GROUP ASSIGNMENT NOTES
Materials Science & Engineering
Ferrous Metals & Non-Ferrous Metals
Deadline 05 / 06 / 2026
Group Size 10 Members
Topics 2 (Ferrous | Non-Ferrous)
PART 1: FERROUS METALS
1.1 Introduction to Ferrous Materials
Ferrous metals are metals and alloys that contain iron (Fe) as their primary constituent. The term 'ferrous'
is derived from the Latin word ferrum, meaning iron. These metals are the most widely used metallic
materials in engineering due to their abundance, versatility, and range of mechanical properties.
Key characteristics of ferrous metals include:
• Magnetic properties (most ferrous metals are ferromagnetic)
• Good tensile strength and hardness
• Susceptibility to corrosion (rusting) unless alloyed or coated
• Wide range of properties achievable through alloying and heat treatment
• Relatively low cost due to abundance of iron ore
1.2 Iron and Steel
Iron (Fe) is element 26 on the periodic table, with atomic mass 55.85 g/mol and melting point 1538°C.
Pure iron is soft and ductile but has limited engineering use. Its real value lies in its ability to form alloys —
particularly steel.
Iron exists in three allotropic forms:
Allotrope Temperature Range Crystal Structure Magnetic?
Alpha (α) Iron Below 912°C Body-Centred Cubic (BCC) Yes
Gamma (γ) Iron 912°C – 1394°C Face-Centred Cubic (FCC) No
Delta (δ) Iron 1394°C – 1538°C Body-Centred Cubic (BCC) No
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon (typically 0.002% – 2.14% C), often with additional alloying elements.
The carbon content dramatically affects mechanical properties: more carbon increases hardness and
strength but reduces ductility and weldability.
1.3 Classification of Carbon Steels
Carbon steels are classified by their carbon content into four main categories:
Type Carbon Content Properties Typical Uses
Low Carbon Soft, ductile, tough, Structural beams, pipes,
0.05% – 0.25%
(Mild Steel) good weldability automobile panels, wire
Balanced strength Gears, shafts, railway
Medium Carbon 0.25% – 0.60%
and ductility tracks, crankshafts
Hard, brittle, wear Springs, cutting tools,
High Carbon 0.60% – 1.40%
resistant high-strength wire
Extremely hard, Specialty blades,
Ultra-High Carbon 1.40% – 2.14%
very brittle axles, punches
1.4 Manufacturing Processes of Steel
a) Blast Furnace Process (Pig Iron Production)
Iron ore (Fe2O3 or Fe3O4), coke (carbon), and limestone are charged into a blast furnace. Hot air is
blasted in, burning the coke to produce CO, which reduces the iron ore to molten pig iron (2–4% C). Slag
floats on top and is tapped off separately.
b) Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF)
Molten pig iron and scrap steel are charged into the BOF. Pure oxygen is blown at supersonic speed onto
the melt, oxidising carbon and impurities. This process converts pig iron to steel in approximately 40
minutes. It accounts for ~70% of global steel production.
c) Electric Arc Furnace (EAF)
Steel scrap is melted using high-voltage electric arcs between electrodes and the charge. EAF is ideal for
producing specialty and alloy steels and is more environmentally flexible than BOF, accounting for ~30%
of world production.
d) Continuous Casting
Molten steel is poured into a water-cooled mould to form a continuously solidifying strand that is cut to
slabs, blooms, or billets. Over 95% of steel is now made this way, replacing the older ingot casting
method.
e) Rolling, Forging & Heat Treatment
• Hot rolling: shapes steel above recrystallisation temperature — plates, sheets, structural sections
• Cold rolling: improves surface finish and dimensional accuracy
• Forging: improves grain structure and mechanical properties
• Annealing, normalising, quenching & tempering alter microstructure and final properties
1.5 Ferrous Alloys
Alloying elements are added to iron and steel to improve specific properties:
Element Effect on Steel
Manganese (Mn) Increases hardness, strength; improves hardenability; counteracts sulphur embrittlement
Chromium (Cr) Improves corrosion resistance, hardness, and wear resistance
Nickel (Ni) Improves toughness, ductility, and corrosion resistance
Molybdenum (Mo) Increases hardenability, elevated-temperature strength, creep resistance
Silicon (Si) Deoxidiser; improves magnetic properties in electrical steels
Vanadium (V) Grain refiner; increases strength and toughness
Tungsten (W) Increases hardness at high temperatures (tool steels)
1.6 Cast Iron
Cast iron is an iron-carbon alloy with carbon content between 2.14% and 6.67% (typically 2.5–4%), along
with silicon (1–3%), manganese, sulphur, and phosphorus. It has excellent castability, good compressive
strength, and vibration damping, but poor tensile strength and ductility.
