STATISTICS
Definitions, Basics, Key Terminologies & Formulae
ISC Class 11 — Mathematics
1. Basic Definitions
Statistics: The branch of mathematics concerned with the collection, organization,
presentation, analysis, and interpretation of numerical data.
Data: Raw facts and figures collected for a specific purpose or investigation. Data may be
primary (collected first-hand by the investigator) or secondary (collected by someone else
and obtained from existing sources).
Variable: A characteristic that can take different values for different observations. A discrete
variable takes only specific, isolated values (e.g. number of children), while a continuous
variable can take any value within a range (e.g. height, weight).
Frequency: The number of times a particular value or class of values occurs in a data set.
Frequency distribution: A tabular arrangement of data showing how frequencies are
distributed over different values or class intervals.
Class interval: A range of values into which raw data is grouped, defined by a lower limit and
an upper limit.
Class mark (mid-value): The midpoint of a class interval, calculated as the average of its
lower and upper limits; used to represent the entire class in grouped-data calculations.
Cumulative frequency: The running total of frequencies up to and including a particular class
interval, used in finding the median and quartiles graphically (ogive).
Measures of central tendency: Single representative values — mean, median, and mode —
that describe the centre or typical value of a data set.
Measures of dispersion: Statistical measures — such as range, mean deviation, variance, and
standard deviation — that describe the spread or variability of data around its central value.
Correlation: A statistical technique that measures the degree and direction of the linear
relationship between two variables.
2. Key Terminologies
Population: The entire group of individuals or items under study.
Sample: A finite subset of the population selected for actual study or observation.
Class limits: The lowest (lower limit) and highest (upper limit) values that a class interval can
contain.
Class boundaries: The true limits of a class interval, obtained by removing gaps between
consecutive classes, used for continuous data.
Class width (class size): The difference between the upper and lower class boundaries of a
class interval.
Quartiles (Q1, Q2, Q3): Three values that divide an ordered data set into four equal parts; Q2
is the median.
Deciles and Percentiles: Values that divide an ordered data set into ten and one hundred
equal parts respectively.
Range: The simplest measure of dispersion, equal to the difference between the highest and
lowest values in a data set.
Outlier: An observation that lies an abnormal distance away from other values in a data set.
Ogive: A graph of the cumulative frequency distribution, used to estimate the median,
quartiles, and percentiles.
Coefficient of variation (CV): A relative measure of dispersion expressed as a percentage,
used to compare the variability of two or more data sets having different units or means.
Rank correlation: A measure of correlation based on the ranks assigned to observations
rather than their actual values.
3. Core Formulae
3.1 Arithmetic Mean
Raw data: x̄ = (Σxᵢ) / n
Discrete/grouped data: x̄ = (Σfᵢxᵢ) / (Σfᵢ)
Assumed mean method: x̄ = A + (Σfᵢdᵢ)/(Σfᵢ)
where A = assumed mean, dᵢ = xᵢ − A
Step-deviation method: x̄ = A + [(Σfᵢuᵢ)/(Σfᵢ)] × h
where uᵢ = (xᵢ − A)/h, h = class width
3.2 Median
Raw data (n odd): Median = value at position (n+1)/2
Raw data (n even): Median = average of values at positions n/2 and (n/2
+ 1)
Grouped data: Median = l + [(n/2 − cf)/f] × h
l = lower limit of median class, n = Σfᵢ, cf = cumulative frequency before median class, f =
frequency of median class, h = class width
3.3 Mode
Grouped data: Mode = l + [(f₁ − f₀)/(2f₁ − f₀ − f₂)] × h
l = lower limit of modal class, f₁ = frequency of modal class, f₀ = frequency of preceding class, f₂
= frequency of succeeding class, h = class width
3.4 Relationship Between Mean, Median and Mode
Mode = 3 Median − 2 Mean
(empirical relationship, valid for moderately skewed distributions)
3.5 Range and Quartile Deviation
Range = Maximum value − Minimum value
Quartile (grouped data): Qₖ = l + [(kn/4 − cf)/f] × h
for k = 1, 2, 3
Quartile Deviation (Q.D.) = (Q₃ − Q₁) / 2
Coefficient of Q.D. = (Q₃ − Q₁) / (Q₃ + Q₁)
3.6 Mean Deviation
About mean: M.D. = Σfᵢ|xᵢ − x̄| / Σfᵢ
About median: M.D. = Σfᵢ|xᵢ − Median| / Σfᵢ
Coefficient of M.D. = M.D. / (Mean or Median)
3.7 Variance and Standard Deviation
Variance: σ² = Σfᵢ(xᵢ − x̄)² / Σfᵢ
Shortcut (direct) method: σ² = (Σfᵢxᵢ² / Σfᵢ) − x̄²
Standard Deviation: σ = √(σ²) = √[Σfᵢ(xᵢ − x̄)² / Σfᵢ]
Step-deviation method: σ = h × √[(Σfᵢuᵢ²/Σfᵢ) − (Σfᵢuᵢ/Σfᵢ)²]
where uᵢ = (xᵢ − A)/h
3.8 Coefficient of Variation
C.V. = (σ / x̄) × 100
Smaller C.V. indicates greater consistency/uniformity of data
3.9 Karl Pearson's Coefficient of Correlation
r = Σ(xᵢ − x̄)(yᵢ − ȳ) / [√Σ(xᵢ − x̄)² × √Σ(yᵢ − ȳ)²]
r lies between −1 and +1; r = +1 perfect positive correlation, r = −1 perfect negative
correlation, r = 0 no linear correlation
Deviation (shortcut) form: r = Σdₓdy / √(Σdₓ² × Σdy²)
where dₓ = xᵢ − x̄, dy = yᵢ − ȳ
3.10 Spearman's Rank Correlation Coefficient
ρ = 1 − [6 Σdᵢ² / (n(n² − 1))]
dᵢ = difference between the ranks of corresponding pairs, n = number of pairs of observations