The Sun

UNIT 5 THE SUN

Structure
5.1 Introduction
Objectives
5.2 Solar Parameters
5.3 Solar Photosphere
5.4 Solar Atmosphere
Chromosphere
Corona
5.5 Solar Activity
5.6 Basics of Solar Magnetohydrodynamics
5.7 Helioseismology
5.8 Summary
5.9 Terminal Questions
5.10 Solutions and Answers

5.1 INTRODUCTION
From Unit 4, you know that the principles of different branches of physics such as
mechanics, thermodynamics and quantum mechanics are used in astronomy and
astrophysics. In the present and subsequent Units, you will use these principles to
investigate the behaviour and properties of the universe and its constituents.

On the cosmic scale, the Sun is just another star; there are bigger and brighter stars in
the universe. The Sun is, however, very important to us because i) it is the nearest
and the only star in our planetary system and ii) it provides almost all of our
energy. Do you know that a slight variation in the energy received from the Sun can
threaten life on the earth! Further, the Sun being the nearest star, we can study its
structure, atmosphere, and other physical characteristics in greater detail. The
information/data so obtained can be used to test the theories of stellar structure and
evolution. In this way we can improve our theories and have a better understanding of
other stars. In the present Unit, you will study about the Sun.

Due to the efforts of astronomers, today we have detailed information regarding the
Sun. In Sec. 5.2, you will learn to arrive at the estimates of the basic solar parameters
such as mass, radius and effective surface temperature. As far as we are concerned, all
the visible radiation from the Sun comes from its surface layer called the photosphere.
Above the photosphere is the atmosphere of the Sun consisting of two distinct layers
namely the chromosphere and the corona. In Sec. 5.3, you will study the characteristic
features of these layers. Interaction of the Sun’s magnetic field with highly mobile
charged particles in it gives rise to a variety of observable events. These events,
collectively known as solar activity, have been discussed in Sec. 5.4. The theoretical
analysis of the interaction of magnetic field with conducting matter in motion is
known as magnetohydrodynamics and it provides a basis to understand solar activity
and related features of the Sun. Solar magnetohydrodynamics has been discussed in
Sec. 5.5. In Sec. 5.6, you will learn, in brief, about helioseismology which provides
valuable information about the Sun’s internal structure.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:

• estimate values of the basic parameters of the Sun;

5
The Solar System • describe different layers of the Sun’s atmosphere;
and Stars
• describe some of the observed features such as sunspot, prominence and solar
flare associated with solar activity;
• explain the role of the Sun’s magnetic field in solar activity;
• derive the basic results of solar magnetohydrodynamics; and
• explain the seismology of the Sun.

5.2 SOLAR PARAMETERS

The basic parameters of the Sun are its mass (MΘ), radius (RΘ), luminosity (LΘ) and
effective surface temperature (Teff). In the following discussion, you will learn to
estimate these parameters.
11
Mass: You know that the mean distance of the Sun from the Earth is 1.5 × 10 m. It is
called the mean solar distance, a. In astronomy we measure mean distances in terms
of a and it defines the Astronomical Unit (1 AU = mean solar distance). To obtain an
expression for the mass of the Sun, we may use Kepler’s third law under the
assumption that the mass of the planet can be neglected in comparison with the mass
of the Sun. This assumption is valid for the Sun-Earth system and we can write:

4π 2 a 3
= GM Θ (5.1)
You may recall from Unit 6 of P2
the physics elective course
PHE-01 entitled Elementary where a, P, G and MΘ are the mean solar distance, orbital period (~ 365 days) of the
Mechanics that Kepler’s third Earth, gravitational constant and mass of the Sun, respectively. With the values of the
law is given by:
orbital period and the mean solar distance available at present, the value of GMΘ is
4π2 a 3 estimated to be 132712438 × 1012 m3s−2. Since the laboratory measurements for G
T2 =
GM gives a value equal to 6.672 × 10−11 m3kg−1s−2, we obtain:
where T, a, G and M are
MΘ ≈ 2 × 1030kg.
respectively the time period,
semi-major axis, gravitational This value is taken as the mass of the Sun as it exists today. In fact, solar mass
constant and mass of the Sun.
decreases continuously since the Sun continuously emits radiation and particles which
carry with them some mass. However, the total mass loss during the Sun’s estimated
life time (~ 1010 yrs) is found to be less than 1027kg. This value is much less than the
error in measurement of the solar mass and is, therefore, negligible. This method can
also be used to estimate the masses of the satellites/Moons of the planets in our solar
system. How about solving an SAQ of this nature?

Spend SAQ 1
5 min.
One of the four Galilean satellites of the planet Jupiter is Io. Its orbital period is
In astronomy, we encounter
typically small angles (of the
1.77 days. The semi-major axis of its orbit is 4.22 × 1010cm. Calculate the mass of
order of minute (′) and second Jupiter under the assumption that the Jupiter is too massive in comparison to Io.
(″)), for which simple
approximations are used for
Radius: The radius of the Sun can be estimated if we know the values of its angular
trigonometric functions. Thus,
for small values of the angle θ, diameter, θ and the mean solar distance, a (Fig. 5.1). The angular diameter of the Sun
is 32′ and mean solar distance is 1.5 × 1011m. Thus, with the help of Fig. 5.1, we
tanθ = θ = sinθ
obtain the value of the solar radius RΘ as:
and
cosθ = 1 RΘ =
1
2
[ (1.5 × 10
11
m) × ( 32 × 2.9 × 10 − 4 rad) ]
However, as you know, angles
must be measured in radian if
these formulae are to be valid. = 6.7 × 108m.
6
Astronomical observations indicate that the solar radius is not constant; rather, its The Sun
9
value changes slowly. Over a period of ~ 10 years, the average change is about
2.4 cm per yr. Further, radius of the Earth is 6.4 × 106m. Thus, the Sun’s radius is

1 AU
Sun

32´

Earth

Fig.5.1: When viewed from the Earth, the angular diameter of the Sun is approximately 32′′

almost 100 times larger than that of the Earth. To get an idea of the relative sizes of
the Sun and the Earth, refer to Fig. 5.2.
Sun

Moon’s orbit

Earth

Fig.5.2: The size of the Sun is so big that it can contain the Earth as well as the orbit of the Moon!