Types of Cast Iron:
a) Grey Cast Iron
Carbon exists as graphite flakes. Grey appearance on fracture surface. Good machinability, excellent
vibration damping, poor impact strength. Used in engine blocks, machine tool bases, pipes, and brake
rotors.
b) White Cast Iron
Carbon exists as iron carbide (Fe3C / cementite). Extremely hard and brittle, white fracture surface. Used
where wear resistance is critical: mill liners, ball mill balls, crusher parts. Often used as a precursor to
malleable iron.
c) Malleable Cast Iron
Produced by heat-treating white cast iron. Carbon converts to temper carbon (irregular graphite nodules).
More ductile than grey or white iron. Used in automotive components, pipe fittings, and agricultural
equipment.
d) Ductile (Nodular/Spheroidal Graphite) Cast Iron
Small amounts of magnesium or cerium are added to produce spherical graphite nodules. Much higher
ductility and toughness than grey iron. Used in crankshafts, heavy-duty gears, and pressure pipes. Tensile
strength up to 800 MPa.
1.7 Wrought Iron
Wrought iron is nearly pure iron (carbon < 0.08%) with slag inclusions (1–2% by weight) distributed
throughout as fibrous threads. It was the dominant form of iron before steel-making became practical in the
mid-19th century.
Properties:
• Highly ductile and malleable — can be hammered and worked when hot
• Excellent corrosion resistance due to slag inclusions
• Good weldability (forge welding)
• Low hardness and tensile strength compared to steel
• Fibrous fracture appearance
Applications:
• Ornamental ironwork, gates, railings, chains, anchors
• Largely replaced by mild steel in modern construction
1.8 Stainless Steel
Stainless steel is an alloy steel containing a minimum of 10.5% chromium, which forms a passive
chromium oxide (Cr2O3) layer on the surface, providing outstanding corrosion resistance. It typically also
contains nickel, molybdenum, and other elements.
Type Composition Structure Properties & Uses
Non-magnetic, excellent
Austenitic 16–26% Cr, 6–22% Ni, corrosion resistance;
FCC
(200, 300 series) low C kitchenware, chemical
plant, medical implants
Magnetic, moderate
Ferritic 10.5–30% Cr,
BCC corrosion resistance;
(400 series) very low Ni
automotive trim, appliances
Hard, magnetic,
Martensitic 11.5–18% Cr,
BCT heat-treatable; cutlery,
(400 series) 0.1–1.2% C
turbine blades, surgical tools
High strength +
21–26% Cr, 4–8% Ni,
Duplex FCC + BCC corrosion resistance;
2–4% Mo
oil & gas, marine
Precipitation Very high strength;
Cr, Ni + Cu/Al/Ti Varies
Hardened (PH) aerospace, nuclear
1.9 Alloy Cast Iron
Alloy cast irons are cast irons to which alloying elements have been added to enhance specific properties
beyond those of standard grey, white, malleable, or ductile irons:
Nickel Cast Irons
• Ni improves strength, toughness, and corrosion resistance
• Ni-Resist: austenitic cast iron with 14–36% Ni — excellent corrosion and heat resistance
Chromium Cast Irons
• High Cr content (1–35%) forms chromium carbides — extreme hardness and wear resistance
• Used in pump impellers, grinding balls, coal-handling equipment
Silicon Cast Irons
• High Si (14–17%) gives outstanding acid corrosion resistance (Duriron)
• Used in chemical industry pipes, pumps, valves
Molybdenum Cast Irons
• Mo improves strength at elevated temperatures and creep resistance
1.10 Tool Steels
Tool steels are specially formulated high-carbon or alloy steels designed to make tools that cut, shape, or
form other materials. They must retain hardness at high temperatures, resist wear, and withstand shock.
