RELC

New Portfolio
Series 3

Series Editors
Marie A. Yeo & Jack C. Richards

PLANNING A LANGUAGE COURSE:

Principles and Procedures

Jack C. Richards
New Portfolio Series
Series Editors: Marie A. Yeo and Jack C. Richards

Copyright © 2018 SEAMEO Regional Language Centre

30 Orange Grove Road
Singapore 258352
Website: [Link]

Published by
SEAMEO Regional Language Centre
30 Orange Grove Road
Singapore 258352

Tel: (65) 6885 7822

Fax: (65) 6734 2753
E-mail: enquiries@[Link]

First published in 2018

Second printing in 2020

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in
any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior
written permission of the Publishers and SEAMEO Regional
Language Centre.

ISBN 978-981-11-8867-1

Printed by Ho Printing Singapore Pte Ltd

ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Series Editors’ Preface v

Introduction vi

1. The nature of course design 1

2. The learners and their needs 8

3. Planning the aims and outcomes of a language course 22

4. Developing the course syllabus 35

5. From syllabus to course design 53

6. Evaluating a language course 66

References 72

iii
Other titles in the RELC Portfolio Series

New Portfolio Series

1. Using TED Talks in the Classroom by Averil Coxhead
2. Researching Your Teaching and Learning Context by Neil England
3. Planning a Language Course: Principles and Procedures by Jack C Richards
4. Using Portfolios in Language Learning by Ricky Lam
5. Professional Development for Language Teachers: From Teacher to Trainer by
Marie Yeo & Marilyn Lewis
6. Writing with Young English Language Learners by Benjamin L Moorhouse
7. Doing Project-Based Learning in Language Education by Christoph A Hafner
8. Teaching Content in English: Principles and Pedagogy by Lindsay Miller

First Portfolio Series

1. Giving Feedback in Language Classes by Marilyn Lewis
2. Managing Vocabulary Learning by Paul Nation
3. The Reflective Teacher: A Guide to Classroom Research by Sandra Lee McKay
4. Teaching Listening in the Language Classroom by Christine C M Goh
5. Planning Aims and Objectives in Language Programs by Jack C Richards
6. Planning Lessons for a Reading Class by Thomas S C Farrell
7. Intervening to Help in the Writing Process by Antonia Chandrasegaran
8. Action Research in Action by Gregory Hadley
9. Teaching Pronunciation: Why, What, When and How by Gloria Poedjosoedarmo
10. Text Features and Reading Comprehension by Mary Lee Field
11. Developing Language Course Marterials by Brian Tomlinson and Hitomi
Masuhara
12. Learner Strategies: A Guide for Teachers by Sara Cotterall and Hayo Reinders
13. Communicative Language Teaching Today by Jack C Richards
14. Cooperative Learning in the Language Classroom by George M Jacobs and
Christine C M Goh
15. Teaching Speaking in the Language Classroom by Christine C M Goh
16. Teaching Listening and Speaking: From Theory to Practice by Jack C Richards
17. Teaching Writing by Marilyn Lewis

iv
SERIES EDITORS’ PREFACE

The RELC New Portfolio Series aims to provide “how to” booklets for teachers
and teacher trainers focusing on principles, procedures, activities, examples
and application tasks.

The booklets assume no prior knowledge of the topic on the part of the
reader. They are informed by the latest research and best practice and will
equip readers with practical knowledge and skills they can apply in their own
teaching situations.

These booklets can be used as a basis for workshops and in-service courses, as
course readings in face-to-face or blended courses or for independent study.
The inclusion of key theoretical perspectives combined with practical advice
from the author(s) and hands-on tasks, all presented in a reader-friendly style,
make the booklets a valuable resource for TESOL scholars, teachers, teacher
trainers and researchers.

We would like to thank those who have contributed to the RELC New Portfolio
Series. We are pleased to be able to offer these booklets at an affordable price to
benefit language teachers and trainers in our region and beyond. All proceeds
from sales of the series go towards scholarships for language teachers in the
SEAMEO region.

Marie A. Yeo
Jack C. Richards

v
INTRODUCTION

The booklet aims to provide teachers with a practical overview of issues

involved in developing language courses. The topics covered include the
nature of a language curriculum, approaches to designing a language course,
determining learners’ needs, developing course goals and learning outcomes,
choosing a syllabus and course design, and evaluating a course. In Chapter 1,
Jack Richards introduces the scope of this booklet as well as some of the key
terms and processes that characterise the planning of language programmes
and courses. This is followed by an examination of procedures that can be
used to determine the type of language skills learners may need to develop,
particularly in relation to their specific goals and purposes for learning
English. Chapter 3 then shows how the information gathered from a needs
analysis can be used to develop descriptions of the goals and learning
outcomes of a language course. Chapter 4 addresses different kinds of syllabus
frameworks that can be used to develop a course. Different approaches to
syllabus design are seen to reflect different understanding of the nature of
language learning and language proficiency. The next chapter examines the
factors that are involved in choosing, designing, and adapting materials
and content to form the basis of a course. In the final chapter, the focus is on
the issues and processes involved in evaluating the effectiveness of a course.
These include ways of fine-tuning a course as it is taught as well as
procedures that can be used to review the effectiveness of a course after it
has been taught. Throughout the booklet, discussion questions and
application tasks help readers better understand the nature of the
knowledge and skills required to plan a language course. These skills will
better prepare teachers to develop the kinds of courses that best meet the needs
of their students.

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 New Portfolio Series 3: Planning a Language Course: Principles and Procedures

1 THE NATURE OF COURSE DESIGN

CHAPTER SYNOPSIS

This chapter introduces the scope of this booklet as well

as some of the key terms and phrases that characterise the
planning of language programmes and courses.

The nature of course design

The growing demand for English courses for today’s learners requires schools
and institutions to regularly update and revise their existing courses, as well as
to develop new courses to cater to different groups of learners. In many
countries today, apart from providing general English courses, schools
and institutions are required to develop specialised courses for learners
needing English for occupational as well as educational purposes.
Depending on the context, these may include courses such as the following:

• English for tour guides

• English for hotel and restaurant employees
• English for sales employees
• English for factory workers
• English for health science majors
• English for nurses
• English for bank employees
• English for business communication

Often, suitable published materials may not be available as the basis for inter-

*For a fuller discussion of the issues discussed in this and other chapters of this booklet, please
see my book, Richards, Jack C. (2018). Curriculum Development in Language Teaching (2nd
edition). Cambridge University Press.

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1 | The Nature of Course Design

national markets and may not fit the needs of teachers and learners in local
teaching contexts. Consequently, teachers may be given the responsibility of
developing the course outlines and teaching materials that are needed or
adapting published courses to suit the needs of their teaching contexts.
However, while English teachers in the region typically have been well-
prepared to deal with the day-to-day demands of regular classroom-based
teaching, they may be less familiar with the principles and processes involved
in course design. The goal of this Portfolio is to introduce and illustrate some
of the core issues involved in course design for language courses.

Task 1.1

•
•

•
•
•

Course design and curriculum development

Course design is one aspect of a broader field of educational planning

known as curriculum studies or curriculum development. Curriculum
development deals with the planning and implementation of educational
policies, and it includes the study of language policies, national educational
goals, educational systems, instructional design, programme design, testing,
and evaluation. Course design is that field within curriculum studies that
deals with deciding what to teach, how to organise the contents of a course
most effectively as a basis for teaching and learning, and how to evaluate the
success of the resulting language course or programme. These issues will be
the focus of this Portfolio. We will examine the following aspects of course
design, particularly when developing a course intended for learners with

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 New Portfolio Series 3: Planning a Language Course: Principles and Procedures

specific language needs:

• the learners and their needs

• the context for the course
• the learning outcomes
• the syllabus framework
• the course pedagogy
• materials and resources
• implementing the course
• evaluating the course

Task 1.2

assessment, blended learning, competency, Common European Framework

of Reference (CEFR), communicative competence curriculum, English as a
second language, English as a foreign language, English for specific
purposes, goal, objective, proficiency, syllabus, task, test

Course planning (also known as syllabus design is a well-developed field

within language teaching and applied linguistics. It draws on procedures that
have been developed in other areas of educational planning. However, it also
involves issues and processes that are specific to the design of language
courses. Decisions about the goals and practices of language teaching often
reflect two parallel influences. One influence is from within the language-
teaching profession itself (or
from “applied linguistics” as it is sometimes known), and the other is from
the world beyond academia and applied linguistics. Let us consider these two
parallel sources of influence – internal and external – on course design
approaches and practices.

3
1 | The Nature of Course Design

Many innovations in language teaching arise from within the field of

language teaching. New theories emerge from research as ideas change about
the nature of second language learning or as earlier understandings are revised
or modified. Based on theory as well as research, language teaching specialists
have developed a number of assumptions and principles that serve as one
source for reviewing approaches to language course design and
implementation.

For example, Ellis (2011) proposed ten principles derived from second
language research as a basis for designing instructed language teaching, i.e.,
teaching that depends on teachers, classrooms and that often makes use of
specially designed teaching materials.

1. Instruction needs to ensure that learners develop both a rich

repertoire of formulaic expressions and a rule-based competence.
2. Instruction needs to ensure that learners focus predominantly on
meaning.
3. Instruction needs to ensure that learners also focus on form.
4. Instruction needs to be predominantly directed at developing implicit
knowledge of the second language while not neglecting explicit
knowledge.
5. Instruction needs to take into account the learner’s built-in syllabus.
6. Successful instructed language learning requires extensive second
language input.
7. Successful instructed language learning also requires opportunities for
output.
8. The opportunity to interact in the second language is central to
developing L2 proficiency.

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 New Portfolio Series 3: Planning a Language Course: Principles and Procedures

9. Instruction needs to take account of individual differences in learners.

10. In assessing learners’ second language proficiency, it is important to
examine free as well as controlled production.