Luminosity: The solar luminosity, LΘ, is defined as the total energy radiated by the
Sun per unit time in the form of electromagnetic radiation. To estimate the value of
luminosity of the Sun, let us imagine a sphere with the Sun at its centre (Fig. 5.3). The
radius of this imaginary sphere is a, the mean distance between the Sun and the Earth.
Now, each unit area A of the sphere receives energy equal to S, called the solar
constant. Therefore, luminosity can be expressed as:

LΘ = 4πa2S (5.2)

a
1m
Earth
Sun 1m
A

1 AU

Fig.5.3: Imaginary sphere of radius a surrounding the Sun where a is its mean solar distance from
the Earth 7
The Solar System Since the solar radiation is absorbed in the Earth’s atmosphere, it is obvious that S
and Stars should be measured above the atmosphere. S has now been measured accurately using
satellites and its value is 1370 Wm−2. Substituting the value of S and the mean solar
11
distance, a = 1.5 × 10 m in Eq. (5.2), we get:
26
LΘ = 3.86 × 10 W.

Temperature: The temperature of the Sun at its surface and its interior regions are
different. The surface temperature can be estimated using Stephan-Boltzmann law
which you studied in our course on Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics
(PHE-06). We leave this as an exercise for you in the form of an SAQ.

Spend SAQ 2
5 min.
Assume that the Sun radiates like a black body at temperature T. Calculate T using
−8 −2 −4
Stephan-Boltzmann law. Take Stephan constant σ = 5.67 × 10 Wm K .

On solving SAQ 2, you would have found that the temperature of the Sun is 6000 K.
This estimated temperature is called the effective surface temperature because it is
the temperature of a black body whose surface emits the same flux as the Sun. This is
the temperature of the surface layer of the Sun called the photosphere from which all
the radiation is emitted.
To appreciate the validity of the approximation that the Sun radiates like a black body,
refer to Fig. 5.4. It shows the observed solar radiation in the ultraviolet, visible and
infrared regions of electromagnetic spectrum. Also plotted in this figure is the energy
curve of a black body at 6000 K. In view of the similarity of the two curves, it is fair
to assume that the Sun radiates like a black body at temperature 6000 K.

You learnt that the Sun

radiates like a black body at
approximately 6000 K. You
may think that if all the
energy is radiated outward
from the Sun, its surface
should gradually cool down.
This does not happen
because there is a constant
flow of energy from the
interior of the Sun towards
its surface.

Fig.5.4: Solar energy curve

The Sun is a hot, bright gaseous ball and it does not have a well defined surface like
the Earth. The visible surface of the Sun is called photosphere. Let us learn about it
now.

5.3 SOLAR PHOTOSPHERE

The photosphere (Fig. 5.5) is the visible surface of the Sun. All the light received from
the Sun, in fact, comes from the photosphere. You may ask: Why do not we receive
the radiation in the same form as generated in the interior of the Sun? At the
centre of the Sun, the energy is generated in the form of high energy photons called γ-
Fig.5.5: The Sun’s photosphere
rays. As these photons travel outwards, they collide with particles of matter and lose
energy continuously. By the time these photons reach the surface − the photosphere −
they are reduced to photons of visible region of electromagnetic spectrum. So, visible
8 radiation is emitted from the photosphere.
The density of photosphere is 3400 times less than the density of the air we breathe. The Sun
The thickness of the photosphere is about 500 km and the temperature at its base is
~ 6500 K. The temperature decreases upward and reaches a minimum value of
~ 4400 K at the top. This assumption is corroborated by the Sun’s absorption
spectrum which indicates that the light we receive must be passing through a cool gas
in which photons get absorbed.
The photosphere is not a quiet region (see Fig. 5.6). It shows a granular structure. If
you look at Fig. 5.6a carefully, you can see that the photosphere consists of bright and
irregularly shaped granules; each granule surrounded by dark edges. It has been found
that these granules are very hot and their typical size is ~ 1500 km. The hot gas in the
granules rises up with a speed of the order of 500 ms−1 and bursts apart by releasing
energy. The cool material subsequently sinks downward along the dark edges or lanes
between granules. The rising hot granules are seen only for a very short time (~ 10
minutes) before they dissolve.

Granule boundary

Granule
Granule

(a) (b)
Fig.5.6: a) Photograph of the photosphere showing granular structure; and b) schematic diagram
showing granules and their boundaries

The question is: What causes granulation of the photosphere? It is caused due to
convection (a mode of energy transport by matter, about which you will study in As they look inwards into the
solar atmosphere,
Unit 8). The granulation can be visualised (Fig. 5.6b) as the top layer of a region astronomers have discovered
where, due to convection, hot gas from below the photosphere moves upward. Thus, that, within a distance of
the centre of the granule is hotter and it emits more radiation and looks brighter in about 500 km, the solar
comparison to the edges which are relatively cooler and emit less radiation. atmosphere changes from
being optically thin to
Convection based explanation seems valid because the spectra of granules indicate optically thick. This distance
that their centres are much hotter than the edges. Further, the solar granulation is only ~ 0.07% of the Sun’s
provides observable evidence supporting the idea that there exists a convection zone radius. This region gives the
below the photosphere. impression that the Sun has a
sharp edge as viewed from
the earth.
You may now like to know: What is the chemical composition of the photosphere?
It consists of 79 percent hydrogen and the remaining 21 percent consists of nearly 60
other chemical elements. Interestingly, all the elements of the photosphere are known
elements and their proportion in the earth is more or less the same as that in the As you have learnt in Unit 4,
photosphere. This similarity in the chemical compositions of the photosphere and the optically thin/thick medium
refers to the medium
earth is of utmost importance for understanding the formation of the solar system. characterised by low/high
absorption of electromagnetic
Though the photographs of the Sun give the impression that it has a clear edge, such radiation.
clear and distinct edge does not exist. Outside the apparent edge are the Sun’s outer
layers, collectively known as the Sun’s atmosphere. These layers can be seen and
probed and valuable information about their physical characteristics can be obtained.
Let us learn about the various layers of the solar atmosphere. 9
The Solar System
and Stars 5.4 SOLAR ATMOSPHERE
The Sun’s atmosphere is divided into two layers namely, the chromosphere and the
corona. A schematic diagram of these layers is shown in Fig. 5.7.