Group AISI Symbol Key Alloying Characteristics & Uses
Water-hardening W High C only Low alloy, inexpensive; hand tools, files, drills
Cold-work:
O Mn, Cr, W Less distortion than W-type; taps, dies, gauges
Oil-hardening
Cold-work:
A Cr, Mo Minimal distortion; blanking dies, punches
Air-hardening
Cold-work:
D Cr 12%, C 1.5% Extreme wear resistance; drawing dies, knives
High Chromium
Shock-resisting S Si, Mn, Cr, W High toughness; chisels, punches, shear blades
Hot-work H Cr, W or Mo Retains hardness up to 650°C; forging dies, extrusion dies
High-speed M (Mo), T (W) W, Mo, Cr, V, Co Retains hardness at red heat; drills, milling cutters, lathe tools
Special-purpose L, F, P Various Specific applications; jig bushings, moulds
PART 2: NON-FERROUS METALS
Non-ferrous metals are metals that do not contain iron as their principal constituent. They are valued for
their specific properties: low density, high conductivity, corrosion resistance, non-magnetic behaviour,
ease of fabrication, and decorative appeal.
2.1 Production of Non-Ferrous Metals
A. Aluminium (Al)
Aluminium is the most abundant metal in the Earth's crust (8.1%). It is produced by the Bayer Process
followed by the Hall-Héroult Process:
• Bayer Process: Bauxite ore (Al2O3·2H2O) is dissolved in hot NaOH solution to produce aluminium
hydroxide (Al(OH)3), which is calcined to alumina (Al2O3).
• Hall-Héroult Process: Alumina is dissolved in molten cryolite (Na3AlF6) and electrolysed at ~950°C
in a carbon-lined cell. Aluminium deposits at the cathode; oxygen at the carbon anode burns off as
CO2.
Energy intensive: ~15 kWh/kg of aluminium produced.
B. Copper (Cu)
Copper is primarily obtained from sulphide ores (chalcopyrite, CuFeS2) through:
• Mining and Concentration: Ore is crushed and froth-floated to 25–35% Cu concentrate
• Smelting: Concentrate is roasted then smelted in a flash furnace or reverberatory furnace to produce
copper matte (~60% Cu)
• Converting: Matte is blown with air in a Pierce-Smith converter to blister copper (~99% Cu)
• Fire Refining: Blister copper is fire-refined to tough-pitch copper (~99.5%)
• Electrolytic Refining: Final electrolytic refining produces 99.99%+ pure copper cathodes
C. Zinc (Zn)
Zinc is extracted mainly from sphalerite (ZnS) ore by:
• Pyrometallurgical route: Ore is roasted to ZnO, then reduced with coke in a retort or blast furnace.
Zinc vapour is condensed.
• Hydrometallurgical route (dominant): Roasted ore is leached in sulphuric acid; zinc is electrowon
from purified solution. Produces 99.99% Zn.
D. Magnesium (Mg)
Two main routes:
• Electrolytic process (Dow Process): MgCl2 (from seawater or brines) is electrolysed to give liquid
Mg metal and Cl2 gas.
• Thermal (Pidgeon) Process: Calcined dolomite is reduced with ferrosilicon under vacuum at
~1200°C. Mg vapour is condensed.
