THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM — STUDY

NOTES

🩸 Overview
●​ The Endocrine System is a network of glands that secrete hormones directly into the
bloodstream.​

●​ Endocrine gland: Secretes into the blood (no ducts).​

●​ Exocrine gland: Secretes through ducts (e.g., sweat, saliva).​

○​ Pancreas is both:​

■​ Endocrine — secretes insulin and glucagon into blood.​

■​ Exocrine — secretes digestive enzymes into the small intestine.​

Function

●​ Acts as a communication system using chemical messengers (hormones) to

regulate:​

○​ Growth​

○​ Metabolism​

○​ Reproduction​

○​ Stress response​

○​ Homeostasis (internal balance)​

●​ Compared to the nervous system, endocrine communication is:​

○​ Slower (hormones travel via blood)​

 ○​ Longer lasting (effects can persist for hours to weeks)​

🧬 HORMONES
Definition

●​ Hormones = Chemical messengers produced by one tissue and transported through the
circulatory system to affect target cells in other tissues.​

●​ Target Cells: Have specific receptors for a hormone; only these cells respond.​

●​ Mechanism: Hormones alter cell activity by changing enzyme levels or protein

synthesis.​

🧪 CLASSES OF HORMONES
Hormones are categorized by their chemical structure:

1. Amino Acid Derivatives (Biogenic Amines)

●​ Small molecules similar to amino acids.​

●​ Derived from:​

○​ Tyrosine: Thyroid hormones (T₃, T₄), Dopamine, Epinephrine, Norepinephrine​

○​ Tryptophan: Melatonin (from pineal gland)​

2. Peptide Hormones

●​ Chains of amino acids. Usually first made as prohormones (inactive forms).​

●​ Group 1: Glycoproteins (large peptides with carbohydrate side chains)​

○​ Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)​

 ○​ Luteinizing Hormone (LH)​

○​ Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)​

●​ Group 2: Shorter Peptides & Polypeptides​

○​ Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)​

○​ Oxytocin​

○​ Growth Hormone (GH)​

○​ Prolactin​

○​ Hormones from Hypothalamus, Heart, Thymus, Digestive Tract, Pancreas,

Posterior Pituitary​

3. Lipid Derivatives

●​ Derived from lipids like cholesterol or arachidonic acid.​

a. Eicosanoids

●​ Derived from arachidonic acid (20-carbon fatty acid).​

●​ Act mainly in local cellular communication (paracrine signals).​

●​ Types:​

○​ Leukotrienes — released by white blood cells; coordinate immune response &

inflammation.​

○​ Prostaglandins — produced by most tissues; communicate pain & regulate

functions like blood flow.​

○​ Thromboxanes / Prostacyclins — help with blood clotting and vessel activity.​

b. Steroid Hormones

●​ Structurally similar to cholesterol.​

 ●​ Produced by:​

○​ Testes: Androgens (e.g., testosterone)​

○​ Ovaries: Estrogens, Progestins​

○​ Adrenal Cortex: Corticosteroids (e.g., cortisol, aldosterone)​

○​ Kidneys: Calcitriol (vitamin D hormone)​

●​ Fat-soluble, bound to transport proteins, remain in circulation longer.​

💧 FAT-SOLUBLE vs WATER-SOLUBLE HORMONES

Type Example Mechanism Solubility

Fat-Solu Steroids (e.g., Pass through plasma membrane → bind to Lipid-solub

ble estrogen, cortisol) nuclear receptors → activate genes → le
produce new proteins

Water-So Peptides & Amines Bind to cell membrane receptors → Water-solu

luble (e.g., insulin, trigger second messengers (like cAMP) → ble
epinephrine) activate enzymes or cellular responses

Second Messengers include:

●​ cyclic AMP (cAMP)​

●​ IP₃, DAG, Ca²⁺, cGMP​

→ amplify the hormone’s signal inside the target cell.​

🔁 FEEDBACK INHIBITION (NEGATIVE FEEDBACK)

●​ Mechanism to maintain hormone balance and prevent overproduction.​

●​ When hormone levels rise, they inhibit further release of the same hormone.​
 ○​ Example:​

■​ Hypothalamus → releases TRH → stimulates Pituitary → releases TSH

→ stimulates Thyroid → releases T₃ & T₄.​

■​ High T₃/T₄ levels → inhibit TRH & TSH release (feedback loop).​

Result: Hormone production matches body’s needs — maintaining homeostasis.