Principles such as these have influenced many current approaches to

language teaching. Thus, classroom activities typically have some of the
following characteristics:
• They seek to develop students’ communicative competence
through linking grammatical development to the ability to
communicate. Hence, grammar is not taught in isolation but
often arises out of a communicative task, thus creating a need for
specific items of grammar. Students might carry out a task and
then reflect on some of the linguistic characteristics of their
performance.
• They create the need for communication, interaction, and
negotiation of meaning through the use of activities such as
problem solving, information sharing, and role play, as well
as through opportunities provided by technology and the
Internet.
• They provide opportunities for both inductive and deductive
learning of grammar.
• They make use of content that connects to students’ lives and
interests.
• They allow students to personalize learning by applying what they
have learned to their own lives.
• They make use of authentic texts from both print sources and the
Internet to create interest and to provide valid examples of
language use.

5
1 | The Nature of Course Design

Task 1.5

The other source of influence on curriculum planning and course design

comes from outside the field of language teaching itself and often reflects
government policies and educational changes in ministries of education.
Schools and institutions are constantly expected to produce better results
from their language programs. Proficiency in English is not a luxury but a
necessity in many countries, and growing demand for competency in English
puts pressure on those responsible for designing more effective language-
teaching programs. Many countries see English as important to their
economic development. Countries with few proficient English language
speakers are reported also to have lower levels of trade, innovation, and
income.

Large business organisations are also increasingly multinational in their

operations, and English is often the most frequent language used for both
written and spoken communication within such organisations. Many of the
world’s English-language learners require knowledge of English in order to
enter the workforce in their countries and to advance professionally.
Moreover, in many parts of the world where English has traditionally had
the status of a school subject, it is now becoming a medium of instruction,
particularly at university level.

From these pressures a number of demands emerge that need to be addressed

when designing language curricula and courses. Among the requirements of
curriculum development from this perspective, a number of principles
emerge:

• Outcomes that can be delivered efficiently and in the minimum

amount of time
• Use of language to access content and information

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 New Portfolio Series 3: Planning a Language Course: Principles and Procedures

• Delivery to large numbers of learners, both face-to-face and

distant
• Material that can be delivered in self-access mode
• Use of technology and the Internet
• Context and situation-specific learning
• Learners’ ability to self-manage their own learning
• Focus on domain-specific language use
• Development of skills needed to access authentic materials
• Development of problem-solving and critical thinking skills
• Outcomes that are performance based
• Assessment linked to task performance

The challenge for many teachers, therefore, is to develop language programs

that respond to the practical demands for proficiency in English but are also
informed by current research, theory, and best practice. Understanding the
nature of curriculum is central to this process. In this Portfolio, we will
review the different ways in which a language course is developed.

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2 | The Learners and Their Needs

2 THE LEARNERS AND THEIR NEEDS

CHAPTER SYNOPSIS

This chapter examines procedures that can be used to

determine the type of language skills learners may need to
develop, particularly in relation to their specific goals and
purposes for learning English.

We can distinguish two kinds of language courses: general course and courses
for learners with specific needs. Many learners commence their learning of
English by studying from a general English course that seeks to provide a
foundation in English, with particular attention to grammar and the four
skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing). The assumption behind
courses such as these is that the learners may not yet have specific needs for
particular skills in English. The course provides an introduction to English
that they can build on and develop further depending on whether they go on
to learn English for education, work, or travel. Many of the world’s most
widely-used courses, such as Headway and Interchange, are courses of this
kind. So too are courses provided in public schools at primary or secondary
level in countries where English has the status of a “foreign language” (i.e.,
countries where English is taught as a subject in schools but is not widely
used outside of the classroom for social as well as occupational
communication). Courses such as these are often developed by major
international educational publishers, or, in the case of school courses, by
units within the ministry of education. In this Portfolio, we will not consider
the development of general English courses but will focus on courses for
learners with specific learning needs.

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 New Portfolio Series 3: Planning a Language Course: Principles and Procedures

Courses for learners with specific needs

In designing general English courses such as those referred to above,

planning normally starts with identifying the level of language proficiency the
course is aimed at (e.g., basic, intermediate, advanced), and then identifying
the core language elements needed to develop general communicative skills at
this level. This normally results in a syllabus that lists the essential vocabulary
and grammar as well as the basic listening, speaking, reading, and writing
skills which are needed at that level. Developing lists of this kind is an aspect
of the field of syllabus design and has resulted in lists such as lists of the first
500 words needed in learning English, the next 1000 words, and so on as
well as identifying the essential elements of grammar needed as a basis for
what has been called “English for no obvious purpose”. (The resulting
grammar syllabus has often come to be known as structural syllabus).
General English courses such as those used in public education in countries
where English is a “foreign language” often seek to teach a total of around
4000 words as well as a repertoire of grammar structures arranged according
to levels. The assumption underlying the development of general English
courses is that such courses provide an essential foundation in English, one
that is not significantly dependent upon who or where the learners are. As a
result, there are a number of general or universal syllabuses of this kind that
are widely used as a basis for developing textbooks or general English
language programs, such as the Council of Europe's Threshold Level
Syllabus .

9
2 | The Learners and Their Needs

A very different process is involved in developing courses for learners with

specific needs. In this case, the first step involves developing a profile of who
the learners are and finding out the kinds of skills in English they need to
acquire. In order to get information of this kind, a wide variety of sources of
information may be needed. Collecting information of this kind is known as
needs analysis, and procedures for carrying out a needs analysis will be
discussed below. The following questions are often the focus of needs
analysis.

Who is the course intended for?

Is it a course for young learners, teenagers, or adults? What is their back-

ground? What do you know about them? Do they form a homogeneous
group (i.e., one where the learners have similar or the same age,
educational, cultural, linguistic, or social background) or are they a
heterogeneous group consisting of learners with very different backgrounds,
experience, and skills?

What needs do they have for English?

In what situations will the learners use English in the future? Are their needs
immediate or longer term? Are they social, occupational, or school related?
Will they need to improve their learning of all four skills, or do they need to
develop their ability in a particular skill, such as reading or academic writing?
Are they learning English in order to pass an important test in the future?

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 New Portfolio Series 3: Planning a Language Course: Principles and Procedures

What is their current level of proficiency in English?

Do you know if their proficiency level in English at present is basic,

inter-mediate, or advanced? Where would they be placed on the CEFR
or a similar proficiency scale? Does their ability differ according to
particular skills? For example, are they better at reading than speaking? Are
they of a similar proficiency level? Is any information available about
their performance on international or other tests?

What difficulties do they experience in learning English?

Does the target learning group have any particular difficulties in

learning English, such as difficulties with a particular skill area or with
grammar, pronunciation, or any other aspect of language?

What is their previous experience in learning English?

Where have they studied English in the past? For how long, under what
circumstances, and how successfully?

What are the learners’ goals in learning English?

Have they chosen to take this course or has it been chosen for them? Do they

11
2 | The Learners and Their Needs

have specific personal goals that can be identified? For example, is it a

requirement for a job or for travel purposes? Are they highly motivated to
learn? How much time are they able to commit to learning English?

Procedures for carrying out needs analysis

In planning a needs analysis, decisions have to be made concerning who we

will get the information we need from, where we can also obtain useful
information, and how we will obtain the necessary information. The person
or persons we obtain information from is known as the target population.
For example, if we are designing a course for restaurant staff, we might talk to
future or current restaurant staff, the restaurant manager, or to restaurant
customers. The different people who have an interest in the results of a needs
analysis are known as stakeholders, and each of these may have different
purposes in mind for a needs analysis. For example, when a needs analysis of
restaurant employees is conducted, the purposes might be:
• to determine current levels of language proficiency of employees;
• to determine how many employees are in need of the language
training;
• to identify the restaurant owner’s and management staff’s
perception of language problems employees have on the job;
• to identify employees’ perceptions of language difficulties they face
on the job;
• to identify employees’ perceptions of language difficulties they face
on the job;
• to ascertain the types of transactions employees typically perform
in English;
• to determine the language characteristics of those transactions; and

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 New Portfolio Series 3: Planning a Language Course: Principles and Procedures

• to assess the extent to which employees’ needs are met by currently

available programs and textbooks

Task 2.7

Needs analysis activities

There are many different ways of carrying out a needs analysis, and the
activities that you choose will depend on the type of course you are planning
as well as the time and resources that are available. Usually, several different
activities are used since relying on just one source of information may
produce unreliable or incomplete information. The following are activities
that can be used.

Analysis of available information

Often, useful information is available in books or on the internet related

to the situation you are involved with, so this is a good place to start. Are
there books and articles you can consult as well as course-books that have
already been produced for similar situations?

Expert advice

Where possible, you may be able to talk to people who have expertise or
experience in the situation you are planning for. These may be teachers,
employers, or learners with advanced skills in the area.

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2 | The Learners and Their Needs

Questionnaires

Questionnaires are perhaps the most common ways of gathering information

efficiently. However, they need to be well designed to make sure that they
will provide information that can be used in course design. Ting (2010)
provides an example of how questionnaires were used in designing a course
for airport information desk staff. The author reported that four copies of
the questionnaire were piloted and 40 copies of the final Chinese translation
of the questionnaire were placed on different information desks at Beijing
Capital International Airport. The questionnaires were left there to be
completed over a three-week period to collect responses from both the day
and night shift staff, resulting in a full response rate. The reason for using a
Chinese translation was to avoid misunderstanding of the questions, an issue
that had emerged during piloting. (A copy of the questionnaire can be found
in Ting 2020, pp. 17-20).

Self -ratings

A self-rating requires people to rate their ability in a particular aspect of

language use. For example, how would you rate your ability in the following
areas: "Excellent," "Very Good," "Good," "Fair," or "Weak?"
• writing academic essays
• reading newspaper articles
• taking part in a formal debate
• giving a speech in public

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 New Portfolio Series 3: Planning a Language Course: Principles and Procedures

Learner diaries and journals

Sometimes it may be possible to have learners write about experiences that

could be useful in course planning. For example, in planning a course for
nurses it would be useful to have a group of learners keep a daily diary in
which they write situations they dealt with during the course of a day.

Interviews and meetings

Interviews or meetings can also often provide useful information. For

example, if planning a course in business communication skills for office
workers, interviews or a meeting with office workers could generate a lot of
information that might complement information obtained from a
questionnaire.