Corona

2600 km
Transition zone
2300 km

Chromosphere

500 km

Photosphere

0 km

Sun’s interior

Fig.5.7: Schematic diagram showing the layers of solar atmosphere

5.4.1 Chromosphere
Chromosphere lies above the photosphere (Fig. 5.7) and extends up to ~ 2000 km.
This layer of the solar atmosphere is normally not visible from the Earth because of its
faintness. However, it can be seen during a solar eclipse. The name chromosphere is
derived from the fact that a few seconds before and after a total solar eclipse, a bright,
pink flash appears above the photosphere (Fig. 5.8). The spectrum obtained at that
Fig.5.8: Chromosphere just time is called a flash spectrum (Fig. 5.9).
before a total solar
eclipse

You may be aware that each

chemical element
emits/absorbs electromagnetic
radiations of characteristic
wavelengths. These radiations
of different wavelengths (also
called lines) constitute the
spectrum of the element.
Balmer lines, which fall in the
visible region, are the spectral
lines of hydrogen atom. The
emission/absorption of the
spectral lines is predominantly
dependent on the temperature Fig.5.9: Emission lines observed at the time of total solar eclipse
and density of the material.
You will study about the origin The appearance of pink colour is due to the emission of the first Balmer line (Hα)
of spectral lines in Unit 7. which occurs in the red region. The temperature, density and pressure in the
chromosphere determine the intensities of various emission lines. In the
10 chromosphere, the density decreases by a factor of ~ 104 from that of the photosphere
while the temperature rises to ~ 25000 K within a short distance of ~ 2000 km. The Sun
Therefore, the spectral lines that are not produced at relatively higher density and
lower temperature of the photosphere are formed in the chromosphere as emission
lines (see margin remarks).

At this point, it is logical to ask: Why does the temperature in the chromosphere
increase with height? The clue to the answer of this question lies in observing the
chromosphere just before the total solar eclipse. Hot gas, in the form of jets called
spicules, is observed throughout the chromosphere (Fig. 5.10). These spicules extend
upward in the chromosphere up to a height of ~ 10000 km and last for as long as 15
minutes. This implies that the lower part of the chromosphere is highly turbulent and
the spicules transport energy and matter from the photosphere to the chromosphere.
This causes heating of the chromosphere.

Fig.5.10: Spicules in the Sun’s chromosphere

Now, your next logical question could be: What causes spicules? The origin of
spicules is not yet understood completely. However, it appears to be caused by the
Sun’s magnetic field. Further, just above the chromosphere, there exists a transition
region extending up to ~ 3000 km. In this region, the temperature rises sharply
to ~ 106 K (Fig. 5.11). The transition region links the chromosphere with corona, the
outermost part of the solar atmosphere.

107 1014

1012
106
1010
Temperature (K)

Density (cm─3)

105
108

104 106

103 2
104
4 6
10 10 10
Height from the Sun's surface (km)

Fig.5.11: The variation of temperature and density in the Sun’s atmosphere with distance

11
 The Solar System 5.4.2 Corona
and Stars
Corona, the outermost layer of the Sun’s atmosphere is named after the Greek word
for Crown. Like the chromosphere, the corona can be observed only during total solar
eclipse − when the Moon completely covers the solar disc (Fig. 5.12). You may
wonder why we cannot see corona at normal times! The fact is that the density of
matter in both the chromosphere and corona is very low (see Fig. 5.11). They emit
very little light and, as a result, they are very faint. In the bright light of the
photosphere, they are not visible.
Chromosphere

40000 Corona
Si X
Si VII
Temperature (103 K)

20000 Mg X
O VI
10000 OV

O II
200 Si IV
O II
40
Si II

10
1 2 4 10 20 40
Height above the surface(103 km) Fig.5.12: Two photographs of the solar corona

Fig.5.13: Height versus The spectrum of corona consists of bright lines superimposed on a continuous
temperature plot
showing emission
spectrum. When these lines were first discovered, they were thought to be due to a
lines of different new element, coronium, not found on the earth. Later, it was realised that these lines
ionised atoms were due to highly ionised atoms and not due to the so-called ‘new’ element
coronium. Fig. 5.13 shows the temperature and height in the corona at which emission
lines of various ionised elements are formed. You may note here that to excite the
emission lines from highly ionised elements, say spectral line of SiX ( read margin
remarks), a temperature greater than 2 × 107K is required. The observed emission
lines of highly ionised atoms of iron, nickel, neon, calcium etc., in the spectrum of
corona clearly indicate that the temperature prevailing in corona is very high (more
than 106 K). Now, before proceeding further, how about testing yourself?

Spend SAQ 3
5 min. a) The temperature of chromosphere and corona is very, very high in comparison to
that of the photosphere. Still, we observe that the photosphere is the brightest of
the three. Why?

b) Calculate the temperature at which a particle will have sufficient energy to ionise
a hydrogen atom.

