery: Acts like a pump in a water circuit, converting chemical energy into
electric potential energy to maintain current.
 Formula:

V=QW

o V: Potential difference in Volts (V)

o W: Work done in Joules (J)
o Q: Charge in Coulombs (C)
 Measurement: Measured using a voltmeter.
 Safety Insight: Birds can sit on high-voltage wires without a shock because there is no
voltage difference on a single wire. A shock only occurs if a path to the ground or a
different voltage is created.

3. Resistance (R) and Ohm’s Law

Resistance is the property of a conductor to oppose the flow of charges.

 Ohm’s Law: Experimentally, the current through a conductor is directly proportional to

the voltage across it (V∝I).
 Formula:

V=IR

 Ohmic vs. Non-Ohmic:

o Ohmic materials (e.g., copper, silver) have a constant resistance and a linear V−I
graph.
o Non-ohmic materials have a non-linear relationship.

4. Factors Affecting Resistance

The resistance of a metallic wire depends on its physical dimensions and material.

 Length (L): Resistance is directly proportional to length (R∝L). Longer wires have
more collisions.
 Cross-sectional Area (A): Resistance is inversely proportional to area (R∝1/A).
Thicker wires allow charges to flow more easily.
 Resistivity (ρ): A characteristic property of the material itself.
 Master Formula:

R=ρL/A

Section Summary

 Current is the rate of charge flow (Amperes).

 Voltage is the work done per unit charge (Volts).
 Resistance opposes current and depends on the material's length, thickness, and
resistivity (Ohms).
 Ohm’s Law (V=IR) links these three quantities for many conductors.

11.6 Combination of Resistors in a Circuit: Study Notes

In practical electronics, components are rarely used alone. They are combined in specific ways to
control the flow of current and the distribution of voltage.

1. Resistors in Series

A series circuit provides only a single path for the electric current to follow.

 Current (I): Because there is only one path, the current is the same through every
resistor in the circuit.
o Itotal=I1=I2=I3=…
 Potential Difference (V): The total voltage from the source is divided among the
resistors. The sum of the individual voltages equals the total voltage.
o Vtotal=V1+V2+V3+…
 Equivalent Resistance (Req): The total resistance is the sum of all individual
resistances.
o Req=R1+R2+R3+…
 Practical Consequence: If one device or bulb in a series circuit breaks, the entire circuit
is "opened," and current stops flowing to all devices.

2. Resistors in Parallel

A parallel circuit provides alternative pathways for the movement of charge.

  Current (I): The total current from the source splits into different branches. The sum of
the currents in each branch equals the total current.
o Itotal=I1+I2+I3+…
 Potential Difference (V): The voltage across each resistor is the same and is equal to the
source voltage.
o Vtotal=V1=V2=V3=…
 Equivalent Resistance (Req): The reciprocal of the total resistance is the sum of the
reciprocals of the individual resistances.
o Req1=R11+R21+R31+…
 Practical Consequence: If one branch is broken, current continues to flow through the
others. This is why houses and schools are wired in parallel.

3. Series-Parallel (Combination) Circuits

Many circuits use a variety of both series and parallel connections. To analyze these:

1. Identify the resistor combination farthest from the source.

2. Simplify parallel branches into a single "equivalent" resistance.
3. Combine those with series parts until the circuit is reduced to a single loop.
4. Use Ohm’s Law (V=IR) to find the total current, then work backward to find individual
values.

Section Summary Table

Feature Series Circuit Parallel Circuit

Current (I) Same in every part Sum of branch currents

Voltage (V) Sum of potential differences Same across each branch

Resistance (Req) Sum of resistances (Req=∑R) Reciprocal sum (Req1=∑R1)

11.7 Electrical Safety

Electricity is vital for modern life, but it can be dangerous if it enters the human body.
Understanding how to control and protect against electrical flow is essential for personal safety.

1. The Human Body and Electric Shock

 Conductivity: The fluids inside the human body are good conductors. While dry skin has
high resistance and acts as an insulator, wet skin or internal tissues allow current to flow
easily.
  Mechanism of Shock: A shock occurs when a person becomes part of an electric circuit,
usually by touching a "live" wire while also being in contact with the ground (or a
grounded object like a water pipe).

Effects of Current on the Body:

The damage depends on the magnitude of current, duration, and the path it takes through the
body:

 5 mA: Tingling sensation; usually harmless.

 10 mA: Muscle contractions; the person may be unable to "let go" of the wire.
 100 mA: Can be fatal in seconds; causes respiratory paralysis.
 0.5 A to 1 A: Extremely deadly; can cause fatal burns and heart malfunction.

