CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Jigjiga University
CNCS
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

GENERAL CHEMISTRY (CHEM. 1012 )

PREPARED BY ABREHAM TESFAYE

General chemistry (chem.1012) Prepared by Abreham T. 1

 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

CHAPTER four

STOICHIOMETRY OF CHEMICAL Reaction

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Writing Chemical Equations

• In a chemical equation, the formulas of the reactants are written on the left of the
arrow and the formulas of the products on the right.
• When there are two or more formulas on the same side, they are separated by plus (+) signs.
• The delta sign (∆) indicates that heat was used to start the reaction.
• Generally, each formula in an equation is followed by an abbreviation, in parentheses,
that gives the physical state of the substance: solid (s), liquid (l), or gas (g).
• If a substance is dissolved in water, it is an aqueous (aq) solution.

C(s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g)

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Balancing Chemical Equations

o In order to satisfy the law of conservation of matter or mass, chemical reactions
must be balanced.
o There are two ways to balance chemical equations:
Inspection methods: this is done by trial and error
Example: Balance the following reaction
Na3PO4 (aq) + MgCl2(aq) Mg3(PO4)2(s) + NaCl (aq) Unbalanced
Solution: All the atoms in this reaction is not balanced
o Balance the Mg in MgCl2 by adding 3
o Balance the phosphate ion by adding 2 in front of Na3PO4
o Balance the Na and Cl in NaCl by adding 6
2Na3PO4 (aq) + 3MgCl2(aq) Mg3(PO4)2(s) + 6NaCl (aq) balanced
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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

The Least Common Multiple (LCM) method: based on choosing the LCM of the coefficient by
writing the total valence number above each symbol. We divide the LCM with the total valance.

Example: Balance the following chemical equations using LCM method

BaCl2 + Na3PO4 Ba3(PO4)2 + NaCl
Solution
Ba2Cl22 + 3Na33PO4 6 6Ba 6(PO )
3 4 2 + 1Na1Cl (The LCM 6)
For BaCl2: 6/2 = 3 For Na3PO4: 6/3 = 2
Ba3(PO4)3 = 6/6 = 1 For NaCl = 6/1 = 6
3BaCl2 + 2Na3PO4 Ba3(PO4)2 + 6NaCl (balanced)

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Exercise
a. Mg(s) + AgNO3(aq) Mg(NO3)2 (aq) + Ag (s)
b. CuCO3 (s) CuO (s) + CO2 (g)
c. Al (s) + CuSO4 (aq) Cu (s) + Al2 (SO4)3 (aq)
d. Pb (NO3)2 (aq) + NaCl (aq) PbCl2 (s) + NaNO3 (aq)
e. Al(s) + HCl (aq) AlCl (aq) + H2 (g)

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Equations for Ionic Reactions

o There are three types of equations to represent aqueous ionic reactions.
a) Molecular equations: the species that are actually in solution because it shows all the reactants
and products as if they were intact, undissociated compounds
Example: 2AgNO3 (aq) + Na2CrO4(aq) Ag2CrO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
b) Total ionic equations: it shows all the soluble ionic substances as they actually exist in solution,
where they are dissociated into ions.
Example: 2Ag+ + 2NO-3(aq) + Na+ (aq) + CrO2−
4 (aq)
Ag2CrO4(s) + 2Na+ (aq) + 2NO−
3 (aq)

Note: Na+(aq) and NO3-(aq) appear unchanged on both sides of the equation. These are
called spectator ions.
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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

c) Net ionic equation: is very useful because it eliminates the spectator ions and shows only the
actual chemical change.
2Ag+ (aq) + CrO42- (aq) Ag2CrO4 (s)

Example:

Molecular equation: 2NaOH (aq) + CuSO4 (aq) Na2SO4 (aq) + Cu(OH)2 (s)
Total ionic equations: 2Na+ (aq) + 2OH- (aq) + Cu2+ (aq) + SO2-4 (aq)
Na+ (aq) + SO2-4 (aq) + Cu(OH)2(s)
Total ionic equations: 2OH- (aq) + Cu2+ (aq) Cu(OH)2(s)
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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Classification of chemical reactions

1. Acid-base reactions: is one in which a hydrogen ion, H+, is transferred from one chemical
species to another
o An acid is a substance that will dissolve in water to yield hydronium ions, H3O+
Example: HCl(aq) + H2O(aq) ⟶ Cl-(aq) + H3O+(aq) HCl - acid
CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ CH3COO-(aq) + H3O+(aq) CH3COOH - acid