Due to high temperature, electrons in the corona region have high energies. These
In astronomy, it is common
to denote a neutral atom,
electrons interact with ionised atoms and give rise to emission of X-rays. The coronal
such as silicon, as SiI. By X-ray emission is much larger than that of the photosphere. Remember that the
this convention, singly temperature of the photosphere is only 6000 K. So, it emits very little energy in the
ionised silicon is denoted by X-ray region. The Sun, as observed in X-rays is shown in Fig. 5.14 which clearly
SiII. Hence, SiX denotes a
silicon atom whose nine
indicates the existence of very high (~ 106 K or more) temperature in the corona.
electrons have been
removed due to repeated You have already learnt that the temperature of the photosphere is lower than that of
ionisation. the chromosphere and as one goes further up in the corona, temperature rises to more
than a million degree K. This gives rise to a very simple but important question:
Despite being closer to solar interior, why is the photosphere far cooler than the
12 corona? You know that the second law of thermodynamics precludes such a scenario
as heat cannot flow from a cooler region to a hotter region on its own. We also know The Sun
that the radiation from the photosphere passes through corona almost freely because
of its (corona’s) low density. Since hardly any absorption of radiation takes place in
the corona, the existence of such high (~ million degree) temperature in the corona
presents a paradoxical situation. Several mechanisms have been proposed to resolve
the paradox. It is now generally believed that the magnetic field of the Sun might, in
some way, be responsible for coronal heating. You will study the basics of this
mechanism in Sec. 5.5 of this Unit. The observed overlapping of regions of intense X-
ray emission and strong magnetic fields lend support to this idea.

Solar Wind Fig.5.14: X-ray picture of the

Sun
Unlike its visual appearance, the solar corona extends much beyond into the space.
The outer layer of the solar atmosphere, in fact, continuously emits charged particles
which fill the entire solar system. This emission is called the solar wind. It comprises
streams of charged particles (mainly protons and electrons) and causes continuous loss
of mass from the Sun. The phenomenon of solar wind was predicted much before its
detection. Its characteristics can be investigated using rockets and satellites. For
instance, the solar wind velocities range from 200-700 km s−1 at the distance of the
Earth from the Sun. The number density of the solar wind at this distance
is ~ 7 particles per cm3.
You may like to know: What gives rise to the solar wind? In view of the high
temperature prevailing in the corona, the gas contained therein exerts tremendous
pressure outward. In fact, the pressure is much higher than the inward pressure due to
the Sun’s gravity. The gas, therefore, streams outward from the Sun and fills the One of the manifestations of
interplanetary space. In 1962, Mariner II spacecraft detected the solar wind by its on- solar wind is observed in the
board instruments. shape of comets. You know
that the tail of a comet points
away from the Sun. It is
because the solar wind sweeps
along the material of the comet.
Outer radiation belt
Magnetic axis of
the Earth

You know that when a charged

particle passes through a
magnetic field, it experiences a
force which changes its
direction of motion. The force
experienced by a moving
Inner radiation belt charged particle is known as
Rotational axis of Lorentz force.
the Earth

Fig.5.15: van Allen radiation belts

As you know, satellites and
space missions comprise
The electrically charged particles carried by the solar wind cannot cross the lines of very sophisticated integrated
force of the Earth’s magnetic field. These particles are deflected by the Earth’s circuits, solar cells and other
magnetic field, spiral around the field lines and move back and forth between the electronic gadgets.
Therefore, care is taken to
magnetic poles of the Earth. As a result, two doughnut-shaped zones of highly minimise the damaging
energetic charged particles are created around the Earth and they are collectively effects of the radiation belts
called the van Allen radiation belts. These radiation belts are shown in Fig. 5.15. on the satellites and space
missions.
Astronomers have observed a variety of short-lived events, collectively known as
solar activity, occurring on or near the surface of the Sun. The root cause of all these 13
The Solar System activities is the existence of strong and localised magnetic field in the photosphere.
and Stars Studies of these events/activities provide valuable information about the Sun and the
nature of its magnetic field. You will now learn about some of these short-lived
events.

5.5 SOLAR ACTIVITY

Sunspots

If you look at the photographs (Fig. 5.16) of the Sun, you see dark spots on its visible
surface. These dark spots are called sunspots. Sunspots can be seen sometimes even
with unaided eye at sunrise or sunset. (But you should not attempt to see the Sun with
unaided eye as it may cause irrepairable damage to your eyes because of its intense
brightness.) Naked eye observations of sunspots date back to ~ 2000 years in China. It
was in the seventeenth century that Galileo, using the telescope which he himself had
fabricated, observed sunspots and found that these dark spots were in motion. This led
him to suggest that the Sun was spinning in space. Galileo also observed that the sizes
and shapes of the sunspots kept changing as they rotated with the Sun.

Fig.5.16: Photographs of a sunspot group

The sunspot temperature is ~ 4000 K. With such high temperature, you may
wonder, why they appear dark! Sunspots appear darker because they are cooler
than their surrounding areas in the photosphere that have an effective temperature of
6000 K. A typical white light picture of a large sunspot is shown in Fig. 5.17. Note
that it consists of a dark central region, called umbra, surrounded by a less dark
region, called penumbra. We do not see such details in the picture of smaller
sunspots.

Fig.5.17: Sunspot structure

At this stage, a logical question is: Why is the temperature of the sunspots lower
than their surroundings? It is due to the existence of strong magnetic fields in the
sunspots. In the presence of a magnetic field, a spectral line emitted by an atom at a
14
single wavelength is split into three lines. This is called the Zeeman Effect. Such The Sun
Zeeman splitting is observed in the spectrum of sunspots. Since the line separation, ∆λ
is proportional to the applied magnetic field, a magnetic field up to ~ 3000 Gauss has
been estimated in sunspots. Fig. 5.18 shows the mechanism of Zeeman splitting of a
spectral line and the Zeeman splitting of a spectral line of a sunspot.

