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SPECIES CONCEPT

Biological concept of species Taxonomic concept of species

 Group of members which can  Species is determined on the
interbreed naturally and basis of morphological
produce fertile progeny characters
 Applicable for sexually
reproducing organism only

CHAPTER - 2 : BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

HISTORY OF TAXONOMY

ARTISTOTLE
Earliest to attempt a more scientific classification

Divided animals into two groups

(1) Red blooded (2) Non-red blooded

CAROLUS LINNAEUS
"Two kingdom classification"

On the basis of cell wall

Plantae Animalia
↓ ↓
Cell wall present Cell wall absent

Demerits of two kingdom classification

(i) Prokaryotes and eukaryotes – Placed in the same group plants/plantae
(ii) Unicellular and multicellular organisms – Placed in the same group algae/plantae
(iii) Classification not differentiate between the heterotrophic fungi and autotrophic green plants

GEORGE BENTHAM AND JOSEPH DALTON HOOKER

{wrote the book Genera plantarum} {related to royal botanical garden}

Division-Spermatophyta (Seeded Plants)

Dicotyledonae Gymnospermae Monocotyledonae

Merits Demerit :
Mainly based on floral characters Phylogeny of plants is not considered

Classification was natural formal Phylogeny = Gymnosperm → Dicots → Monocots

Based on actual observations

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R.H. Whittaker
"Five kingdom classification"
Phylogenetic classification
On the basis of Monera – All prokaryotes
1. Cell structure
2. Body organization Protista – Unicellular eukaryotes
3. Mode of nutrition
Fungi – Heterotrophic, cell walled, multicellular eukaryotes
4. Reproduction
5. Phylogeny Plantae – Autotrophic, cell walled, multicellular eukaryotes
Animalia – Heterotrophic, cell wall less, multicellular eukaryotes

Five Kingdoms
Characters
Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia

Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic

Noncellulosic
Present Present
Cell wall (Polysaccharide + Present in some Absent
(with chitin) (cellulose)
amino acid
Nuclear
Absent Present Present Present Present
membrane
Body Multicellular/ Tissue/ Tissue/organ/
Cellular Cellular
organisation loose tissue organ organ system

Autotrophic
Heterotrophic Heterotrophic
(chemosynthetic, Autotrophic
Mode of Autotrophic (Holozoic/
photosynthetic) and (Photosynthetic (Saprophytic
nutrition (Photosynthetic) Saprophytic
Heterotrophic and Heterotrophic) /Parasitic) etc.)
(saprophytic/parasitic

Note :
 In five kingdom classification viruses, viroids, prions and lichens are not mentioned.
 According to five kingdom classification. Chlamydomonas and Chlorella are placed in
kingdom Protista.

Carl Woese
Organisms

3 Domains On the basis of sequence of r-RNA

Bacteria Archaea Eukarya

Kingdom Kingdom Kingdom
Eubacteria Archaebacteria
Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia

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Bacteria are the sole members

Most abundant
micro-organisms
Kingdom Monera Structure is very simple
(Prokaryotes) complex in behaviour
Live in extreme habitats
cosmopolitan habitats
Example of prokaryotes
(A) Eubacteria (True bacteria)
(B) Cyanobacteria
(C) Archaebacteria
(D) Mycoplasma

Eubacteria
"True bacteria"

Shape of bacteria

Cocci Bacilli Vibrio Spirilla

Spherical Rod shaped Comma shaped Spiral shaped

Spore Flagellum

Structure of Eubacteria cell

• Membrane infolding or membrane extension

Tough and Thick Capsule • In form of lamella, tubular or vesicle
(Provide shape and Selectively permeable
Prevent collapsing (interact with outer • Increase surface area and enzymatic content
Loose Slime layer • Helps in cell wall formation, DNA replication & distribution
and bursting of cell) world)
Glycocalyx • Respiration & secretion

Cell wall Cell membrane Mesosome

Membrane bound cell
Filament Cytoplasm organelles are absent
Flagella

Inclusions body Glycogen granule

Hook
• Not bound by Phosphate granule
Basal body any membrane
• Lie freely in cytoplasm Gas vacuole
Pili (present in BGA
and purple and
Elongated tube Genomic or green bacteria)
like structure. Plasmid Nucleoid
Help in genetic chromosomal
recombination Ribosome 70s • Extra chromosomal ds, DNA (double
Polysome or circular DNA stranded, circular
Fimbriae • Provide extra phenotypic naked), histone
polyribosome
characters protein absent
Bristle like fibres, helps in • Used to monitor genetic
attachment to rocks and host tissue transformation

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Staning of bacteria : H.C. Gram
Method : First step → Stained with crystal violet → then KI solution → washed with Acetone/Ethyl alcohol.