When hydrogen chloride gas

dissolves in water, (a) it reacts as an
acid, transferring protons to water
molecules to yield (b) hydronium ions
(and solvated chloride ions)
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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Strong acid
Strong acids: when
dissolved in water it ionizes
or dissociate almost
completely to produce
relatively large amount of
hydronium ion

Weak acids: when

dissolved in water it
ionizes or dissociate
partially to produce
relatively small amount
of hydronium ion

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

A base is a substance that will dissolve in water to yield hydroxide ions, OH-

o The most common bases are ionic compounds composed of alkali or alkaline earth metal
cations

o Unlike acids, bases (metal hydroxide) do not react chemically with water; instead they
dissolve and dissociate, releasing hydroxide ions directly into the solution

NaOH(aq) ⟶ Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)

o These bases, along with other hydroxides that completely dissociate in water, are considered
strong bases.

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

o Unlike ionic hydroxides, some compounds produce hydroxide ions when dissolved by
chemically reacting with water molecules In all cases, these compounds react only partially
and so are classified as weak bases.
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)

They do not They chemically

chemically react react with water
with water

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

o A neutralization reaction is a specific type of acid-base reaction in which the reactants are
an acid and a base (but not water), and the products are often a salt and water.

Example: reaction of acid with milk of magnesia

1. Mg(OH)2(s) + 2HCl(aq) ⟶ MgCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

2. Precipitation reactions and solubility rules

o A precipitation reaction is one in which dissolved substances react to form one (or more)
solid products.
o Many reactions of this type exchange ions between ionic compounds in aqueous solution
and are sometimes referred to as double displacement or metathesis reactions
• These reactions are common in nature and are responsible for the formation of

Coral reefs in
ocean waters kidney stones
in animals

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Example: The precipitation of calcium fluoride. When aqueous solutions of NaF (from pipet)
and CaCl2 (in test tube) react, solid CaF2 forms

Molecular equations:
CaCl2 (aq) + 2NaF (aq) CaF2 (s) + 2 NaCl (aq)

Total ionic equations:

Ca2+ (aq) Cl-(aq) + 2Na++2F-(aq) CaF2 (s) + 2Na+
(aq) + 2Cl- (aq)
Net ionic equations
Ca2+ + 2F-(aq) CaF2 (s) Precipitated

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Solubility, defined as the maximum concentration of a substance that can be achieved under
specified conditions.
• Substances with relatively large solubility are said to be soluble.
• A substance will precipitate when solution conditions are such that its
concentration exceeds its solubility.
• Substances with relatively low solubility are said to be insoluble, and these
are the substances that readily precipitate from solution

soluble Precipitate

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Solubility rules

o Ionic compounds that are soluble in water typically contain at least one of the ions
(see the table). Only an ionic compound containing a soluble cation or anion will
dissolve in water.

o Most ionic compounds containing Cl- are soluble, but AgCl, PbCl2, and Hg2Cl2
are insoluble. Similarly, most ionic compounds containing SO42- are soluble,
but a few are insoluble.

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.
Solubility rules
An ionic compound is soluble in water if it contains one of the following
Soluble ionic Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+, NH4+ - always soluble
compounds NO3-, C2 H3 O− − −
2 , HCO3 ClO3 - always soluble
Cl-, Br-, I- - Soluble with any ion except, Ag+, Pb2+, Cu+ or Hg 2+
2
F- - Soluble with any ions except group IIA cations, Pb2+ and Fe2+
2+
SO2− 2+ 2+ 2+ + 2+
4 - Soluble with all ions except, Sr , Ba , Ca , Ag , Pb or Hg 2
3− +
Insoluble ionic C02− 2−
3 , CrO4 , PO4 − Insoluble with any other ion except group IA cation or NH4
compounds OH- - Insoluble with any ions except group IA cation and Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+ or NH4+
S2- - Insoluble with any ions except group IA, group IIA cation or NH4+
Example
1. Predict the solubility of the compound formed when solutions of potassium iodide and lead
nitrate are mixed.
Solution: 2KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) ⟶ PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq) – PbI2 (s) is insoluble
Pb2+(aq) + 2I-(aq) ⟶ PbI2(s) – net ionic equation
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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.
Example 2 3. Predict the result of mixing reasonably
concentrated solutions of the following
ionic compounds. If precipitation is
expected, write a balanced net ionic
equation for the reaction.
(a) potassium sulfate and barium nitrate
(b) lithium chloride and silver acetate
(c) lead nitrate and ammonium carbonate