Task 2.9

Observation

Sometimes, it may be possible to observe learners or others in their workplace.

If you were able to observe people in the situations below, what kind of

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2 | The Learners and Their Needs

Collecting learner language samples

A lot can often be learned by collecting examples of the kind of language a

group of learners might be required to produce or understand. For example,
these could be examples of student essays when preparing a course on essay
writing, a video recording of a learner in a job interview situation, a recording
of a driving instructor giving a driving lesson, or examples of short lectures
taken from the Internet when preparing a course on listening to lectures.

Task analysis

When developing courses in English for occupational purposes, it will be

useful to identify the kinds of tasks or activities the learner will have to
perform in English. For example, a restaurant employee might typically have
to carry out the following tasks when serving in a restaurant:
• greet the customers
• show them to a table
• offer them water
• give the customer a menu
• explain the specials
• answer questions about the menu
• take the customer’s order
• bring the orders to the customers

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 New Portfolio Series 3: Planning a Language Course: Principles and Procedures

When using task analysis as part of a needs analysis, learners may also be
asked to describe which tasks they find most difficult to manage and to give
examples of situations where they did not manage to carry out a task
successfully.

Beyond language needs

The procedures described above focus on the learners’ language and

communicative needs. However, other factors are also important in planning
a language course since no two groups of learners are necessarily very similar.
Learners approach learning a language with assumptions, beliefs, and
preferences about how to learn and what works best for them and collecting
information of this kind can also be a focus of needs analysis. In this case,
you may want to seek answers to questions such as these:
• what aspects of English learning they enjoy most and least, such
as reading, listening, video viewing;
• what their preferences are for different kinds of for classroom
learning activities, such as dictation, songs, games, drills, dialogs,
role plays;
• what their interests are and the kinds of topics and content they
would like to focus on;
• what their preferences are for learning arrangements, such as
whole-class teaching, group work, or individual work; and
• what their views and beliefs are about such issues as the
importance of grammar, vocabulary, error correction, fluency
activities, group work.

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2 | The Learners and Their Needs

While some students enjoy games and role plays, others may prefer more
structured activities that focus on the mastery of specific grammatical points.
Some students may like the teacher to correct any mistakes in their
pronunciation, while others may feel pronunciation is less important than
fluency. Some students may feel more comfortable when the teacher is
engaging in whole-class teaching, while others may prefer group-based
learning. Some students may prefer learning from technology and media-
based resources to learning from books and other print-based materials.

Task 2.13

Using information from a needs analysis

The results of a needs analysis will generally consist of information taken

from several different sources and summarized in the form of ranked lists of
different kinds, such as the following:

• situations in which English is frequently used

• situations in which difficulties are encountered
• differences between the learners’ current proficiency level and
the desired target level
• comments most often made by people on learners’ performance
• frequencies with which different transactions are carried out
• perceived difficulties with different aspects of language use
• preferences for different kinds of activities in teaching
• frequencies of errors made in different types of situations or
activities
• common communication problems in different situations
• suggestions and opinions about different aspects of learners’
problems

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 New Portfolio Series 3: Planning a Language Course: Principles and Procedures

• frequencies of linguistic items or units in different texts or

situations

This information serves as input to the next stage in the process of

curriculum design – the planning of the goals, objectives, and learning
outcomes of a course.

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2 | The Learners and Their Needs

Case study: designing a syllabus for a course on English for nurses

This sample English for nurses syllabus was designed for a UK-based
hospital group which employs a large number of overseas nurses in its
London hospitals. Our Medical English trainer taught lessons onsite at
the hospital. The classes consisted of 2 groups of 10 international nurses,
primarily from Spain, Italy and Portugal.

Course content was determined by detailed pre-course Needs Analysis,

both at organisational and participant level. This was accompanied by an
online English language level assessment for each nurse. The hospital was
able to provide input on the more technical areas of language, so ensuring
that the syllabus met the specific needs of the nurses. This meant that the
trainer was able to prepare the course in detail beforehand, selecting a
range of materials and class activities to match the content. As a result,
classes were able to hit the ground running, with meaningful progress
being made from the first lesson.

The syllabus was a mix of scenario-specific language with both patients

– e.g., taking obs, administering drugs, dealing with upset patients, and
preparing for an operation – and other members of staff – e.g., giving a
handover, handing phone calls, or describing a near miss.

The topics below are some of the units covered:

– patient admission
– asking for and describing symptoms
– people and places in the hospital
– using plain English with patients
– describing common hospital procedures
– key patient interactions
– understanding and completing charts and documents

The course lasted 40 hours, and was delivered in weekly 2-hour

sessions over a 20-week period.

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 New Portfolio Series 3: Planning a Language Course: Principles and Procedures

3 PLANNING THE AIMS AND

OUTCOMES OF A LANGUAGE
COURSE

CHAPTER SYNOPSIS

This chapter shows how the information gathered from a needs

analysis can be used to develop descriptions of the goals and
learning outcomes of a language course.

There are two ways to plan a language course. One way, which I remember
well as a young teacher, is to start with the course title, such as Reading Skills
for First Year Engineering Students and then to start a scramble to find
suitable materials to use for the course. Then at the end of the course, there
would be some sort of test to see what the students had learned. The
procedures that are the focus of this chapter are very different. They start
with identifying as precisely as possible, the knowledge and skills the students
should have acquired at the end of the course. Only after this has been done
does one turn to planning a syllabus and choosing suitable materials.
Statements of the knowledge and skills students will have acquired at the end
of a course are known as aims or goals, objectives, and learning outcomes.
These are based on the information collected during the needs analysis
process.

Questions such as these are used to start the planning process:

• What kind of English do the learners need to learn?
• Will they need to learn all four skills or focus on a particular skill
(such as reading)?
• For what purposes will they use English?
• In what situations will they learn it?
• What level should the program be based on; for example, should
it be targeted at a basic, lower intermediate, of intermediate level?

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3 | Planning the Aims and Outcomes of a Language Course

Answering these questions provides information that can be used to

determine the aims or goals the program seeks to deliver as well as the
specific outcomes that it intends to achieve. Only when these have been
established is it possible to make decisions about the content learners will
need to master in order to achieve the program goals, as well as decisions
about the teaching methods and resources that will be used. Developing
statements of aims and outcomes involves turning the information from the
needs analysis into a kind of map that describes both a destination as well as
the route that will be taken to reach it. This map is called a syllabus in some
parts of the world, and a curriculum in other places.

Determining the starting level and exit level.

As was noted above, in order to plan a course we need to know the level
at which it will start and the level that will be reached at the end of the
course. The difference between the starting or entry level and the exit or end
level is sometimes known as the training gap. This gap is what the course
seeks to address. The progression from entry to exit level in a course is also
often described in terms of bands, levels, stages, or grades and the number of
such stages will depend on the length of the course. In order to determine the
starting level a number of sources of information can be used. This includes
information from tests or other forms of assessment that may be available.
Before learners start a course, we need to know what their proficiency level in
English is at the start of the course. A test that is designed for this purpose is
known as a proficiency test. For courses designed to develop skills needed for
academic studies, information from international tests such as IELTS or
TOEFL may be available, or in other situations, performance on the
Cambridge English Language Assessment exams or the Cambridge
Certificates of English Language Skills. Many schools and institutions also
develop their own entry tests that might be specific to the kind of course that
is being developed. For example, if a course in English for Nursing is
planned, the test might include a vocabulary element (e.g. terms related to
illness, medications, treatment, etc.) as well as a speaking element based on
role-play scenarios between nurses and doctors, and nurses and patients. Tests

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 New Portfolio Series 3: Planning a Language Course: Principles and Procedures

of this kind may also be used to place students at the appropriate stage or
level in a course, i.e., they serve as a placement test .

Students’ levels are often described by referring to the band or level

descriptions or description of ability levels such as the Common European
Framework of Reference (CEFR), an international reference for describing
language ability.

In many countries, courses and tests are often referenced to the CEFR band
levels. These describe six levels of achievement divided into three broad
divisions from lowest (A1) to highest (C2) and which describe what a learner
should be able to do in reading, listening, speaking, and writing at each level.

• Basic user – A1, A2

• Independent user – B1, B2
• Proficient user - C1, C2

For example, the standards described for “conversation” in CEFR at levels

B1 to C2 are described as follows (Council of Europe 2001, 76):

Characteristics of conversation in the Common European Framework

C2 Can converse comfortably and appropriately, unhampered by any

linguistic limitations in conducting a full social and personal life.
C1 Can use language flexibly and effectively for social purposes, including
emotional, allusive and joking usage.
B2 Can engage in extended conversation on most general topics in a clearly
linguistic limitations in conducting a full social and personal life.

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3 | Planning the Aims and Outcomes of a Language Course

B2 Can use language flexibly and effectively for social purposes, including
emotional, allusive and joking usage.
Can engage in extended conversation on most general topics in a clearly
participatory fashion, even in a noisy environment.
Can sustain relationships with native speakers without unintentionally
amusing or irritating them or requiring them to behave other than they
would with a native speaker.
Can convey degrees of emotion and highlight the personal significance
of events and experiences.
B1 Can enter unprepared into conversations on familiar topics.
Can follow clearly articulated speech directed at him/her in everyday
conversations, though will sometimes have to ask for repetition of
particular words and phrases.
Can maintain a conversation or discussion but may sometimes be
difficult to follow when trying to say exactly what he/she would like to.
Can express and respond to feelings such as surprise, happiness, sadness,
interest and indifference.

From aims to objectives

In curriculum discussions, the termsgoal and aims are used interchangeably

to refer to a description of the general purposes of a curriculum, and
objectives refer to a more specific and concrete description of purposes. An
aim or goal refers to a statement of the general purpose of a program
while objectives refer to a more specific description of the aims of a course.
The following are examples of course aims:

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 New Portfolio Series 3: Planning a Language Course: Principles and Procedures

1. A primary school English course:

• To enable children to communicate effectively, in both speech
and writing, in everyday situations to meet the demands of
society;
• To help children acquire good reading habits to understand,
enjoy, and appreciate a wide range of texts, including the
literature of other cultures; and
• To develop children’s ability to express themselves imaginatively
and creatively.