Energy
levels
Transition

Spectrum

(a) (b)

Fig.5.18: Zeeman splitting of a) a spectral line; and b) a spectral line of the sunspot

The presence of strong magnetic fields in sunspots restrains the flow of hot material
from layers below the photosphere. Therefore, within a sunspot, less heat comes up
and they (sunspots) are cooler/darker than the surrounding region. Within a sunspot,
the umbral magnetic field is quite intense ~ 3000 Gauss. It spreads like an umbrella
and weakens in the penumbral region. The field strength in the penumbra is estimated
to be ~ 1000 Gauss.

Sunspots can last for weeks. The question is: How do these cooler regions survive
for so long amidst the hotter regions? This could happen due to the magnetic field.
You know that magnetic field exerts pressure (equal to B2/2µ) across the lines of
force. This pressure, along with the pressure of matter inside a sunspot balances the
material pressure outside and the sunspots can exist in equilibrium.

Sunspot Cycle

The observed motion of the sunspots indicates that the Sun is spinning in space. In
1843, Heinrich Schwabe, a German who observed the sky for fun, discovered a
periodic variation in the numbers of visible sunspots. He found an interval of 5.5 yrs
between the time when maximum number of sunspots (sunspot maxima) were
observed and the time when the minimum number of sunspots (sunspot minima) were
observed. Over the last two centuries, sunspot observations clearly suggest a periodic
variation of about 11 years between two successive sunspot maxima (Fig. 5.19a).

Another important observation pertaining to sunspot is that the sunspot zones migrate
along solar latitude. It is observed that the first sunspot zone appears at latitude
of ~ 35° in, say, the northern hemisphere and it migrates to lower latitudes. It lasts
till it reaches a latitude of ~ 10°. The latitude migration of sunspot zones is shown in
Fig. 5.19b. This is the famous butterfly diagram which shows a period of ~ 11 years
between the successive occurrences of a sunspot at a given latitude. It is believed that
the sunspot cycle is caused due to differential rotation of the Sun; it rotates faster at
the equator compared to higher latitudes.
15
The Solar System
and Stars Number of
Sunspots

Year
(a)

Year
(b)
Fig.5.19: a) Sunspot cycle; and b) butterfly diagram which shows the migration of sunspots from
higher to lower latitudes

Solar Prominences

Refer to Fig. 5.20 which depicts loop like structures surging up into the corona when
the Sun is viewed along the edge of the solar disc. These structures are called
prominences which are intimately connected with and formed due to the Sun’s
magnetic field. The material in prominences comprises hot ionised gases trapped in
magnetic fields associated with the active regions. Since these gases came from
deeper layers of the solar atmosphere, they are cooler and therefore denser than the
coronal gas. It is for this reason that prominences appear as bright structures.
However, when viewed against the photosphere (solar disk), prominences appear as
dark snake like objects, called filament.

Fig.5.20: Solar prominences

Solar Flares

Yet another form of solar activity is called solar flare. Solar flares are sudden eruptive
16 events which occur on the Sun (Fig. 5.21). Each event may involve energy in the
 The Sun

Approximate size of the Earth

Fig.5.21: Solar flare

range of 1022 to 1025 Joules. Usually the flares last anywhere between a few minutes
to more than an hour. A large flare may have linear dimension as large as 105 km and
may be seen as a short-lived storm on the Sun. Such energetic eruptions are usually
linked to sunspots because these quite often occur at the top of magnetic loops that
have their feet in sunspots. Thus, the most likely places of occurrence of solar flare are
the regions of closely packed sunspots. The tremendous amount of energy carried in
solar flare is released in the form of X-rays, ultraviolet and visible radiation, high
speed electrons and protons. You may ask: What is the source of energy in solar
flares? This question can be answered on the basis of a model for solar flare shown in
Fig. 5.22.

Fig.5.22: A solar flare model

17
The Solar System A Model of Solar Flare
and Stars
All kinds of solar activities i.e., the sunspots, prominences, flares etc., are possibly
linked to the release of stored magnetic energy. It is believed that the energetic solar
eruptions are caused due to coming together and merging of magnetic fields in the
active regions (the phenomenon is known as magnetic field reconnection) and
thereby releasing the stored magnetic energy. To appreciate this phenomenon,
magnetic lines of forces can be considered as stretched springs with certain amount of
energy associated with each unit length. If the length of the lines of forces gets
reduced by certain mechanism, energy is released. This is what happens when lines of
force pointing in opposite directions meet and merge with each other (Fig. 5.22).

In order to fix these ideas, you should answer the following SAQ.

Spend SAQ 4
3 min.
a) What is the basis to conclude that the Sun is rotating in space?
b) What is the difference between spicules and solar prominences?

So far, you have studied about the photosphere, solar atmosphere and solar activity.
You must have noted that the Sun’s magnetic field plays an important role in solar
activity. Further, gaseous matter in the Sun is in the ionised form, that is, it is a
conducting matter. We will now try to understand the nature of interaction between
the Sun’s magnetic field and the conducting matter (fluid) in motion. This
understanding is of utmost importance in astronomy because, everywhere in the
universe, we find conducting matter moving in the presence of magnetic fields. The
study of the motion of conducting fluid in the presence of magnetic field is called
magnetohydrodynamics. Let us now turn to this subject.