2. Circuit Protection Devices

To prevent accidents, specific devices are used to break the circuit when a fault occurs.

 Fuse: A cheap protection device containing a metal strip with a low melting point. If the
current exceeds safe limits (due to a short circuit or overloading), the wire melts and
breaks the circuit.
 Circuit Breakers: Devices that automatically "trip" and shut off power when they detect
excessive current.
 Ground-Fault Interrupters (GFI) / Residual Current Devices (RCD): Highly
sensitive safety outlets designed for hazardous areas like kitchens or bathrooms. They
sense tiny "leaks" of current (as small as 5 mA) and shut off power in less than a
millisecond.

3. Grounding and Plugs

Grounding provides a safe path for electricity to follow if a malfunction occurs.

 The Three-Wire System:

1. Phase (Live/Hot): Carries the high potential (220V in Ethiopia).
2. Neutral: Completes the circuit (0V).
3. Earth (Ground): A dedicated safety wire connected to the casing of an
appliance.
 How it works: If a live wire touches the metal casing of a tool, the grounding wire
provides a path of least resistance to the Earth. This cause a high current that immediately
blows the fuse or trips the breaker, preventing the user from being shocked.

4. Local Context (Ethiopia)

In Ethiopia, specific color standards are used to identify wires:

 Phase Wire: Red, Yellow, or Blue.

  Neutral Wire: Black.
 Ground (Earth) Wire: Greenish-Yellowish.

5. Important Safety Tips

 Never use appliances with frayed or damaged cords.

 Always unplug appliances before repairing or working on them.
 Keep electrical appliances away from water.
 Never touch power lines with any object (ladders, kite strings, etc.).
 Ensure a qualified electrician inspects installations, especially in damp locations.

Section Summary

Electrical safety is maintained through a combination of proper insulation, a reliable

grounding system, and the use of protection devices like fuses and GFIs. Always follow
established rules to avoid the risks of burns, shocks, or electrocution.

11.8 Electric Projects

Learning about circuits is most effective through hands-on construction. This section focuses on
building and analyzing basic circuit configurations using standard electrical components.

1. Essential Circuit Symbols

To draw and interpret circuit diagrams, you must be familiar with the following symbols:

 Battery: Provides the potential difference (Voltage).

 Connecting Wires: Paths for charge flow.
 Resistor/Lamp: Components that use electrical energy.
 Switch: Controls the flow by opening or closing the circuit.
 Ammeter/Voltmeter: Tools for measuring current and voltage.

2. Project 4.1: Series Lamp Circuit

In a series circuit, components are connected end-to-end in a single loop.

 Observation: When two identical lamps are connected in series, they appear dim.
 Voltage Distribution: Each lamp only receives half of the total battery voltage (e.g., if
the battery is 3V, each lamp sees 1.5V).
 Reliability: If one lamp is removed or burns out, the circuit is broken, and the other lamp
goes out.
 Measurement: A voltmeter connected across both lamps will show the total battery
voltage.

3. Project 4.2: Parallel Lamp Circuit

In a parallel circuit, each component has its own direct path to the battery.

 Observation: Lamps in parallel light at full intensity and appear brighter than those in
series.
 Voltage Distribution: Each component sees the full voltage of the battery (e.g., each
lamp sees 3V).
 Reliability: If one lamp is removed, the other remains lit because its individual path to
the battery is still complete.
 Measurement: Touching multimeter leads to any single lamp holder will show the full
battery voltage.

4. Project 4.3: Electric House Model

This complex project involves integrating different types of circuits into a single model to
simulate real-world wiring.

 Series Circuits: Used for decorative elements like a multi-light chandelier.

 Parallel Circuits: Used for general room lighting so rooms can operate independently.
 Combination Circuits: Utilize multiple switches and lights to control specific zones.
 Construction Tip: Switches can be improvised using paper clips and metal brads to open
and close the gaps in the wire.

Comprehensive Summary

 Nature of Charges: Two types (positive/negative); like charges repel, unlike attract.
 Conservation: Charge is neither created nor destroyed, only transferred.
 Methods of Charging: Rubbing (friction), Conduction (contact), and Induction
(proximity/grounding).
 Coulomb’s Law: Force is proportional to the product of charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance (F=kq1q2/r2).
 Fields: Electric field lines move away from positive and toward negative charges; they
never cross.
 Ohm’s Law: Relationship between Voltage, Current, and Resistance (V=IR).
 Resistance Factors: Depends on length (L), area (A), and material resistivity (ρ).
 Measurement: Ammeters are connected in series; Voltmeters are connected in parallel.
 Safety: Use fuses, grounding wires, and GFIs to prevent shocks and fires.