Bacteria which retain stain Bacteria which

(violet or purple) = Gram (+) decolourise = Gram (–)

Nutrition in bacteria Respiration

Most extensive metabolic diversity
Aerobic Anaerobic
bacteria bacteria
Autotrophs Heterotrophs Symbiotic Acetobacter Lactobacillus
bacteria aceti (causes
e.g. Rhizobium (it cases souring of
Photosynthetic Chemosynthetic Saprotrophic Parasitic souring of milk)
Autotrophs Autotrophs bacteria bacteria wine)
e.g. Chromatium e.g. Nitrifying e.g. Clostridium e.g. Mycobacterium
Chlorobium bacteria botulinum tuberculosis
Rhodospirillum

Reproduction

Asexual F-factor Genetic

reproduction
+
F cell Main DNA recombination
Conjugation tube +
F cell
Binary fission By endospore
(Mainly) (Unfavourable
conditions)

–
– Copy of F-factor transferred to F
F cell +
F cell
F cells becomes F as it obtains copy of F factor
– +

CONJUGATION BETWEEN F AND F

+ –

Fresh water (mostly) Photosynthetic

marine water and prokaryotes First organism that produced
terrestrial algae O2 on our earth

Thylakoids or chromatophores
Unicellular, colonial Cyanobacteria
Photosynthetic pigment are present
filamentous form (Blue green algae) Chl-a = green → Similar to green plants

Inclusion bodies
Fix atmospheric N2
Colonies ↓
Cyanophycean Gas surrounded by Specialised cells = Heterocyst
granules vacuoles gelatinous sheath e.g. Nostoc & Anabaena
Form blooms in
polluted water bodies

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Group of  Found : Harsh/

ancient bacteria Adverse conditions
Oldest living fossils  Having different cell
wall structure
 Responsible for
Mostly anaerobes Archaebacteria survival in extreme
habitats
Cell wall is made up of
complex polysaccharide
Halophiles Methanogens Thermo
and complex polypeptide
Highly saline Rumen or gut of acidophiles
areas several ruminants Hot sulphur
Consist of monolayer of animals – Production springs
branched chain lipids of methane gas

Smallest living cells

Completely lack Survive without
cell wall oxygen
Mycoplasma
Resistant to antibiotics like
Osmotrophic mode penicillin
of nutrition
Sensitive to tetracycline
Pathogenic in and chloramphenicol
animals and plants

Single celled (Unicellular)

Primary eukaryotes
aquatic Boundary are
not well defined
Form a link with the other
dealing with plants, animals
Protista Membrane bound cell
and fungi
organelle – Present
Some have Contains a well
flagella and cilia defined nucleus
Asexual reproduction by
binary fission and spore formation Sexual reproduction by cell
fusion and zygote formation

Life cycle of Protist

Adult
n

n n Gametes
2n Adult n n Gametes
Diplontic life cycle Fertilization Haplontic life cycle
Fertilization
2n Zygote
2n Zygote

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Protista

Dinoflagellates Chyrosphytes Euglenoids Slime Moulds Protozoans

Transverse Longitudinal

Mainly marine and Protists with Cell wall divided

photosynthetic two flagella into stiff plates

Movement like
Pigment present whirling whips
in their cells Dinoflagellates
Red tide – Rapid multiplication &
Autotrophic
spreads on the surface of sea water
Starch as
stored food Pigment present
Dinoflagellate (Chl-a, Chl-c, Xanthophylls)

Reproduction :
Mainly asexual – Binary fission Bioluminescence Responsible Toxin release by
night algae/fire algae for water bloom kill other marine
(Noctiluca, Gonyaulax) (Gonyaulax) animals – fishes
(Gymnodinium &
Gonyaulax)

In diatoms the cell wall form two

Fresh water and Pearls of ocean thin overlapping shells, made up of
marine water cellulose embedded with silica
which fit together as in a soap box.

Accumulation over billions of Chrysophytes

years is referred as diatomaceous Chief producers
(Diatoms,
earth or keiselgurh in the ocean
Desmids)
Leucosin (Chrysolaminarin)
& fats (Oil) as stored food
Filteration of Stone
oils and syrups polishing They float passively on the
Pigments - Chlorophyll 'a',
'c', and xanthophyll surface of water (Plankton)
Reproduction : Mainly
asexual – Binary fission (fucoxanthin)

Photosynthetic
Asexual reproduction by Stagnant fresh (Autotrophs) Heterotrophs
longitudinal binary fission water (mainly)
Presence Deprived
Have a contractile vacuole of sun light of sun light
help in osmoregulation
Euglenoids Mixotrophic nutrition
Cell wall is absent
Instead of a cell wall, they Two flagella
Euglena have protein rich layer pellicle
One long One short
Pigments Chl. 'a', Chl. 'b' and xanthophyll (active) (inactive)
(Zeaxanthin) – These pigments are
identical to higher plants Stored food (Paramylum and fat)

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False fungi
 In favourable condition
↓
Plasmodium
Found on Slime
decaying twigs and Moulds  In unfavourable condition
leaves engulfing
↓
organic material
Fruiting body
Slime Mould
Spores posses true walls