5.6 BASICS OF SOLAR MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS

We begin our discussion of solar magnetohydrodynamics with Maxwell’s equations.
You may recall from the physics course entitled Electric and Magnetic Phenomena
(PHE-07) that three of the Maxwell’s equations can be written as:

∇ . B = 0, (5.3)

∇ × B = µj, (5.4)

and

You are familiar with the ∂B

Ohm’s law expressed
∇×E= − (5.5)
∂t
mathematically as:
j=σE
However, when a conducting where µ, B, E and j are the magnetic permeability of the medium, magnetic field
fluid is moving with velocity intensity, electric field intensity and electric current density respectively. Note that in
v in a magnetic field B, there Eq. (5.4), we have not written the displacement current term. This is because,
is an induced electric field
magneto-hydrodynamic phenomena in the Sun are usually slow whereas the
given as v × B. Thus, in the
presence of two kinds of displacement current gives rise to fast phenomena such as electromagnetic radiation.
electric fields − one due to
charged particles and another Further, if the fluid (conducting matter) velocity is v and its electrical conductivity is
due to their motion − the σ, then Ohm’s law gives (see the margin remark):
Ohm’s law takes the form:
J = σ (E + v × B)
j = σ (E + v × B) (5.6)

18
where (v × B) term represents the electric field induced due to the motion of The Sun
conducting fluid in the presence of magnetic field. Using Eqs. (5.3) to (5.6), you can
readily obtain:

∂B
= ∇ × ( v × B ) + η∇ 2 B (5.7)
∂t

where η = (µσ)−1 is called the magnetic diffusivity. Its value is generally constant in
solar conditions.

SAQ 5 Spend
3 min.
Derive Eq. (5.7).

The first term on the right hand side of Eq. (5.7) gives the change in B due to the fluid
motion. The second term represents the change in B due to conductivity σ. It is
generally called the Ohmic decay of the field. Note that for v = 0, Eq. (5.7) reduces to:

∂B
= η∇ 2 B (5.8)
∂t

Eq. (5.8) is the diffusion equation. It gives the rate at which magnetic field diffuses
out due to conductivity. In the limit of infinite conductivity, we have η → 0, and
Eq. (5.7) becomes

∂B
= ∇ × ( v × B) (5.9)
∂t

Without going into the mathematical details, it is possible to understand the relative
importance of the two terms on the right hand side of Eq. (5.7). To do so, let us obtain
the orders of magnitude, of the values of the two terms. The order of magnitude of the
VB
first term is , where V, B and L are the typical values of the fluid velocity,
L
magnetic field and the dimension of the system. Similarly, the magnitude of the
ηB
second term is . The ratio of the two terms is called magnetic Reynold number,
L2
Rm, and is given by:

VL
Rm = (5.10)
η

If Rm >> 1, the second term in Eq. (5.7), i.e. the diffusion term, is negligible. The
condition Rm >>1 is obtained in two situations: when the conductivity is very high
because η appears in the denominator, and secondly when the dimension of the
system, L is very large. In astrophysical systems, we have Rm >> 1 because of the
second situation as their dimensions are very large. In any case, Rm >> 1 implies that
there is no decay of the magnetic field as if the conductivity of the medium is infinite.
Actually, the conductivity is finite, but the large dimensions ensure that Rm >> 1 and
so there is no decay of the field.

If we drop the diffusion term in Eq. (5.7), the remaining equation (Eq. (5.9)), implies
that the magnetic flux linked to a cross-section of the fluid remains unchanged as the
fluid moves about. In other words, the magnetic field is frozen in the fluid. The
idea of frozen field means that the magnetic flux is transported along with the material
motion. We can show this formally in the following manner: 19
 The Solar System Let us consider a cross-sectional area A placed in a magnetic field B (Fig. 5.23). The
and Stars magnetic flux linked with area A may be written as:
l
Φ= ∫ B.d a (5.11)
A

where da is an element of area on the surface A. Let l be the curve enclosing the area
dl v × dldt A. Let us further assume that, in the time interval dt the area changes from A to A′ as
the fluid moves around. The magnetic flux Φ′ linked with A′ may be different from Φ
because (i) magnetic field B may have changed and/or (ii) some flux might have been
A A' exchanged through the surface of the volume generated between A and A′. Now, the
rate of change of magnetic field is ∂B/∂t. The area of the curved surface surrounding
Fig.5.23: Motion of a closed the volume between A and A′ is v × dl dt where dl is an element of length of the
curve l with fluid with contour of A. Therefore, the difference ∆Φ between fluxes through A′ and A is given
velocity v by:

 ∂B 
 
∆Φ = 
 ∂t ∫ l ∫
.da + o B.. ( v × dl )  dt.

(5.12)
A 

You may recall that area is a Further, using Stoke’s theorem, we can write the second term on the right hand side of
vector quantity having direction
along the normal to the area, Eq. (5.12) as:
whose sense is defined by the

∫ol B.. (v × dl) = −∫ ∇ × ( v × B) . da

right hand rule.
(5.13)
A

So, we can write the rate of change of flux (Eq. (5.12)) as:

dΦ  ∂B 
dt
= ∫ 
 ∂t
− ∇ × ( v × B )  . da

(5.14)
A

∂B
From Eq. (5.9), we have = ∇ × ( v × B) . Thus, from Eq. (5.14), we find that the
∂t
rate of change of magnetic flux is zero. It implies that Φ remains constant. We may,
therefore, conclude that in astrophysical systems the lines of forces are
completely attached or glued to the moving fluid when Rm >> 1.

Now, let us pause for a moment and think about the significance of the above
conclusion for solar activity. Recall that the active regions consisting of sunspots have
strong magnetic fields and solar activities such as prominence and flare occur in these
regions. The structures associated with solar prominences and solar flares are very
similar to the magnetic lines of force. It is, therefore, believed that these activities are
caused due to frozen magnetic lines of force in the conducting fluid.