2. A business English course:

• To develop basic communication skills for use in business contexts.

3. A course for hotel front desk staff:

• To develop the communication skills needed to answer and
respond appropriately to guest enquiries.

4. A course in study-skills for university students:

• To develop listening, reading, and note-taking skills needed for
academic purposes.

5. A course in English for tourism:

• To prepare students to communicate in English at a basic level for
purposes of travel and tourism.

6. A course in reading skills for first-year university students:

• To read authentic, non-specialist, nonfiction texts in English with
comprehension and at a reasonable speed.

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3 | Planning the Aims and Outcomes of a Language Course

Describing the course objectives

In order to develop a course, once the aims have been chosen, it is

then necessary to develop more specific statements of the purposes of the
course. These are often referred to as objectives. These have the following
purposes:
• They provide guidelines for teachers, learners, and materials
writers.
• They help provide a focus for instruction.
• They describe important and realizable changes in learning.

Objectives break aim statements into their different components. They

describe what the aim seeks to achieve in terms of smaller units of learning
and provide a basis for the organization of teaching activities. They also
describe learning in terms of observable behavior or performance.

The following objectives (adapted from Pratt 1980) from a short course on
English for travel and tourism designed to prepare students for travel in
English-speaking countries illustrate the relationship between aims and
objectives.

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 New Portfolio Series 3: Planning a Language Course: Principles and Procedures

Course title: English for Travel and Tourism

Aim
To prepare students to communicate in English at a basic level
for purposes of travel and tourism.

Objectives
The student:

1. will have a reading vocabulary of 300 common words and

abbreviations;
2. will have a listening vocabulary of 300 common words plus
numbers up to 100;
3. can understand simple written notices, signs, and menus;
4. can understand simple questions, statements, greetings, and
directions;
5. can get the gist of simple conversations in spoken English;
6. can pick out unfamiliar phrases from conversations and
repeat them for clarification;
7. can use in speech 200 common words plus numbers up to
100 for time, quantity, and price;
8. can use about 50 useful survival phrases, questions, requests,
greetings, statements, and responses;
9. can hold a bilingual conversation, speaking English slowly
and clearly in simple words;
10. can use and understand appropriate gestures;
11. will have the confidence to initiate conversations in English,
be unafraid of making mistakes, and attempt utterances out-
side his or her competence;
12. will be willing to learn from a native speaker’s correction of
his or her errors; and
13. will have a “success experience” of making himself or herself
understood in, and understand, a foreign language.

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3 | Planning the Aims and Outcomes of a Language Course

In preparing statements of objectives, it is necessary to identify the

knowledge and skills or competencies underlying the ability to engage in a
particular activity. The following is an example of the skills or competencies
relating to a course in listening to lectures:

Aim: To learn how to understand lectures given in English

Examples of some of the underlying skills and competencies are as follows:

o follow an argument, theme, or thesis of a lecture
o recognise the following aspects of a lecture:
• cause-and-effect relationships
• comparisons and contrasts
• premises used in persuasive arguments
• supporting details used in persuasive arguments
o follow lectures given in both formal and casual style

The following is an example of the skills and competencies underlying a

course in reading comprehension:
• deduce the meaning and use of unfamiliar items
• understand explicitly stated information
• understand information not explicitly stated
• understand conceptual meaning
• understand the communicative value of sentences
• understand relations within the sentence
• understand relations between parts of a text through cohesive devices
• recognise discourse markers
• identify the main point or key information

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 New Portfolio Series 3: Planning a Language Course: Principles and Procedures

• distinguish the main idea from supporting details

• extract relevant points selectively
• skim a text for gist
• scan a text for specific information

The following are sometimes described as skills needed for “reading to learn”
and are often used in the design of courses in reading for academic purposes:
• read to find facts and details.
• skim a text quickly for gist.
• read to obtain new ideas and information.
• read to connect information from different sources.
• read and understand a text as a preparation for writing, or
discussing a topic.
• respond critically to things one reads.
• read for main ideas.

As the examples above illustrate, it usually takes many different objectives to

realise a course aim since aims are very general statements of purposes and
too general to serve as a basis for detailed course planning. In order to
develop statements of objectives that reflect the aim of a course, it is
necessary to learn as much as possible about the kind of abilities that are
involved in the particular area or areas of language use which the course
addresses. This will require you to read as much as you can of the literature
and research related to the topic of the course. For example, if you are
preparing a listening course, you will need to clarify your understanding of
the nature of listening. Is it viewed largely as a process of decoding input? Is
it viewed in terms of the mastery of discrete listening skills and sub-skills? Or
is it viewed as a blend of top-down and bottom-up processing?

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3 | Planning the Aims and Outcomes of a Language Course

For a speaking course, likewise, a starting point is selecting an appropriate

theory or model of the nature of oral interaction. Will it be based on a model
of communicative competence and seek to address grammatical competence,
sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence, and strategic competence?
Or is oral communication viewed more in terms of speech act theory
focusing on utterances as functional units in communication and dependent
upon the performance of speech acts?

We can now consider the courses identified at the beginning of this portfolio
and look at hypothetical examples of objectives based on two of the courses.
The examples are hypothetical and illustrative since we have not carried out a
needs analysis in relation to any of these types of courses.

English for tour guides

Aim: To develop the knowledge and skills needed to serve as a tour guide
Sample objectives:
• greet and welcome clients
• handle hotel check in
• describe itineraries
• ask and answer clients’ questions

English for hotel restaurant employees

Aim: To develop the knowledge and skills needed by restaurant employees
Sample objectives:

• greet customers and direct them to a table

• offer the menu and describe daily specials
• explain items on the menu
• answer questions about the menu

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 New Portfolio Series 3: Planning a Language Course: Principles and Procedures

•
•

Here is an example of course objectives for a course in English for

Engineering ([Link]

Upon successful completion of the course, the students should be able to:

• expand their knowledge of language structure, use, and function,

specific to academic contexts
• utilise the knowledge of cohesive devices and decoding strategies to
understand the text
• approach and analyse advanced academic texts
• utilise the methods of gathering information to write an academic
paper
• evaluate and use in-print and online sources
• understand and avoid plagiarism by writing with an appropriate
use of citation and referencing style
• develop revising and editing skills to re-write papers in light of
feedback
• write a well-developed and relevant academic paper with appropriate
source documentation and format
• design an oral presentation based on their academic paper with a
coherent beginning, middle, and end
• deliver an oral presentation with the use of effective body language,
appropriate visual aids, and proper language patterns

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3 | Planning the Aims and Outcomes of a Language Course

Learning outcomes

Objectives and learning outcomes

While both aims and objectives describe purposes, it is sometimes useful to

identify the observable results of learning, that is, the kinds of performance
or language practices that the learner can demonstrate at the end of a unit of
learning. What can the learner actually do as a demonstration of what he
or she has learned? Statements of learning outcomes are hence examples of
the realisation of objectives expressed in the form of “can do” statements.
They provide examples of the kinds of thing the learner will be able to do at
the end of a course. For example:

Aim: Students will learn how to understand lectures given in English.

Objective: Students will be able to follow an argument, theme, or thesis
of a lecture, and write key points in note form.
Learning outcome: Students can watch a 10-minute TED Talk and write
the main points of the talk accurately in note form.

Here are further examples of objectives and learning outcomes that relate
to them:

Objective: Students will learn how to present information, ideas and

feelings clearly and coherently in spoken English.

Learning outcome: Students can present a 2-minute talk to the class,

describing an interesting thing that they did over the weekend and how
they felt about it.

Objective: Students will learn how to participate in social communication

with people and manage the opening and closing of short exchanges.

Learning outcome: Students can describe in five minutes, how to prepare

one of their favorite dishes, including the ingredients and equipment used
and the steps involved in making the dish.

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 New Portfolio Series 3: Planning a Language Course: Principles and Procedures

Task 3.7

Once the objectives and learning outcomes have been determined, a syllabus
can be planned that identifies how the objectives will be operationalised as a
coherent sequence of teaching elements. This will become the course syllabus,
to which we now turn.

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4 | Developing the Course Syllabus

4 DEVELOPING THE COURSE

SYLLABUS

CHAPTER SYNOPSIS

The focus of this chapter is the different kinds of syllabus

frameworks that can be used to develop a course. Different
approaches to syllabus design are seen to reflect different
understandings of the nature of language learning and
language proficiency.

A syllabus is a specification of what will be taught in a course and the

sequence in which it will be taught. This becomes a map or plan identifying
all the different elements of language that will constitute the course. These
elements may include vocabulary, topics, grammar, and the four skills,
depending on what the aims and objectives of the course are. They form
the building block of the course and are the basis from which teaching
materials are developed. Decisions about syllabus and course content
reflect the planners’ assumptions about the nature of language,
language use, and language learning; about what the most essential
elements or units of language are; and about how these can be organised as
an efficient basis for second language learning.

Macro and micro level strands in a syllabus

There will always be several layers or strands of organisation in a course, and

some will be more central than others, depending on the nature of the

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 New Portfolio Series 3: Planning a Language Course: Principles and Procedures

course. For example, a writing course could potentially be planned around

any of the following units of organisation: grammar (e.g., using the present
tense in descriptions), function (e.g., describing likes and dislikes), topics
(e.g., writing about world issues), skills (e.g., developing topic sentences),
processes (e.g., using prewriting strategies), tasks (e.g., summarising a
spoken lecture), or texts (e.g., writing a business letter). Similarly, a speaking
course could be organised around text types (small talk, conversation,
interviews, discussions), functions (expressing opinions), interaction skills
(opening and closing conversations, turn taking), or topics (current affairs,
business topics). Decisions about a suitable syllabus framework for a course
reflect different priorities in teaching rather than absolute choices. The issue
is this: Which foci will be central in planning the syllabus and which will be
secondary? In most courses, there will generally be a number of different
syllabus strands, such as grammar linked to skills and texts, tasks linked to
topics and functions, or skills linked to topics and texts.