Primitive relatives
of animals

Heterotrophs
Protozoans Live as predators
or parasites
Paramoecium

Amoeboid Flagellated Cilliated Sporozoans

fresh water, sea Free living or Aquatic Includes diverse organism
water or moist soil parasitic e.g. Paramoecium that have an infectious
e.g. Entamoeba e.g. Trypanosoma spore-like stage
e.g. Plasmodium
(Malaria parasite)

Grow in warm Cell wall :

Cosmopolitan and humid place Chitin and
nature
polysaccharide
Unique kingdom of heterotrophs
Fungi Body : Mycelium
— Parasitic : Albugo
— Saprophytic : Mucor, mushroom
— Symbiotic : Lichen, Mycorrhiza Aseptate Branched and septate
coenocytic Uni or Binucleate
Reproduction
e.g. Phycomycetes e.g. Ascomycetes
Basidiomycetes
Deuteromycetes
Vegetative Asexual Sexual
Fragmentation, Sporangiospores (Endogenous) Isogamous,
Budding & binary Conidium (Exogenous) Aniosgamus,
fission (Yeast) Oogamous

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Mycelium In Phycomycetes the fusion of two haploid cells

immediately result in diploid cells (2n)
In Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes, an intervening
n n dikaryotic stage (n + n, i.e., two nuclei per cell)
Germination Plasmogamy
Fungi on the basis of morphology of mycelium, mode
of spore formation and fruiting bodies
n+n
n n n n Phycomycetes
Spores Dikaryon
Ascomycetes
Karyogamy
Basidiomycetes
Meiosis
Deuteromycetes
2n

Synkaryon/Zygote

Class → Phycomycetes Ascomycetes Basidiomycetes Deuteromycetes

Characters ↓ (Algal fungi) (Sac fungi) (Club fungi) (Imperfect fungi)
Habitat Aquatic (some), decaying Saprophytic, parasitic, Grow in soil, on Some are
wood, moist and damp decomposer, wooden logs, tree saprophyte and
places, some are obligate coprophilous stump and parasite parasite, mostly
parasite on plants decomposer
Mycelium Branched, aseptate, Branched septate. Branched and Branched and
coenocytic (multinucleate) Exceptionally in yeast : septate septate
Unicellular/
non-mycelial
Vegetative By fragmentation By fragmentation By fragmentation By fragmentation
reproduction yeast : fission &
budding
Asexual Sporangiospore Conidium (Exogenous) Usually asexual Conidium
reproduction (Endogenous) spores are not
(Exogenous)
 Motile : zoospore formed
 Non motile : Aplanospore

Sexual Iso, aniso and oogamous Fusion of somatic cell Fusion of somatic
reproduction or gametangia cell of hyphae of
different strain or
genotype
Meiosis Occurs in zygospore and Occurs in ascus inside Occurs in basidium
oospore ascocarp inside basidiocarp
Sexual Zygospore (2n) and Ascospore (n), Basidiospore (n)
spore oospore (2n) Endogenous Exogenous Sexual reproduction
Fruiting Ascocarp Basidiocarp is not discovered yet
body or absent
Diagram

Mucor
Aspergillus Agaricus

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Example Mucor Aspergillus Mushroom, puffball, Alternaria,
Rhizopus (Bread mould) Claviceps bracket fungi, Colletotrichum,
Albugo : White spot or rust Neurospora Agaricus Trichoderma
on mustard (Biochemical & (mushroom),
genetical work) Ustilago (smut),
Morels & Truffles: Puccinia (Rust)
Edible,
Yeast

M.W. Beijerinek → Poisonous fluid/

Contagium vivum fluidum Venom/Secretion
(Infectious living fluid) Non cellular
W.M. Stanley → Crystallization of virus Obligate intracellular
Contain nucleic acid Capable of protein synthesis parasite
Virus Inert out side
Viral disease :
their specific host
AIDS, Influenza, Mumps, Herpes, Small pox
Shape
Spherical – Influenza virus
Animal virus – dsDNA Rod shaped – TMV
Plant virus – ssRNA Tadpole like – Bacteriophage
Bacteriophage – dsDNA Symptoms of viral disease in plants
↓
Mosaic formation, leaf rolling &
curling, yellowing, vein clearing,
Rod shaped Tadpole like Dwarfing and stunted growth

VIROIDS (Free infections RNA)

 T.O. Diener (1971)

 Contain only very low molecular weight RNA (ss RNA), protein coat is absent.
 Viroids cause Potato spindle tuber disease.

PRIONS or Slow viruses (Smallest proteinaceous infectious agent) :

 Abnormally folded
 Diseases caused by prions are Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) commonly called mad cow
disease in cattle and its analogous variant Cr-Jacob disease (CJD) in humans.

Pollution indicator Example of symbiosis

Lichens
between algae and fungi

Pioneer species
during process of Phycobiont Mycobiont
succession on rocks Synthesis of Provide shelter and absorption
food of mineral and water

Mycorrhiza
Symbiotic association between roots of higher plants and fungus.

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