If an ionic compound contains a combination of a cation Solution

and an anion that are not soluble, that ionic compound is a) Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) ⟶ BaSO4(s)

insoluble. For example, combinations of cadmium and b) Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) ⟶ AgCl(s)

sulfide, iron and sulfide, lead and iodide, and nickel and c) Pb2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) ⟶ PbCO3(s)
hydroxide do not contain any soluble ions.
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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

3. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
o The term oxidation was originally used to
describe chemical reactions involving O2, but
its meaning has evolved to refer to a broad
and important reaction class known as
oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions. Rust forms when the oxygen

o You are observing oxidation, in a rusty nail, in the air reacts with iron.
The Fe is oxidized
tarnish of a silver spoon, or corrosion on
metal. 4Fe (s) + 3O2(g) 2Fe2O3(s)
rust

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Example of oxidation reduction reaction

o Oxidation–reduction reaction within the car battery provides the

electricity.
o Wood burns with oxygen combines with carbon and hydrogen to
produce carbon dioxide, water, and heat.
o Respiration, every breath we take provides oxygen to carry out oxidation
in our cells.

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

o In an oxidation–reduction reaction (redox), electrons are transferred from one substance

to another.
o If one substance loses electrons, another substance must gain electrons.
o Oxidation is the loss of electrons; reduction is the gain of electrons

Reducing agent (reductant) = species that is oxidized

Oxidizing agent (oxidant) = species that is reduced
During redox reaction,

The oxidized species oxidation number increase

The reduced species oxidation number decrease

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Example: In each of the following reactions, identify the reactant that is oxidized and the reactant
that is reduced: Answer:
a. Zn (s) + Cl2 (g) ZnCl2(s) a) Zn oxidized, Cl reduced
b. Cl2(g) + 2NaBr (aq) 2NaCl(aq) + Br2(l) b) Br oxidized and Cl reduced

c. 2PbO(s) 2Pb(s) + O2(g) c) O oxidized and Pb reduced

d. 2Fe3+(aq) + Sn2+ (aq) 2Fe2+(aq) + Sn4+(aq) d) Sn2+ oxidized and Fe3+ reduced

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Assigning the oxidation numbers

o The oxidation number (or oxidation state) of an element in a compound is the charge its
atoms would possess if the compound was ionic.

Rules to assign oxidation number

1. The oxidation number of an atom in an elemental substance is zero.
2. The oxidation number of a monatomic ion is equal to the ion’s charge.
3. Oxidation numbers for common nonmetals are usually assigned as follows:
Hydrogen: +1 when combined with nonmetals, -1 when combined with metals
Oxygen: -2 in most compounds; -1 peroxides in (O2− −
2 ), and -1/2 in superoxide, (O2 ), positive

values when combined with F (values vary)

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Halogens: always -1 for F; -1 for other halogens except when combined with oxygen
or other halogens (positive oxidation numbers in these cases, varying values)
4. The sum of oxidation numbers for all atoms in a molecule or polyatomic ion equals the
charge on the molecule or ion.

Note: The proper convention for reporting charge is to write the number first, followed by
the sign (e.g., 2+), while oxidation number is written with the reversed sequence, sign
followed by number (e.g., +2). This convention aims to emphasize the distinction between
these two related properties.

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.
Example:
1. Assign oxidation (ON) numbers to all the elements in the following species:
a) H2S b) SO2−
3 c) Na2SO4

Solution: a) The oxidation number H is +1, then the ON of S is

Charge on H2S = 0 = (2*(+1)) + (1*x)
x = 0 - (2*(+1)) = -2
b) The ON of O is -2, then the ON of S is
Charge on SO2−3 is -2= (3*(-2))+(1*x)
x = -2 + 6 = +4
c) The ON of O is -2 and ON for sodium is +1, the ON of S is
The charge on Na2SO4 is 0 = (2*1) + (1*x) + (4 * (-2))
x = 8 – 2 = +6
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The following reaction types are redox reaction

a) Combustion reactions in which the reductant (also called a fuel) and oxidant
(often, but not necessarily, molecular oxygen) react vigorously and produce
significant amounts of heat, and often light, in the form of a flame.
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2H2O(g)+ energy

b) Single-displacement (replacement) reactions are redox reactions in which an ion in

solution is displaced (or replaced) via the oxidation of a metallic element

Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) H2(g) + ZnCl2 (aq)