E. Lead (Pb)
Lead is obtained mainly from galena (PbS):
• Ore is concentrated by froth flotation
• Roasted to PbO (sintering) then reduced with coke in a blast furnace to crude lead
• Softening and refining removes Sb, As, Cu, Bi to give 99.9%+ pure lead
F. Tin (Sn)
Tin is extracted from cassiterite (SnO2):
• Ore is gravity concentrated (due to high density of cassiterite)
• Roasted concentrate is reduced with coal/coke in a reverberatory furnace
• Crude tin is refined by liquation (tapping off at low temperature) and electrolytic refining to 99.8%+
purity
2.2 Properties and Applications of Non-Ferrous Metals
Density Melting
Metal Key Properties Major Applications
(g/cm³) Point (°C)
Light weight, good conductor, Aerospace, automotive, packaging,
Aluminium
2.70 660 corrosion resistant, ductile, electrical cables, construction,
(Al)
reflective, non-toxic foil, cans
Excellent electrical & thermal Electrical wiring, plumbing,
Copper
8.96 1085 conductivity, corrosion resistant, heat exchangers, coins,
(Cu)
ductile, antimicrobial electronics, motors
Zinc Corrosion resistant, low melting Galvanising steel, die casting,
7.13 420
(Zn) point, good castability batteries, roofing, alloys
Lightest structural metal, Aerospace, automotive
Magnesium
1.74 650 good strength-to-weight, burns lightweighting, laptops, cameras,
(Mg)
in air pyrotechnics
Very dense, soft, low melting Batteries (automotive), X-ray
Lead
11.34 327 point, excellent radiation shielding, cable sheathing,
(Pb)
shielding solder
Very low melting point, non-toxic, Tin plating (tinplate), solder,
Tin
7.29 232 excellent corrosion resistance, bronze/pewter alloys, food
(Sn)
high ductility packaging
2.3 Alloys of Non-Ferrous Metals
A. Aluminium Alloys
Aluminium alloys are classified by a four-digit system. The first digit identifies the principal alloying
element:
Series Principal Alloy Typical Alloys Uses
1xxx None (pure Al) 1100, 1050 Foil, electrical conductors
2xxx Copper 2024, 2014 Aerospace structures, aircraft skins
3xxx Manganese 3003, 3105 Packaging, beverage cans, roofing
4xxx Silicon 4043 Welding wire, pistons
5xxx Magnesium 5052, 5083 Marine, automotive, pressure vessels
6xxx Mg + Si 6061, 6063 Structural sections, bicycle frames
7xxx Zinc 7075, 7068 High-strength aerospace, sporting goods
B. Copper Alloys
Alloy Composition Properties Applications
Corrosion resistant, good
Fittings, musical instruments,
Brass Cu + Zn (5–45% Zn) conductivity, attractive colour,
heat exchangers, coins, locks
castable
Harder than brass, excellent
Bearings, gears, bells, statues,
Bronze Cu + Sn (2–20% Sn) bearing properties, corrosion
spring contacts
resistant
Excellent seawater corrosion Marine heat exchangers, coins
Cupronickel Cu + Ni (10–30% Ni)
resistance, high strength (5p, 10p UK coinage), desalination
Beryllium- Highest strength of any Cu Springs, surgical tools, non-sparking
Cu + 0.5–3% Be
Copper alloy, non-sparking safety tools, aerospace
C. Zinc Alloys
• Zamak alloys (Zn + Al 4% + Cu + Mg): standard die-casting alloys for automotive parts, hardware,
toys
• Zinc-Aluminium (ZA) alloys (ZA-8, ZA-12, ZA-27): higher strength; gravity castings, bearings
• Rolled zinc (Zn + small Ti + Cu): roofing, cladding, guttering
D. Magnesium Alloys
Designated by ASTM letter codes (e.g., AZ91D = Al 9%, Zn 1%, high purity die-cast):
• Mg-Al alloys (AZ series): Most common — good castability, moderate strength; automotive gearbox
housings, steering wheels
• Mg-Al-Zn alloys: Better corrosion resistance
• Mg-Zr alloys (ZK series): High purity wrought alloys for aerospace
• Elektron alloys: Proprietary high-performance Mg alloys for aerospace/defence
E. Lead and Tin Alloys
Alloy Composition Applications
Sn 60% / Pb 40% (or Pb-free:
Soft Solder Electronics soldering, plumbing joints
Sn-Ag-Cu)
Antimonial Lead Pb + 2–8% Sb Battery grids, sheet lead, pipe
Babbitt Metal Sn 83–89% + Sb + Cu (or Pb-based) Plain bearings, journal bearings in engines
Type Metal Pb + Sb 15–25% + Sn 2–15% Traditional printing (letterpress type)
Pewter Sn 85–99% + Cu + Sb (low Pb) Tableware, decorative items
Summary: Key Comparisons — Ferrous vs Non-Ferrous
Feature Ferrous Metals Non-Ferrous Metals
Iron Content Contains iron No iron
Magnetic Generally yes Generally no
Corrosion Prone to rust Generally corrosion resistant
Density Higher (7–8 g/cm³) Wide range (1.7–11.3 g/cm³)
Strength Generally high Varies widely
Cost Generally lower Generally higher
Recyclability Excellent Excellent
Steel, cast iron, wrought iron,
Examples Al, Cu, Zn, Mg, Pb, Sn and their alloys
stainless steel
End of Notes — Deadline: 05/06/2026 | Group of 10 Members