Task 4.2

In making decisions about syllabus strands, it is, therefore, useful to

distinguish between main or macro and supportive or micro strands in a
syllabus. Different syllabus strands such as texts, tasks, grammar, content,
functions, and skills can be regarded as the building blocks of a course, and
just as in creating a building, the blocks can be put together in different ways:
usually all of them are necessary at some stage in the construction process. A
course which is built around multiple syllabus strands is said to be based on
an integrated syllabus, which is the approach used in most general English
adult and young-adult courses today. However, sometimes, one syllabus
strand will be used as the overall planning framework for the course, i.e., at
the macro-level of organisation, and others will be used as a minor or
supportive strand for the course, i.e., at the micro-level.

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4 | Developing the Course Syllabus

For example, a reading course might first be planned in terms of reading

skills (the macro-level planning category) and then further planned in terms
of text types, vocabulary, and grammar (the micro-level). A listening course
might be organised first in terms of skills, such as listening for keywords,
listening for details, and listening for topics at the macro-level, and once this
level of planning has been completed, decisions may be made about text
types, topics, and vocabulary. In practical terms, therefore, all syllabuses
reflect some degree of integration of macro and micro levels of organisation.
The table below shows different options for a writing course, with different
syllabus units as the macro- and micro-level syllabus strands.

Table 1: Macro and micro levels of course organisation

Task 4.3

In the past, grammar was often used at the macro-level of organisation in a

syllabus, since proficiency in grammar was believed to be the foundation of
second language learning. Approaches to course and syllabus design
emphasised the role of the sentence and sentence grammar as providing the

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 New Portfolio Series 3: Planning a Language Course: Principles and Procedures

foundation of language, language learning, and language use. This can be

seen in course books based on the audiolingual method or situational
language teaching that were widely used in the 1960s and 70s. Practice in
producing grammatically correct sentences was viewed as the key to learning.

As language teaching has moved from grammar-based approaches to

communicative and performance-based approaches, the most common
macro-level units of organisation are content, texts, tasks, and competencies
while other organisational units such as skills and functions are more
typically regarded as micro-level units in a course or syllabus. Grammar and
vocabulary can be included in any of these syllabus approaches as one strand
of the syllabus at the micro-level.

A content-based syllabus

A content-based syllabus uses content or themes at the macro-level of course

organisation. Other strands of the syllabus (the micro-level strands) such as
grammar, vocabulary, texts, and skills, are chosen according to how they
relate to or support a theme or content. Content here refers to the
information or subject matter that we learn or communicate through
language rather than the language used to convey it. Of course, any language
lesson involves content, whether it be a grammar lesson, a reading lesson, or
any other kind of lesson. Content of some sort has to be the vehicle which
holds the lesson or the exercise together, but in traditional approaches to
language teaching, content is selected after other decisions have been made.
In other words, grammar, texts, skills, functions, etc., are the starting point
in planning the lesson or the course book, and after these decisions have been
made, content is selected. For example, a lesson may be planned around the
present perfect tense. Once this decision has been made, decisions about the
context or content for practicing the form will be decided. Content-based
teaching starts from a different starting point. Decisions about content are
made first, and other kinds of decisions concerning grammar, texts, skills,
functions, etc., are made later.

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4 | Developing the Course Syllabus

Content-based instruction (also referred to in some places as Content and

Language Integrated Learning or CLIL) is based on the assumptions that
people learn a language more successfully when they use the language as
a means of acquiring information, rather than as an end in itself, that
content better reflects learners’ needs for learning a second language and
that content provides a coherent framework that can be used to link and
develop all of the language skills. Content-based instruction can be used as
the framework for a unit of work, as the guiding principle for an entire
course, as a course that prepares students for main streaming, as the rationale
for the use of English as a medium for teaching some school subjects in an
EFL setting, and as the framework for commercial EFL/ESL materials. The
topics are chosen so that they provide a framework around which language
skills, vocabulary, and grammar can be developed in parallel.

Task 4.5

−
−
−

For example, in a business communication course, a teacher may prepare a

unit of work on the theme of sales and marketing. The teacher, in
conjunction with a sales and marketing specialist, first identifies key topics
and issues in the area of sales and marketing to provide the framework for the
course. A variety of lessons are then developed focusing on reading, oral
presentation skills, group discussion, grammar, and report writing, all of

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 New Portfolio Series 3: Planning a Language Course: Principles and Procedures

which are developed out of the themes and topics which form the basis
of the course.

A text-based syllabus

A text-based syllabus is based on a genre-based understanding of language

use. With this approach, communicative competencies are viewed as
involving the mastery of different types of texts. Text here is used in a
special sense to refer to structued sequences of language that are used in
specific contexts in specific ways. For example, in the course of a day, a
speaker of English may use spoken English in many different ways, including
the following:

• casual conversational exchange with a friend

• conversational exchange with a stranger in an elevator
• telephone call to arrange an appointment at a hair salon
• an account to friends of an unusual experience
• discussion of a personal problem with a friend to seek advice

Each of these uses of language can be regarded as a text in that it exists as

a unified whole with a beginning, middle, and end; it confirms to norms
of organisation and content; and it draws on appropriate grammar and
vocabulary. Communicative competence thus involves being able to use
different kinds of spoken and written texts in the specific contexts o their
use. According to Feez and Joyce (1998), text-based instruction is based
on an approach to teaching language which involves:
• teaching explicitly about the structures and grammatical features of
spoken and written texts;
• linking spoken and written texts to the cultural context of their use;
• designing units of work which focus on developing skills in relation
to whole texts; and
• providing students with guided practice as they develop language
skills for meaningful communication through whole texts.

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4 | Developing the Course Syllabus

According to this view, learners in different contexts have to master the use
of the text types occurring most frequently in specific contexts. These
contexts might include: studying in an English-medium university; studying
in an English-medium primary or secondary school; working in a restaurant,
office, or store; socialising with neighbours in a housing complex.

Task 4.6

As its name implies, the core units of planning in a text-based syllabus are
text types. These are identified through needs analysis and through the
analysis of language as it is used in different settings. However, the syllabus
also usually specifies other components of texts, such as grammar,
vocabulary, topics, and functions; hence, it is a type of mixed syllabus, one
which integrates reading, writing, and oral communication, and which
teaches grammar through the mastery of texts rather than in isolation.

The following text types were included in the Certificates in Spoken and
Written English, which has been widely taught as a language qualification
in Australia.

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 New Portfolio Series 3: Planning a Language Course: Principles and Procedures

In teaching from a text-based approach, there are a number of stages to

a lesson:

Phase 1: Building the Context

In this stage, students are introduced to the social context of an authentic
model of the text type being studied and explore features of the general
cultural context in which the text type is used and the social purposes the
text type achieves.

Phase 2: Modelling and Deconstructing the Text

Students investigate the structural pattern and language features of the model
and compare the model with other examples of the same text type.

Phase 3: Joint Construction of the Text

In this stage, students begin to contribute to the construction of whole
examples of the text type. The teacher gradually reduces the contribution to
text construction, as the students move closer to being able to control the text
type independently.

Phase 4: Independent Construction of the Text

Students now work independently with the text. Learner performances
are used for achievement assessment.

Phase 5: Linking to Related Texts

In this stage, students investigate how and what they have learned in
this teaching/learning cycle can be related to other texts in the same or a
similar context.
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4 | Developing the Course Syllabus

A task-based syllabus

A task-based syllabus syllabus makes extensive use of tasks and activities as

the macro- level of course organisation, and it is based on the approach
known as Task- Based Instruction, or TBI (also known as task-based
teaching ). This approach is based on the belief that language learning
will result from creating the right kinds of interactional processes in the
classroom, and the best way to create these is to use specially designed
instructional tasks. Rather than employ a conventional syllabus, particularly
a grammar-based one, advocates of TBI argue that grammar and other
dimensions of communicative competence can be developed as a by-
product of engaging learners in interactive tasks. Of course, most teachers
make use of different kinds of tasks as part of their regular teaching. Task-
based instruction, however, makes strong claims for the use of tasks and
sees them as the primary unit to be used, both in planning teaching (i.e.,
in developing a syllabus) and also in classroom teaching. Some of the key
characteristics of a task are the following:

• It is something that learners do or carry out using their existing

language resources.
• It has an outcome which is not simply linked to learning language,
though language acquisition may occur as the learner carries out the
task.
• It involves a focus on meaning.

In the case of tasks involving two or more learners, it calls upon the learners’
use of communication strategies and interactional skills.

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 New Portfolio Series 3: Planning a Language Course: Principles and Procedures

In TBI, two kinds of tasks can usefully be distinguished:

o Pedagogical tasks are specially designed classroom tasks that require

the use of specific interactional strategies and may also require the
use of specific types of language (skills, grammar, vocabulary). A
task in which two learners have to try to find the number of
differences between two similar pictures is an example of a
pedagogical task. The task itself is not something one would
normally encounter in the real world. However, the inter-
actional processes it requires provides useful input to language
development.
o Real-world tasks are tasks that reflect real-world uses of language
and which might be considered a rehearsal for real-world tasks.
A role play in which students practice a job interview would be
a task of this kind. Willis (1996) proposes six types of tasks as the
basis for TBI:
• Listing tasks: For example, students might have to make
up a list of things they would pack if they were going on
a beach vacation.
• Sorting and ordering: Students work in pairs and make
up a list of the most important characteristics of an ideal
vacation.
• Comparing: Students compare ads for two different super-
markets.
• Problem-solving: Students read a letter to an advice
columnist and suggest a solution to the writer’s problems.
• Sharing personal experience: Students discuss their
reactions to an ethical or moral dilemma.
• Creative tasks: Students prepare plans for redecorating a
house.