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Example: Identify which equations represent redox reactions, providing a name for the reaction if
appropriate. For those reactions identified as redox, name the oxidant and reductant.
(a) ZnCO3(s) ⟶ ZnO(s) + CO2(g)
Answer:
(b) 2Ga(l) + 3Br2(l) ⟶ 2GaBr3(s)
a) Not a redox reaction, since oxidation
(c) 2H2O2(aq) ⟶ 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
numbers remain unchanged for all
(d) BaCl2(aq) + K2SO4(aq) ⟶ BaSO4(s) + 2KCl(aq)
elements
(e) C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) ⟶ 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

b) A redox reaction. The ON of Ga increase from 0 in +3 in GaBr3. The reducing agent is Ga. The ON
of Br decrease from 0 to -1 in in GaBr3. Br is oxidizing agent

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

c) A redox reaction. Oxygen is oxidized, its oxidation number increase from -1 in H2O2 to 0 in
O2. Oxygen is also reduced, its oxidation number decreasing from -1 in H2O2 to -2 in
H2O. The reaction is called disproportionation reactions because the same substance
functions as an oxidant and a reductant.
d) Not a redox reaction, since oxidation numbers remain unchanged for all elements.
e) A redox reaction (combustion). Carbon is oxidized, its oxidation number increasing
from -2 in C2H4 to +4 in CO2. The reducing agent (fuel) is C2H4. Oxygen is reduced, its
oxidation number decreasing from 0 in O2 to -2 in H2O. The oxidizing agent is O2(g)

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Steps in Balancing Redox Reactions via the Half-Reaction Method

Step 1. Divide the skeleton reaction into two half-reactions, each of which contains the oxidized
and reduced forms of one of the species: if the oxidized form of a species is on the left side, the
reduced form must be on the right, and vice versa.
Step 2. Balance the atoms and charges in each half-reaction.

o Atoms are balanced in this order: atoms other than O and H, then O, then H.
o Charge is balanced by adding electrons (e-) to the left side in the reduction
half-reaction because the reactant gains them and to the right side in the
oxidation half-reaction because the reactant loses them.

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Step 3. If necessary, multiply one or both half-reactions by an integer so that

number of e- gained in reduction = number of e- lost in oxidation
Step 4. Add the balanced half-reactions, and include states of matter.
Step 5. For reactions occurring in basic media carry out these additional steps:
o Add OH- ions to both sides of the equation in numbers equal to the number of H+ ions.
o On the side of the equation containing both H+ and OH- ions, combine these ions to
yield water molecules.

Step 6. Check that the atoms and charges are balanced.

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Example: Write a balanced equation for the reaction between dichromate ion and iron(II) to yield
iron(III) and chromium(III) in acidic solution.
Cr2O72- + Fe2+ ⟶ Cr3+ + Fe3+
1. Write the two half-reactions
Fe2+⟶Fe3+
Cr2O72-⟶Cr3+
2. Balance all elements except oxygen and hydrogen
Fe2+⟶ Fe3+
Cr2O72-⟶ 2Cr3+
3. Balance oxygen atoms by adding H2O molecules
Fe2+⟶ Fe3+
Cr2O72-⟶ 2Cr3+ + 7H2O

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

4. Balance hydrogen atoms by adding H+ ions Exercise: Write a balanced equation for the reaction
Fe2+⟶ Fe3+
Cr2O72- + 14H+⟶ 2Cr3+ + 7H2O between KMnO4 and KI in basic solution.
5. Balance charge by adding electrons Mn𝑂4− + I2 ⟶ Mn𝑂22− + I𝑂3− (basic solution)
Fe2+⟶ Fe3+ + e-
Cr2O72- + 14H+ + 6e-⟶ 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
6. Multiply the two half-reactions by an integer
6Fe2+⟶ 6Fe3+ + 6e- (multiplied by 6)
Cr2O72- + 6e- + 14H+⟶ 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
7. Add the balanced equations and cancel species
that appear in both sides
Cr2O72- + 6e- + 14H+ + 6Fe2+⟶ 2Cr3+ + 6Fe3+ + 6e- + 7H2O
Cr2O72- + 14H+ + 6Fe2+⟶ 2Cr3+ + 6Fe3+ + 7H2O Balanced