You have learnt earlier in this unit that, in almost all the events associated with the
Sun’s magnetic field, energy is also transported. The energy transported by the
magnetic field glued to the conducting matter is responsible for heating the
chromosphere and corona. Would not you like to know how it happens? To
understand this process, we begin with the fact that an electric current exists in the
solar atmosphere due to the drift of electrons with respect to ions carrying opposite
charges. If a magnetic field B is also present in the plasma, then a volume force, also
1
called the Lorentz force (= j × B), acts on the material. Since j = (∇ × B ) (from
µ
20
Eq. (5.4)) we may write the expression for Lorentz force as:
 The Sun
1
j× B = (∇ × B ) × B
µ

1  B2 
= (B.∇ )B − ∇   (5.15)
µ  2µ 

The first term on the RHS of Eq. (5.15) denotes magnetic tension and the second term
denotes the gradient of magnetic pressure. Therefore, in the presence of a magnetic
field, a lateral pressure (due to the second term in Eq. (5.15)) acts on a conducting gas.
To maintain equilibrium, the lateral pressure due to magnetic field is balanced by the
gas pressure. The magnetic tension term is similar to the tension of a stretched string.
When a stretched string is distorted, its tension provides the restoring force. Therefore,
when the magnetic field lines (frozen in the conducting fluid) are disturbed we have a
similar restoring force (due to the magnetic tension). Thus, a disturbance may
propagate as a transverse wave along the magnetic field lines. Such waves are called
Alfven waves. The speed of these waves is given by:

B
vm = .
4πρ

where ρ is the density of the plasma. Since Alfven waves propagate along the
magnetic field lines, it is possible to transport energy outward along magnetic field
lines which are threading the outer solar atmosphere. This energy is believed to be
responsible for heating the chromosphere and corona.

SAQ 6 Spend
3 min.
A pressure of 103Pa (Pascal) prevails in the solar atmosphere. What should be the
strength of the magnetic field required to balance such a pressure?

Now, before we close our discussion about the Sun, we will briefly discuss a new area
of solar research called helioseismology.

5.7 HELIOSEISMOLOGY The name helioseismology

derives from the fact that, in
In 1962, Leighton, Noyes and Simon noticed wiggling back and forth of some of the Greek, helios means the Sun
absorption lines in the solar spectrum with periods ~ 5 min. They conjectured that the and the word seismos is
used for an earthquake.
movement of the surface of the Sun is responsible for such observations.

Subsequently, careful observations of the solar surface confirmed the idea of waves As you know, seismology
refers to the study of seismic
rising up and down on the surface of the Sun (Fig. 5.24). Astronomers now use these waves moving inside the
waves to probe the solar interior much the same way as seismologists probe the Earth. Their arrival at
earth’s interior using vibrations caused by an earthquake. various points on the Earth’s
surface enables us to find
the point of origin of these
So far, millions of different vibrational modes also called acoustic modes or p-modes waves. This way we are able
have been observed on the Sun’s surface. All of them have different frequencies and to construct the internal
surface patterns. Thus, the Sun appears to have a rhythmic surface motion similar to structure of the Earth.
that of a beating heart. The observed rise and fall of the surface of the Sun is, in fact,
due to superposition of many different acoustic modes. These modes are now believed
to be driven by irregular motions in the convective envelope under the solar surface.

21
The Solar System
and Stars
Disk of Sun
5 min

Position
Time

Fig.5.24: Waves on the surface of the Sun

The combined effect, or the superposition of millions of these acoustic waves, results
in the observed up and down motion of the photosphere with a period of the order of 5
minutes. The extent or size of a wave is called its horizontal wavelength. The relation
between sizes and periods of waves, obtained theoretically, suggested that only
specific combination of periods and sizes can resonate inside the Sun.

Fossat and Grec observed the solar oscillation from the South pole for around 120
hours. The analysis of this continuous record showed that the entire surface of the Sun
is ringing like a bell with periods in the range of 5 minutes and the vibrations may last
for days and weeks.

The natural frequencies of oscillations can be computed for any solar model. In view
of the precision now possible for determining the frequencies, we may compare these
with those computed for a given solar model. In case there is lack of agreement
Since we cannot go inside a
star, we build theoretical
between the predicted and observed frequencies, the model is slightly modified to
models which tabulate improve agreement. The improvement in the model brings it closer to reality. It has
pressure, temperature and been found that the depth of the solar convection zone is at a radius of 71.3 percent of
density at various depths radius of the Sun. It has also been confirmed now that the proportion of helium in the
inside the star.
Sun lies between 0.23 − 0.26. This is quite consistent with the value of 0.25 for
helium believed to have been formed in the early phase of the universe after the big-
bang.
Now, let us summarise what you have learnt in this unit.

5.8 SUMMARY

• The mass, radius and effective surface temperature of the Sun are 2 × 1030kg,
7 × 108m and 6000 K, respectively.
• The Sun’s atmosphere comprises of the photosphere, chromosphere and
corona.
• The photosphere is the visible surface of the Sun and all the radiation we receive
from the Sun is emitted by this layer.
• The photosphere has a granular structure which is caused by convection of hot
gas from below the photosphere.
• The chromosphere, which lies above the photosphere, extends up to ~ 2000 km
and is normally not observable from the earth except during total solar eclipse.
The temperature of the chromosphere is much higher than the photosphere.
• Relatively higher temperature of the chromosphere is perhaps caused due to
spicules − jets of hot gas − which extend upward in the chromosphere.

22
• The outermost layer of the solar atmosphere, corona is also not visible at normal The Sun
times due to its low material density. The temperature of the corona is of the order
of 106K, much more higher than that of the photosphere.
• The sunspots are the dark spots on the solar disk. They appear dark because they
are cooler than their surrounding areas in the photosphere. The movement of
sunspots indicate that the Sun is spinning in space.
• Solar prominences are the loop like structures surging up into the corona. They
are caused due to the Sun’s magnetic field.
• Solar flares are sudden eruptive events involving energy in the range of 1022 to
1025 joules. The most likely places of occurrence of solar flares are the regions of
closely placed sunspots and they are possible caused due to the release of stoned
magnetic energy.
• The study of the motion of conducting matter in the presence of magnetic field is
called magnetohydrodynamics.

• The magnetic Reynold number is given by

VL
Rm =
η

which indicates that for infinite conductivity (i.e. η → 0), there is no decay of the
magnetic field. In other words, magnetic field is frozen in the conducting matter
in motion.
• Transportation of magnetic flux with conducting matter explains some of the solar
activities like prominence and solar flare.
• Helioseismology has its origin in the observed wiggling back and forth of some of
the absorption lines in the solar spectrum. The movement of the surface of the
Sun, causing these back and forth motion of absorption lines, gives rise to waves
on it. Investigation of the nature of these waves provides valuable information
regarding the internal structure of the Sun.