Task 4.8

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4 | Developing the Course Syllabus

There are other taxonomies of tasks based on particular features of tasks,

such as whether they are one-way, two-way, simple, or complex. Many
classroom activities do not share the characteristics of tasks as illustrated
above and are, therefore, not tasks and are not recommended teaching
activities in TBI. These include drills, cloze activities, controlled writing
activities, etc., and many of the traditional techniques that are familiar to
teachers. When tasks are chosen as the macro-level of organisation for a
course, grammar will be an important strand at the micro-level, since one
problem with tasks is that they can often be completed without a high level
of grammatical accuracy. This is a common problem with the use of many
kinds of communicative activities, which may promote fluency at the
expense of both accuracy and complexity. The learner’s language may be
both relatively fluent but show little evidence of appropriate grammatical
development, and the complexity of the learner’s language does not match
his or her proficiency level. This may be addressed:

• by pre-teaching certain linguistic forms that can be used

while completing a task.
• by reducing the cognitive complexity of the task.
• by giving time to plan the activity.
• repeat performance: the same activity might be repeated with
some elements modified, such as the amount of time available.

A competency-based syllabus

A competency-based approach to syllabus design and instruction is widely

used as the basis for the design of work-related and survival-oriented
language teaching programs for adults. It seeks to teach students the basic
skills they need in order to prepare them for situations they commonly
encounter in everyday life. Recently, competency-based frameworks have
been adopted in many countries, particularly for vocational and technical
education. They are also increasingly being adopted in national language
curriculum.

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 New Portfolio Series 3: Planning a Language Course: Principles and Procedures

What characterises a competency-based approach is the focus on the out-

comes of learning as the driving force of teaching and the curriculum. With a
competency-based syllabus, rather than seeking to teach general English, the
focus is on the specific language skills needed to function in a specific
context. In developing competency descriptions, the competency domain is
broken down into smaller components and often the essential linguistic
features involved are also identified. The starting point in course planning is,
therefore, an identification of the tasks the learner will typically carry out
within a specific setting (e.g., in the role of factory worker, student, tourist,
tour guide, restaurant employee, or nurse) and the language demands of
those tasks – a similar approach to that used in some versions of task-based
instruction. The competencies needed for successful task performance are
then identified and used as the basis for course planning.

Task 4.9

−
−

Implementing a competency-based approach

The starting point in course planning is an identification of the tasks the

learner will need to carry out within a specific setting (e.g., in the role of
factory worker, restaurant employee, or nurse) and the language demands of
those tasks. The competencies needed for successful task performance are
then identified and used as the basis for course planning. For example, part
of a specification of competencies for a job-training course includes the
following:

The student will be able to:

• identify different kinds of jobs using simple help-wanted
advertisements;

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4 | Developing the Course Syllabus

• describe personal work experience and skills;

• demonstrate ability to fill out a simple job application with
assistance;
• produce required forms of identification for employment;
• identify Social Security, income tax deductions, and tax forms;
• demonstrate understanding of employment expectations, rules,
regulations, and safety;
• demonstrate understanding of basic instructions and ask for
clarification on the job; and
• demonstrate appropriate treatment of co-workers (politeness and
respect).

The following are examples of competencies for basic communication, such

as might be required for newly arrived immigrants in a country:

Communicate in interpersonal interactions

• Identify or use appropriate non-verbal behavior in a variety

of situations (e.g., handshaking);
• Identify or use appropriate language for informational purposes
(e.g., to identify, describe, ask for information, state needs,
command, agree or disagree, ask permission);
• Identify or use appropriate language to influence or persuade
(e.g., to caution, request, advise, persuade negotiate);
• Identify or use appropriate language in general social situations
(e.g., to greet, introduce, thank, apologise, compliment, express
pleasure or regret);
• Interact effectively in the classroom;
• Clarify or request clarification;
• Understand, follow, or give instructions, including commands
and polite requests (e.g., Do this; Will you do this?); and
• Understand or use appropriate language to express emotions and
states of being (e.g., happy, hungry, upset).

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 New Portfolio Series 3: Planning a Language Course: Principles and Procedures

Communicate regarding personal information

• Respond appropriately to common personal information questions;

• Complete a personal information form;
• Interpret or write a personal note, invitation, or letter; and
• Converse about daily and leisure activities and personal interests.

Materials writers would then have to plan language lessons around these
competencies. Since the language needed to master a particular competency
is not specified, choosing the necessary language is no easy task. A lot will
depend on the teacher’s awareness of what the learners are capable of.
Similarly, no particular teaching methods are assumed as long as the
competencies have been mastered.

A skills-based syllabus

A skills-based approach to syllabus design focuses on the different underlying

abilities that are involved in using a language for purposes such as reading,
writing, listening, or speaking – sometimes referred to as the four macro-
skills. Approaching a language through skills is based on the belief that
learning a complex activity such as “listening to a lecture” involves mastery of
a number of individual sub-skills (also known as micro-skills ) that together
make up the activity. For example, listening includes the following micro-
skills:
• recognising key words in conversations
• recognising the topic of a conversation
• recognising reduced forms of words
• recognising conversational chunks and phases

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4 | Developing the Course Syllabus

• recognising speakers’ attitude toward a topic

• recognising time reference of an utterance

What are some of the skills involved in listening to a lecture?

Examples of skills that relate to different types of language use are:

• writing: creating a topic sentence, distinguishing between main
ideas and supporting sentences, self-editing
• listening: listening and recognising key information, using
discourse markers to identify the flow of discourse, following
rapid speech
• speaking: using back channeling, recognising turn-taking signals,
introducing a topic, using communication strategies
• reading: reading for gist, guessing words from context, reading
and making inferences

A number of accounts have been made of the different sub-skills or micro-

skills that underlie ability in reading, listening, and other skills, and these can
be used when developing a skill-based syllabus. Speaking is also sometimes
described in terms of its individual sub-skills. Bygate (1987) distinguished
between production skills and interaction skills. Production skills include using
simple grammatical structures, using routines and fixed expressions, fillers and
hesitation devices, and using communication strategies. Interaction skills
include using familiar scripts and routines, using turn-taking devices, managing
topic flow, and using opening and closing routines.

A skills-based syllabus identifies behaviors that can be isolated and taught and
tested and that can transfer to many other situations. Skills-based syllabuses
reflect practical real-world needs and provide a practical framework for
designing courses and teaching materials. They may be particularly relevant to
situations in which students have very specific and identifiable needs (such

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as preparing for university-level studies in English).

A functional syllabus

This is organised according to the functions or communicative acts that the

learner needs to be able to carry out in English, such as expressing likes and
dislikes, offering and accepting apologies, introducing someone, and giving
explanations. From a functional perspective, communicative competence is
viewed as mastery of functions needed for communication across a wide
range of situations. Vocabulary and grammar are then chosen according to
the functions being taught. A sequence of activities is then used to present
and practice the function. In spoken English, a distinction can be made
between interactional and transactional functions of language, the former
concerned with maintaining social interaction, and the latter with carrying
out real-world information-focused functions. Burns (1998) distinguishes
between two different kinds of transactions. One type refers to transactions
that occur in situations where the focus is on giving and receiving
information, and where the participants focus primarily on what is said or
achieved (e.g., asking someone for directions or bargaining at a garage sale).
The second type refers to transactions that involve obtaining goods or
services, such as checking into a hotel or ordering food in a restaurant.

Functional syllabuses have often been used as the basis for speaking and
listening courses. For example, my course Person to Person (Richards and
Bycina, 1984) reflects the use of a functional syllabus as the basis for a
speaking/listening course. The main functions introduced in Book 1 are:

• introducing yourself
• asking people about occupations
• opening conversations

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4 | Developing the Course Syllabus

• asking about names and addresses

• making telephone inquiries
• comparing families
• describing locations
• giving directions
• inviting
• declining and accepting invitations
• comparing likes and dislikes
• agreeing and disagreeing
• recounting personal biography
• making appointments
• ordering food in a restaurant
• offering food and drink
• making small talk
• ending a conversation

In developing a functional syllabus, a distinction is often made between

functions and exponents, the latter being the expressions used to realise a
function:

Because they focus on communication skills, functional syllabuses are often

used as the basis for courses in spoken English since they reflect a view of

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language as communication. Functions represent the building blocks of

communication and mastery of a core set of functions is said to provide for
the development of communicative competence. They can also be linked to
other types of syllabus content: with functions as the organising principle of a
course, grammar, topics, and vocabulary can be selected as needed for
functional communication. They also provide a convenient framework for
the design of teaching materials, particularly the teaching of listening and
speaking skills.

Putting it all together

From the brief survey above, it may seem that the course planner is faced
with a daunting task with so many options to choose from. However, in
most cases, a mixed syllabus will be used which has different strands, as we
noted above in distinguishing between the macro and micro levels of
organisation in a syllabus.

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5 | From the Syllabus to the Course Design

5 FROM THE SYLLABUS TO THE

COURSE DESIGN

CHAPTER SYNOPSIS

This chapter examines the different factors that are involved in

choosing, designing, and adapting materials, and content to
form the basis of a course.

There are several levels of planning involved in designing a successful

language course. Once the syllabus framework has been chosen and the
course constraints known in terms of the length of the course and the
number of classroom hours that are involved, the organisation of the
course can be decided as well as the kinds of teaching materials that will
be used throughout the course. These two issues are the focus of this chapter.

The organisation of the course

While the learning outcomes of a course determine its long-term goals, a

course will normally be organised around smaller instructional sections, each
with their own learning outcomes and which are sequenced in a way that
promotes effective teaching and learning. These could be lessons, units, or
modules.

A lesson is a set of material that can normally be taught in one or two class
periods. It provides a sequence of activities that guide students towards a
learning outcome. The format for individual lessons will reflect the content
of the lesson, i.e., whether it is a reading, writing, speaking, listening,
grammar, or some other type of lesson. A reading lesson, for example, often
consists of pre-reading, while-reading, and post-reading activities, while a
speaking lesson may take many different forms, depending on whether it

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reflects a functional, text-based, or task-based syllabus.