🧠 MAJOR ENDOCRINE GLANDS & HORMONES

1. Hypothalamus

●​ Located below the thalamus; links nervous and endocrine systems.​

●​ Produces releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones that control the anterior
pituitary:​

○​ TRH → stimulates TSH​

○​ CRH → stimulates ACTH​

○​ GHRH → stimulates GH​

○​ PRH → stimulates prolactin​

○​ GnRH → stimulates LH and FSH​

2. Pituitary Gland (“Master Gland”)

●​ Two parts: Anterior (glandular) & Posterior (neural).​

●​ Anterior Pituitary Hormones:​

○​ TSH → thyroid → T₃, T₄​

○​ ACTH → adrenal cortex → cortisol​

 ○​ GH → growth, metabolism​

○​ PRL → milk production​

○​ LH & FSH → gonads → sex hormones & gamete production​

●​ Posterior Pituitary Hormones (produced by hypothalamus, stored here):​

○​ ADH (vasopressin): water retention by kidneys​

○​ Oxytocin: uterine contractions, milk ejection, bonding​

3. Thyroid Gland

●​ Located in the neck, anterior to trachea.​

●​ Produces:​

○​ T₃ (triiodothyronine) & T₄ (thyroxine) → increase metabolism​

○​ Calcitonin: lowers blood calcium levels​

4. Parathyroid Glands

●​ Four small glands behind the thyroid.​

●​ Secrete Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) → increases blood calcium by:​

○​ Stimulating bone breakdown​

○​ Enhancing calcium absorption from gut & kidney reabsorption​

5. Adrenal Glands

●​ Located on top of kidneys.​

 ●​ Adrenal Cortex:​

○​ Cortisol: stress response, increases blood glucose​

○​ Aldosterone: sodium & water retention (raises BP)​

○​ Androgens: minor sex hormones​

●​ Adrenal Medulla:​

○​ Epinephrine & Norepinephrine: fight-or-flight response (increase HR, BP,

energy)​

6. Pancreas

●​ Dual gland (endocrine + exocrine).​

●​ Islets of Langerhans secrete:​

○​ Insulin: lowers blood sugar (stores glucose)​

○​ Glucagon: raises blood sugar (releases stored glucose)​

7. Gonads

●​ Ovaries: Estrogen, Progesterone (female secondary traits, menstrual cycle)​

●​ Testes: Testosterone (male traits, sperm production)​

8. Other Hormone-Producing Organs

●​ Kidneys:​

○​ Renin: regulates BP​

 ○​ Erythropoietin (EPO): stimulates RBC production​

○​ Calcitriol: promotes calcium absorption​

●​ Pineal Gland:​

○​ Melatonin: regulates circadian rhythm​

●​ Heart:​

○​ Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP): reduces BP by increasing sodium excretion​

⚙️ KEY CONCEPTS TO REMEMBER

●​ Hormones act only on target cells with the correct receptor.​

●​ Endocrine system is slower but longer-lasting than the nervous system.​

●​ Feedback loops keep hormones in balance.​

●​ Solubility determines how hormones act:​

○​ Fat-soluble → enter cells, act on DNA.​

○​ Water-soluble → use receptors & second messengers.​

●​ Hypothalamus → Pituitary → Target Gland = main control axis.​

📋 Quick Reference Summary Table

Gland Hormone Target Function

Hypothalamus Releasing hormones Pituitary Regulate hormone

secretion

Pituitary (Ant.) GH, TSH, ACTH, PRL, Various organs Growth, metabolism,
LH, FSH reproduction
Pituitary (Post.) ADH, Oxytocin Kidneys, uterus Water balance, labor,
bonding

Thyroid T₃, T₄, Calcitonin Cells, bones Metabolism, calcium

balance

Parathyroid PTH Bones, kidneys Raises blood Ca²⁺

Adrenal Cortex Cortisol, Aldosterone Many tissues Stress, Na⁺ balance

Adrenal Epinephrine, Body cells Fight-or-flight

Medulla Norepinephrine

Pancreas Insulin, Glucagon Body cells Blood glucose regulation

Gonads Estrogen, Testosterone Reproductive Sexual development

organs

Pineal Melatonin Brain Sleep cycle

Kidneys EPO, Calcitriol Bone marrow, RBC formation, Ca²⁺

intestine absorption