5.9 TERMINAL QUESTIONS Spend 20 min.

1. In a sunspot, magnetic diffusivity, linear dimension and velocity of conducting

fluid respectively is 103m2s−1, 104km, and 103ms−1. Estimate the magnetic
Reynold number, Rm. Is it possible to assume that the conductivity in the sunspot
is virtually infinite?

2. The temperature inside a sunspot is 4000 K and that of its surface is 6000 K.
Calculate the strength of the magnetic field inside the sunspot which will balance
the pressure inside and outside.
[Hint: Remember that the magnetic pressure is B2/2µ where µ is magnetic
permeability of the medium and its value for the present case can be taken as
4π × 10−7 NA−2].

3. The number density of particles (assume hydrogen) in the photosphere is 1020

particles per cm−3 and the strength of the magnetic field of the Sun is 1 G.
Calculate the velocity of the Alfven waves in the photosphere.

23
The Solar System
and Stars 5.10 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions (SAQs)

1. Since the mass of the planet Jupiter is very large compared to its satellite Io, we
can use Kepler’s third law for Jupiter and Io system. Thus, we can write:
4π 2 a 3
= GM J (i)
P2

where MJ is the mass of Jupiter.

From the problem, we have

10 8
a = 4.22 × 10 cm = 4.22 × 10 m

P = 1.77 days = 1.77 × 24 × 60 × 60 s

G = 6.672 × 10−11 m3 kg−1 s−2

Substituting these values in Eq. (i) above, we get

4π 2 a 3
MJ =
GP 2
4 × (3.14) 2 × (4.22 × 10 8 m) 3
=
(6.672 × 10 −11 m 3 kg −1s −2 ) × (1.77 × 24 × 60 × 60 s) 2

= 1.97 × 1027 kg

2. According to the Stephan-Boltzmann law, the amount of energy radiated by a

black-body per unit time per unit area at temperature T is given by

E=σT4 (i)

where σ is Stephan constant.

The energy radiated by the Sun can also be expressed in terms of its luminosity LΘ
as

LΘ
E= (ii)
4πR 2

where R is the radius of the Sun.

Comparing the above two expressions, we can write

LΘ
= σT 4
2
4πR

Rearranging the terms and substituting the values of R (= 6.7 × 108m),

σ (= 5.67 × 10−8 W m−2 K−4) and L = (3.86 × 1026W), we get,

1/ 4
 LΘ 
T =  
24  4πR 2 σ 
 1/ 4 The Sun
 3.86 × 10 26 W 
= 
 4 × (3.14) × (6.7 × 10 8 m) 2 × (5.67 × 10 −8 Wm − 2 K − 4 ) 
 
1/ 4
 3.86 × 10 2 
=  × 1016 K 4 
2
 4 × 3.14 × (6.7) × 5.67 

= 0.5895 × 104K

≈ 6000 K.

3. a) It is because the density of matter in photosphere is much higher than the

density of matter in chromosphere and corona.

b) We know that the ionisation energy of the hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV. Further,
energy acquired by a particle at temperature T is kBT. If this energy is equal to
the ionisation energy of the hydrogen atom, it will be ionised. Thus, we must
have
k BT = (13.6 × 1.6 × 10 −19 ) J

(13.6 × 1.6 × 10 −19 J)

T=
(1.38 × 10 −23 JK −1 )

4
≈ 13.6 × 10 K.

4. a) Motion of sunspots.

b) Spicules are the jet like structures comprising hot gas and is observed
throughout the chromosphere. Prominences look like structures surging up
into the corona.

5. Ohm’s law can be written as:

J = σ (E + v × B)

Taking curl of both sides, we get:

∇ × J = σ (∇ × E + ∇ × (v × B))

Using Eqs. (5.4) and Eq. (5.5) we can write:

1 ∂B
(∇ × ∇ × B) = − + ∇ × ( v × B)
σµ ∂t

1 ∂B
[∇(∇. B) − (∇.∇) B] = − + ∇ × ( v × B)
σµ ∂t

From Eq. (5.3), we have ∇ . B = 0. Thus, we get

∂B 1
= ∇ × ( v × B) + ∇2 B
∂t σµ

25
The Solar System
= ∇ × ( v × B) + η∇ 2 B
and Stars

which is Eq. (5.7).

2
6. We know that the pressure generated by magnetic field B is equal to B /2µ. Thus,
3
for generating pressure equal to 10 Pa, we must have

B2
≈ 103 Pa
2µ
−7 −2
Substituting µ = 4π × 10 NA in the above expression, we get:

B ≈ 5 × 10 −2 T = 5 × 10 2 G.

Terminal Questions

1. The magnetic Reynold number is given by (Eq. (5.10)):

VL
Rm =
η

Substituting the values of V, L and η from the problem, we get

(10 3 ms −1 ) × (10 7 m )
Rm =
10 3 m 2 s −1

≈ 107

Yes, conductivity can be taken to be virtually infinite because Rm >> 1.

2. On the basis of the equation of state for the sunspot and using the fact that
magnetic pressure is equal to B2/2µ, we can write:

B2
= Nk B (T2 − T1 )
2µ
where N is number density. Since µ = 4π × 10−7 NA−2 , T2 = 6000 K and
T1 = 4000 K, we can write:

B2 = 2 × (4π × 10−7 NA−2) × (1023 m−3) × (1.38 × 10−23J K−1) × (2000 K)

B = 0.08 T = 800 G

3. Velocity of Alfven waves is given by

B
vm =
4πρ

where ρ is density. Substituting the values of B and ρ, we get:

1G
v =
m 4π × (10 × 1.6 × 10 − 24 g cm −3 )
20

≈ 25 cm s−1.
26