A unit is a teaching segment that normally links a number of single

lessons and is the most common way of organising teaching materials. Thus,
a unit is normally a group of lessons that is planned around a single
learning outcome. The factors that account for a successful unit include:

• length: sufficient, but not too much, material is included

• development: one activity leads effectively into the next; the unit
does not consist of a random sequence of activities
• coherence: the unit has an overall sense of unity
• pacing: each activity within the unit moves at a reasonable pace.
For example, if there are five sections in the unit, one does not
require five times as much time as the others to complete
• challenge: activities are at a level that presents a reasonable
challenge, but does not lead to frustration on the part of the
learners
• interest level: the content of the unit is likely to arouse the
learners’ interest
• outcome: at the end of the unit, learners are able to demonstrate a
set of learning outcomes

A module is a self-contained and independent learning sequence with its own

learning outcomes. For example, a 120-hour course might be divided into
four modules of 30 hours each. Assessment is carried out at the end of each
module. Modules allow for flexible organisation of a course and can give
learners a sense of achievement because learning outcomes are more
immediate and specific.

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Deciding on the teaching and learning principles the course will reflect

A course is not simply a random set of activities and experiences, chosen for
their interest value and convenience. It should reflect educationally sound
principles that describe how successful learning is to be achieved. Identifying
the assumptions, beliefs, and principles underlying a course provides a basis
for making decisions about the kind of teaching and learning arrangements
the course will make use of as well as the justification for the kinds of teaching
materials that will be used. A course will typically be designed around a
particular philosophy or educational approach such as “collaborative
learning,” “communicative approach,” or “learner centredness,” as we see in
these statements of principles underlying a secondary school English course:

• There is a consistent focus throughout on learning English in order

to develop practical and functional skills, rather than as an end in
itself.
• Students are engaged in practical tasks that relate to real-world uses
of English.
• Realistic and communicative uses of English are given priority.
• Maximum use is made of pair and group activities in which
students complete tasks collaboratively.
• There is an appropriate balance between accuracy-focused and
fluency-focused activities.
• Teachers serve as facilitators of learning, rather than presenters
of information.

The following statements describe the principles behind a course designed

to encourage independent learning:

The course will encourage learners to:

• use online or library resources for independent learning
• learn (both linguistically and socio-culturally) from direct
observation of and participation in communication events
• preview a text or a learning task

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• check, verify, or correct one’s comprehension or performance in

the course of a task
• check the outcomes of one’s own performance against evaluation
criteria
• ask for clarification, verification or correction
• make conscious reflection upon one’s learning experiences,
strategies and outcomes
• keep a portfolio of learning resources
• check one’s own progress and make self-reinforcements
accordingly

Deciding on the balance between in-class and out-of-class activities in a

course.

A variety of modes and means are involved in the delivery or implementation

of today’s language courses, and the resources available to support learning in
one context may be very different from those available in a different context.
A course designed for learners who are assumed to have access to
textbooks, technology, and the Internet will have little success in situations
where there is restricted access to such resources. The features that affect the
delivery of a language course include the availability of textbooks, the
availability of technology, classroom and school resources, and access to
technology and the Internet.

While this Portfolio deals with planning the classroom-based component of a

language course, courses also generally assume that learners will take part
in independent learning activities beyond the classroom. For example, what
will the balance be between classroom-based learning and out-of-class
learning? Courses differ in the extent to which they make use of teacher-
directed as compared to learner-managed or autonomous learning and,

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similarly, in the extent to which they make use of technology. Some courses
are heavily teacher-dependent while others depend much more on self-
managed learning on the part of learners. In some contexts, the classroom is
the primary learning site; in others, learning is “flipped” and out-of-class
learning is primary, with the classroom serving as a preparation or for the
review of out-of-class learning. Differences of this kind are seen below.

The role of instructional materials

Materials, whether in the form of textbooks or teacher-developed materials,

play a vital role in most language programs. In many situations, they serve as
the basis for much of the language input learners receive as well as for much
of the language practice that students take part in during lessons. In the case
of special-purposes language courses, suitable commercial materials may
not be available, requiring teachers to develop their own classroom materials
and resources. Once a syllabus has been developed, it is then necessary to
select or

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develop the materials that will be made use of in teaching the course.

Textbooks and commercial materials

For general English courses as well as courses for special-purposes courses,

a wide range of commercial materials are often available, although these will
often have to be adapted to match the needs of your learners. Textbooks can
play a number of roles in a language course:

For the teacher, textbooks can be used as:

• a syllabus
• a source of content for lessons
• a teaching methodology
• a source for the development of teaching skills
• a basis for assessment

For learners, they can be used as:

• a corpus of spoken and written texts as input for learning
• a source for guided practice
• a resource for review and self-study
• a reference for information on English, e.g., for information on
grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and so on

For institutions, they can be used as:

• a coherent curriculum
• a basis for standardised instruction
• a basis for tests and assessments
• a resource for teachers

In view of the considerable impact textbooks can have on a language course,

it is important that careful consideration is given to how they are chosen.
Before choosing a textbook, a number of aspects of the textbook should be
considered:

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• goals: What does the book seek to achieve, and how clearly are its
learning outcomes identified?
• syllabus: What syllabus framework is the book based on? Is the
syllabus adequate or would it need to be supplemented (e.g.,
through additional activities for grammar or pronunciation)?
• theoretical framework: What language-learning theory is the book
based on? Does it present an informed understanding of any under-
lying theory?
• methodology: What methodology is the book based on? Is it
pedagogically sound?
• language content: What kind of language does it contain and how
authentic and relevant is the content? Is it an appropriate level of
difficulty for the learners?
• other content: What topics and themes are covered and are they
appropriate for the target learners?
• organisation: Is the book well organised into units and lessons, and
within lessons, are the purposes of activities clearly identified? Do
units have a coherent, consistent organisation and do they gradually
progress in difficulty throughout the book?
• teacher appeal: Does the book look easy to teach and is it self-
contained, or would the teacher need to develop supplementary
materials to use with it? Would it require special training or could it
be used by teachers with limited experience, and by both native-
speaker and non-native-speaker teachers?
• learner appeal: How engaging would it be for learners? How would
they rate the design of the book (including the photos and
illustrations), the topics, and the kinds of activities included? Is the
material clearly relevant to their perceived language-learning needs?
Are self-study components included?
• ancilliaries: What other components does the book include, such as a
teacher’s book, a workbook, tests, and digital and web-based support?
Are all of these components published and available?

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Adapting textbooks

Often, however, a textbook will need to be adapted to some extent to match

the needs of specific groups of learners. The following are typical examples of
the kind of adaptation that may be needed:
• localising: Generic textbook topics and activities may be more
effective if modified to reflect local issues and content. Content
may also need to be changed because it does not suit the target
learners’ demographic, e.g., their age, gender, occupation,
religion, or cultural background. Localisation also involves
adapting or supplementing content to address the specific
language-learning needs of a group of learners. For example,
pronunciation problems relating to a specific L1–which are
unlikely to be covered in an international textbook–may need to
be addressed.
• reorganising: A teacher may decide to reorganise the syllabus of
the book and arrange the units in what she or he considers a more
suitable order. Or, within a unit, the teacher may decide not to
follow the sequence of activities in the unit but to reorganise them
for a particular reason. Or some exercises within a sequence may
be dropped.
• modifying tasks: Exercises and activities may need to be changed
to give them an additional focus. For example, a listening activity
may focus only on listening for information, so it is adapted so
that students listen a second or third time for a different purpose.
An activity may be extended to provide opportunities for more
personalised practice.
• Providing additional practice: A book unit has a limited number
of pages and, at times, the teacher may feel additional practice of

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grammar, vocabulary, or skills is required, and so he or she

sources additional materials to supplement the book.
addressing testing requirements: Sometimes, supplementary
material may be needed to address the demands of a specific
institutional or other exam. For example, the reading component
of an institutional test may make use of multiple-choice
questions rather than the kinds of comprehension tasks found in
a textbook, so extra material to practise using multiple-choice
questions may be required.

Designing materials for a course

Often teachers may prefer to develop their own course materials in order to
address the course objectives and learning outcomes of a course more closely.
In doing so, not only will the materials have to address the learners’ needs
and the course aims and outcomes but they should also reflect current
understanding of theory, research, and best practice related to the kind of
course being developed. In developing materials for any aspect of language
learning, whether it be a skill-based course in listening, speaking, reading, or
writing or an integrated-skills basic series, the materials developers’ beliefs
about teaching and learning will have a major impact on material design,
since it will play a role in determining the goals the writer sets for the
materials, the focus of the materials themselves, and the activities they make
use of. Effective materials do many of the things a teacher would normally do
as part of his or her teaching. These include:
• arouse the learners’ interest
remind them of earlier learning
tell them what they will be learning next
explain new learning content to them

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set clear learning targets

provide them with strategies to use in learning
help them get feedback on their learning
provide practice opportunities
enable them to check their progress

Materials developers draw on knowledge of research and theory as well

as beliefs and principles in planning a course. In planning materials for
the teaching of writing, for example, the materials developer could start
from any of a number of views of the nature of writing or of texts. He or she
could start from a view of written language that focuses on writing-modes,
i.e., the organisational modes underlying paragraphs and essays, such as
definition, comparison-contrast, classification, or cause-effect. Alternatively,
the materials developer might start from a genre or text-based view of written
language in which texts such as news reports, business letters, or academic
articles are seen to reflect their use in particular contexts. Or the writer could
begin from a process perspective in which written texts are seen to reflect the
cognitive and composing processes that go into their creation, such as pre-
writing, planning, drafting, composing, reviewing, revising, and editing.

If, on the other hand, one were preparing a listening course, the materials
developer would need to clarify his or her understanding of the nature of
listening. Is it viewed largely as a process of decoding input? Is it viewed in
terms of the mastery of discrete listening skills and sub-skills? Or is it seen
as a blend of top-down and bottom-up processing? For a speaking
course, likewise, a starting point is selecting an appropriate theory or model
of the
nature of oral interaction. Will it be based on a model of communicative
competence and seek to address grammatical competence, sociolinguistic

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competence, discourse competence, and strategic competence? Or is oral

communication viewed more in terms of speech act theory focusing on
utterances as functional units in communication and dependent upon the
performance of speech acts?