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Reaction stoichiometry
o Stoichiometry, a term derived from the Greek words stoicheion (meaning “element”)
and metron (meaning “measure”)
1. Mole–mole factors
Example:
1. How many moles of I2 are required to react with 0.429 mol of Al according to the following equation?
2Al + 3I2 ⟶ 2AlI3
Solution: 2 moles of Al reacts with with 3 moles I
0.429 mol of Al = ?
3 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐼 𝑥 0.429 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑙
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐼 = = 0.644 moles ≈ 0.6 moles (1SF)
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑙

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

2. How many carbon dioxide molecules are produced when 0.75 mol of propane is combusted
according to this equation?
C3H8 + 5O2 ⟶ 3CO2 + 4H2O
Solution: 1 mole of C3H8 produce 3 moles CO2
0.75 mol of C3H8 = ?
3 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑂2 𝑥 0.75 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶3 𝐻8
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓CO2 = = 2.25 moles
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓C3H8

1 mole CO2 = 6.02x1023 molecules

2.25 moles CO2 = ?
2.25 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑂2 𝑥 6.02𝑥1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓CO2 = = 1.4x1024 molecules
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓𝐶𝑂2

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

2. Mass- mass problem

Example
1. What mass of sodium hydroxide, NaOH, would be required to produce 16 g of the antacid milk of
magnesia magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2 by the following reaction?
MgCl2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) ⟶ Mg(OH)2(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
mass of Mg(OH)2 mass of NaOH
Solution: =
1mole x molar mass of Mg(OH)2 2 moles x molar mass of NaOH

16g Mg(OH)2 mass of NaOH

g = g
1mole x 58.3 Mg(OH)2 2 mole x 40 NaOH
mol mol

16g Mg(OH)2 x 80 g NaOH

Mass of NaOH = = 22 g of NaOH
58.3 gMg(OH)2

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2. What mass of oxygen gas, O2, from the air is consumed in the combustion of 702 g of octane,
C8H18, one of the principal components of gasoline?
2C8H18 + 25O2 ⟶ 16CO2 + 18H2O2
mass of C8 H18 mass of O2
Solution: =
2 moles x molar mass of C8 H18 25 moles x molar mass of O2

702 g C8 H18 mass of O2

g = g
2 moles x 114.23molC8 H18 25 moles x 32mol O2

702 g C8 H18 x 25 x32 g 𝑂2

Mass of O2 = = 2.46 x 103 g of O2
2 x 114.23 g C8 H18

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Reaction Yield
a) Limiting Reactant
o The reactant that is completely used up is the limiting reactant.
o The reactant that does not completely react and is left over is called the excess reactant.
Example:
1. Consider the making grilled cheese sandwiches
The formula is

1 slice of cheese + 2 slices of bread ⟶ 1 sandwich

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o No cheese is left over and it is in limited

o 6 slices of bread is left over and it is in excess
o The making of the sandwich is determined by the limiting raw material. i. e., cheese

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.
2. Silicon nitride is a very hard, high-temperature-resistant ceramic used as a component of turbine
blades in jet engines. It is prepared according to the following equation:
3Si(s) + 2N2(g) ⟶ Si3N4(s)
Which is the limiting reactant when 2.00 g of Si and 1.50 g of N2 react?
Solution: First find the number moles of each of the reactant
2.00𝑔 𝑆𝑖 1.50𝑔 𝑁2
Number of moles of Si = = 0.0712 mol Number of moles of N2 = = 0.0535 mol
28.09 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙 28.02 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙

3 moles Si = 1 mole Si3N4 2 moles N2 = 1 mole Si3N4

0.0712 mole Si = ? mole Si3N4 0.0535 mole N2= ? mole Si3N4
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑖3 𝑁4 𝑥 0.0712 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑖
Mole of Si3N4 = = 0.0237 mol Since silicon yields the lesser amount of
3 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑖
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑖3 𝑁4 𝑥 0.0535 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑁2 product, it is the limiting reactant.
Mole of Si3N4 = = 0.0268 mol
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑁2
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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

b) Percent Yield
Theoretical yield: The amount of product that may be produced by a reaction under specified
conditions, as calculated per the stoichiometry of an appropriate balanced chemical equation.
Actual yield: the amount of product obtained in practice and it is often less than the theoretical
yield for a number of reasons.
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝑥 100 %
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
Example: Upon reaction of 1.274 g of copper sulfate with excess zinc metal, 0.392 g copper metal
was obtained according to the equation:
CuSO4 (aq) + Zn(s) ⟶ Cu(s) + ZnSO4(aq)
What is the percent yield?