The materials developer will also need to consider the complementary

question of the theory of language learning underlying the materials, since
this will determine how the syllabus is implemented in the form of exercises,
tasks, activities, and learning experiences. Particular language models are
often linked to particular views of learning. For example, a text-based
approach to the teaching of writing is often linked to a Vygotskian view of
learning based on the notion of scaffolding. The teacher and the learners are
viewed as engaged in a collaborative problem-solving activity with the
teacher providing demonstrations, support, guidance, and input and
gradually withdrawing these as the learner becomes increasingly in-
dependent. Models of good writing are employed and writing (or more
correctly, text construction) is taught through a process of deconstruction,
modelling, and joint elaboration and reconstruction as students create their
own texts. The theory of learning underlying approaches to the teaching of
conversation might be based on a somewhat different view of learning. It
could reflect an interactionist view of language acquisition based on the
hypothesis that language acquisition requires or greatly benefits from
interaction, communication, and especially negotiation of meaning, which
happens when interlocutors attempt to over-come problems in conveying
their meaning, resulting in both additional input and useful feedback on the
learners’ own production.

Depending on the kind of course that is being developed, criteria for the
choice of activities to be used throughout the course can also be identified.
This aspect of materials design is something that teachers as well as learners,
often appreciate in classroom materials. The following are features of
“productive language learning tasks” (Dornyei, 2001):
• challenge: tasks in which learners solve problems, discover
something, overcome obstacles, or find information;

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• interesting content: topics that students already find interesting and

and that they would want to read about outside of class, such as
stories we find about sports and entertainment personalities on
YouTube and the Internet;
• the personal element: activities that make connections to the
learners’ lives and concerns;
• the novelty element: aspects of an activity that are new or different
or totally unexpected;
• the intriguing element: tasks that concern ambiguous, problematic,
paradoxical, controversial, contradictory, or incongruous material
stimulate curiosity;
• individual choice: tasks which give students a personal choice. For
example, students can choose their own topics to write about in an
essay or choose their own topics and group members in a
discussion activity;
• tasks that encourage risk taking: tasks that stretch learners and
resources without frustrating them;
• tasks that encourage original thought: activities that require an
original response, so instead of comprehension questions after a
reading passage that test recall, they seek to use tasks that
encourage a personal and individual response to what the student
has read;
• the fantasy element: activities that engage the learners’ fantasy and
that invite the learners to use their imagination for creating make-
believe stories, identifying with fictional characters, or acting out
imaginary situations.

In planning a course, the course development team should, therefore, reach

an understanding of the underlying principles supporting the course and the
design of teaching materials it will make use of. As background to this, they
will either have taken a related set of courses on methodology and second
language learning or have read and discussed core readings relevant to the area
they plan to focus on. The following is an example of the principles
developed by a group of teachers for use in developing materials in a listening
course:
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• listening activities should involve goals relevant to authentic

listening
• listening activities should provide for the development of
listening skills
• listening activities should help develop listening strategies
• listening activities should teach rather than test
• listening activities should develop top-down, bottom-up, and
interactive listening
• listening texts should reflect learners out of class needs for
listening
• listening tasks should reflect the nature of on-line listening
• listening should be taught both for comprehension and for
language learning
• listening activities should be engaging and provide a success
experience

Once a course has been designed, a final set of questions should be asked
before the course is implemented. These questions address issues such as the
ones below:
• scope/content: Does the course adequately cover the necessary
topics and content?
• relevance: Is the course relevant to students' needs and interests?
• interactivity: Do the tasks and activities encourage collaboration
among students?
• authenticity: Do the activities match real life language use?
• resources: Does the course make good use of available resources?
• skill development: Does it engage and improve the language
skills and strategies of the learners?
• purposefulness: Are the aims and goals of the course being
effectively met?

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• learner autonomy: Are the learners playing an active role and

taking a degree of responsibility in their own learning progress?

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6 | Evaluating a Language Course

6 EVALUATING A LANGUAGE
COURSE

CHAPTER SYNOPSIS

In this final chapter, the focus is on the issues and processes

involved in evaluating the effectiveness of a course. It includes
ways of fine-tuning a course as it is taught as well as procedures
that can be used to review the effectiveness of a course after it
has been taught.

In the preceding chapters, we have considered some of the planning and

decision-making that is involved in developing a language course.
Hopefully, at the end of this process a course has been developed that will
meet the needs of learners, teachers, school administrators as well as any
other persons interested in the outcomes of the program. These people are
referred to as stakeholders in the course. The questions that different
stakeholders might be interested in include the following:

Students
• What did I learn?
• How well did I do compare to others?
• How well will I rate this course?
• How will this help me in the future?
• Do I need another course?

Teachers
• How well did I teach?
• What did my students learn?
• Were my students satisfied with the course?
• How useful were the materials and course work?
• How effective was the course organisation?

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Curriculum developers
• Is the design of the course and materials appropriate?
• What aspects of the course need replacing or revising?
• Do teachers and students respond favorably to the course?
• Do teachers need additional support with the course?

Administrators
• Was the time frame of the course appropriate?
• Were the management and monitoring of the course successful in
identifying and rectifying problems?
• Were clients’ expectations met?
• Were testing and assessment procedures adequate?
• Were resources made use of?

Sponsors
• Was the cost of the course justified?
• Did the course deliver what was promised?
• Was the course well managed?
• Is the reporting of the course adequate?

Answering questions like these involves collecting information as part of the

process of course evaluation. In this chapter, we will consider the processes
involved.

The focus of evaluation

Two kinds of questions are often the focus of evaluation. These can be
summarised as How well are we doing? and How well did we do? The first
kind of questions address issues that arise during the implementation of a
course and are referred to as formative evaluation. The second refers to

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questions that can be asked at the completion of the course, which are
part of the process of summative evaluation.

How well are we doing? – formative evaluation

It is very rare for a course to develop exactly as was anticipated, since no

matter how well it is designed, so many variables can affect how well a course
is received. Often some form of fine tuning or adjustment is needed
addressing factors such as the following:
• pacing: Does the course move at the right pace or does it move
either too slowly or too quickly for some learners? If this is the
case, some aspects of the course may need to be expanded or
reduced.
• gaps in the syllabus: It may be found that issues that arise had
been considered during the planning stage. For example, there
might be recurring difficulties with grammar or pronunciation
which require some additions or revisions to the course materials.
• teachers: Teachers may find some aspects of the course difficult
to teach and some additional training sessions may be needed.
• learning arrangements: Sometimes, the class size may not be
suitable for the kind of course being taught or there may be a
preference for more whole-class teaching and less use of group and
pair work.
• level: Perhaps some of the course materials are too easy or too
difficult for most of the students. In this case, it may be
necessary to try a different textbook or set of materials.
• textbook: If a textbook is used as one of the main resources in a
course, it sometimes happens that neither teachers nor students are

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satisfied with the book. It is not always possible to change the

textbook once the course is underway, but it may be possible to get
students’ ideas on how to make best use of the book during class
time.
• language use: A teacher may also be concerned about the quality of
the language students use in class and introduce specific activities
designed to improve the quality and amount of student talk.
• classroom interaction: When observing classes, perhaps students
appear to be passive and to avoid contributing to some of the class
activities. In this case, students may need to be briefed or
reminded about the purpose of activities and the class seating plan
could be adjusted to ensure a fuller level of class participation.

Issues such as those above can be identified by observing classes, from mid-
term or weekly tests and other assessments, by talking to teachers and
students, by reviewing samples of students’ work, and by getting feedback
from students either on-line or from comment sheets.

Formative evaluations can also be used to promote the quality of learning in a

course. This is sometimes referred to as assessment for learning and involves
using assessment information gathered on a regular basis, throughout a
course, to help improve the quality of learning in a course. When
implementing assessment for learning, the first step is to agree upon
feedback mechanisms from students to teachers that allow students to signal
difficulties that they are having. Responses from teachers should address skills
needed to improve learning; encourage greater student awareness of what
successful outcomes would look like; and provide students with opportunities
to become more successful. For example:

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6 | Evaluating a Language Course

• Students set their own learning goals at the beginning of a course

and monitor their own progress.
• Students engage in peer assessment of other students’ work and give
suggestions.
• Teachers provide feedback that encourages learning.
• Students signal for assistance whenever they don’t understand
something or need support.
• Students plan together before they carry out an activity and then
later review how useful their plans were.

How well did we do? – summative evaluation

Perhaps the most crucial question for course planners (as well as for students,
teachers, and other stakeholders) is the extent to which the course achieved
its objectives and delivered successful learning outcomes. There are a number
of ways in which this question can be answered.
• performance on tests and assessments: Gains on pre- and post-
course tests are perhaps the commonest form of summative
assessment. Or the teacher may make a judgment based on how
well the students perform on classroom tasks, such as essays,
reports, and presentations.
• achievement of objectives and learning outcomes: The teacher may
review the objectives that have been established for the course
and decide how many of them have been achieved, and how well.
• teacher feedback: Teachers may be asked to give their opinions of
the course and how effective they thought it was. They should
identify those aspects of the course they think worked well as
well as those they feel could be improved.
• student feedback: Interviews with students or a questionnaire may
be used to find out what students thought they learned from the
course, what they liked or didn’t like, and whether any aspects of
the course should be changed.
• samples of student work: Examples of students’ work (both written
and spoken) can be reviewed to assess the amount of progress

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 New Portfolio Series 3: Planning a Language Course: Principles and Procedures

made.
• the course structure and syllabus: The course organisation and
syllabus can be reviewed to ensure that it reflects an appropriate
balance of skills and activities
• the materials: Teachers and students can give their opinions of
the effectiveness of the textbook or other materials used in the
course.
• teaching methods: Classroom observation of lesson or video
recordings can be used to assess the quality of the teaching in the
course.

Conclusion

While evaluation might be seen to be the last of the stages involved in

curriculum development and course design, it often provides the basis for
further review and development in areas such as needs analysis, goals and
outcomes, syllabus design, materials selection, and assessment. Hence, the
development of a language course is never really completed. In order to
achieve the best learning outcomes given the context of the course, the
teachers, the learners, and the human and physical resources available to
support it, a language course is always subject to fine-tuning and small or
sometimes larger-scale revision. I hope that the information provided in this
Portfolio will provide clarity and guidance in how to implement the major
processes that are involved.

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