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Solution: Copper sulfate as the limiting reactant

0.392 g copper metal is the actual yield
Now calculate the theoretical yield from the Stoichiometry reaction

CuSO4 (aq) + Zn(s) ⟶ Cu(s) + ZnSO4(aq)

1.274 g CuSO4 mass of 𝐶𝑢

g = g
1 mole x 159.62mol 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 1 mole x 63.55mol 𝐶𝑢

1.274 g CuSO4 𝑥 63.55 𝑔 𝐶𝑢

Mass of Cu = = 0.5072 g Cu
159.62 𝑔 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4

𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 0.392 𝑔

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝑥 100 % = 𝑥100 % = 𝟕𝟕. 𝟐𝟗 %
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 0.5072 𝑔

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Quantitative Chemical Analysis

a) Acid-base Titration
In any titration, the known
Titrant concentration of one
solution is used to
determine the unknown
concentration of another.

Analyte

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

✓ Titrant is the a known ✓ Analyte: sample solution containing

concentration that is the substance whose concentration
added from the burette. is to be measured.

✓ The equivalence point occurs when the amount (mol) of H+ ions in the original
volume of acid has reacted with the same amount (mol) of OH- ions from the burette:

Amount (mol) of H+ (originally in flask) = amount (mol) of OH- (added from burette)

✓ The end point occurs when a tiny excess of OH- ions changes the indicator permanently
to its basic color

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Example: The end point in a titration of a 50.00 mL sample of aqueous HCl was reached by
addition of 35.23 mL of 0.250 M NaOH titrant. The titration reaction is:
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) ⟶ NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
What is the molarity of the HCl?
Solution:
The number of moles of NaOH = 0.03523 L x 0.250 mol/L NaOH = 8.81x10-3 mol
From the stoichiometry,
1 mol HCl = 1 mol of NaOH, then the number of moles of HCl is 8.81x10-3 mol

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝐶𝑙 𝟖.𝟖𝟏𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑯𝑪𝒍

Molarity of HCl = = = 0.176 M
𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐻𝐶𝐿 𝟎.𝟎𝟓𝟎 𝑳

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

b) Gravimetric Analysis
A gravimetric analysis is one in which a sample is subjected to some treatment that causes a
change in the physical state of the analyte that permits its separation from the other components
of the sample.
o The required change of state in a gravimetric analysis may be achieved by various physical and
chemical processes.
Example: Moisture (water) content of a sample is routinely determined by measuring the mass of a
sample before and after controlled heating process that evaporates the water.
o In gravimetric techniques the analyte is subjected to a precipitation and the precipitate is
typically isolated from the reaction mixture by filtration, carefully dried, and then weighed.

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Example: A 0.4550 g solid mixture containing MgSO4 is dissolved in water and treated with an excess
of Ba(NO3)2, resulting in the precipitation of 0.6168 g of BaSO4.
MgSO4(aq) + Ba(NO3)2(aq) ⟶ BaSO4(s) + Mg(NO3)2(aq)
What is the concentration (mass percent) of MgSO4 in the mixture?
Solution: Calculate the mass of MgSO4 that would yield the provided precipitate
mass of MgSO4 0.6168 𝑔 𝐵𝑎𝑆𝑂4
g = g
1 mole x 120.37 𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂4 1 mole x 233.43 𝐵𝑎𝑆𝑂4
mol mol

120.37𝑔 𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂4 𝑥 0.6168 𝑔 𝐵𝑎𝑆𝑂4

Mass of MgSO4 = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝒈
233.43𝑔 𝐵𝑎𝑆𝑂4

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂4 0.3180 𝑔

% of MgSO4 = 𝑥 100 % = 𝑥 100 % = 𝟔𝟗. 𝟗𝟎 %
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 0.4550 𝑔

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Combustion analysis: is a gravimetric method that used to determine the elemental composition
of hydrocarbons
• In a combustion analysis, a weighed sample of the compound is heated to a high temperature under
a stream of oxygen gas, resulting in its complete combustion to yield gaseous products of known
identities (see the fig below).
The gaseous combustion products
are swept through separate,
reweighed collection devices
containing compounds that
selectively absorb each product

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