Transmission Line Design

Considerations
Capacitance : Stranded Conductors,
Unequal Phase Spacing , Bundled
Conductors
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 Capacitance : Equal Phase Spacing

For a 1-meter line length, the capacitance between conductors is

if rx = ry= r,
_

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capacitance from line to the grounded
neutral :

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Stranded Conductors:
The resulting capacitance becomes

Bundled Conductors:

a bundled conductor line with two conductors per bundle.

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Equation for capacitance is similar to equation for
inductance.
In both cases Deq is the geometric mean of the distances
between phases.
Also, DSC are analogous to DSL, except that the conductor
outside radius r replaces the conductor GMR DS. 5
1 mile = 1.6 kilometers
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 9
Q=VI=VwCV
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selection criteria of cross-section of conductor
• What is the cable cross-section?

• the cross-sectional area of the metal conductors.

• the larger the cross-sectional area of the conductors in a
cable, the greater the current carrying capacity.
• The cable cross-section is given in mm²
 What standards are there for cable
cross-sections?

The internationally recognized

standard IEC 6022 refers to the
conductor cross-section of insulated
cables and is equivalent to the cable
cross-section DIN standard DIN EN
60228 and the conductor cross-section
standard VDE 0295.

all the diameters of the individual cable

cross-sections clearly presented in a table:
• What happens if the cable cross-section is too small or too
large?
Larger cable cross-sections cost more and are less flexible, making
installation harder.
Long, thin wires are more likely to heat up, increasing electrical resistance.
Excessive heat can damage insulation or cause fires.
Therefore, longer cables require larger cross-sections to stay safe.
Bigger cross-sections also reduce voltage drop in electrical systems.
 Calculate the cable cross-section from the cable diameter using:

• Calculate the cable diameter from the cable cross-section using:

.
 • How to recognize the cable cross-section?

• A wire gauge is suitable for measuring the cable cross-

section of a wire.
 What does AWG mean for a cable?

• AWG, or American Wire Gauge, is a standardized system for measuring the

diameter or thickness of electrical wire.
• The measurement of AWG is based on a logarithmic scale, meaning that each
successive gauge number corresponds to a wire that is smaller in diameter, and
the number increases as the wire gets thinner.
• The AWG system is derived from a process in which a solid wire is drawn
through a series of progressively smaller dies. The more times the wire is
drawn, the smaller its diameter becomes, and the higher the AWG number.
 How to calculate the cross-section of an AWG cable
• To convert AWG (American Wire Gauge) to cross-sectional area in square millimeters (mm²),
Power and distribution
transformers
Transformers
In this chapter, we review basic transformer theory and develop
equivalent circuits for practical transformers operating under
sinusoidal-steady state conditions. We look at models of single-phase
two-winding, three-phase two-winding, as well as autotransformers.
Also, the per-unit system, which simplifies power system analysis by
eliminating the ideal transformer winding in transformer equivalent
circuits, is introduced in this chapter

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Introduction
In the power station, the three-phase ac generator generates a three-
phase alternating voltage in the range between 11 and 20 kV.
The magnitude of the generated voltage is increased to 120 kV or more
by means of a power transformer. This higher magnitude of voltage is
then transmitted to the grid substation by a three-phase transmission
lines.
A lower line voltage of 415 V is achieved by stepping down either from
the 11 or 33 kV lines by a distribution transformer. In these cases, a
three-phase transformer is used in either to step-up or step-down the
voltage.
Since a transformer plays a vital role in feeding an electrical network
with the required voltage, it becomes an important requirement of a
power system engineer to understand the fundamental details about a
transformer along with its analytical behavior in the circuit domain.
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A transformer, contains the following characteristics
(i) it has no moving parts,
(ii) no electrical connection between the primary and
secondary windings,
(iii) windings are magnetically coupled,
(v) efficiency is very high i.e., more than 95 %, and
(vi) frequency is unchanged.

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Working Principle of Transformer
Figure 2.1 shows a schematic diagram of a single-
phase transformer. There are two types of
windings in a single-phase transformer.
These are called primary and secondary windings
or coils. The primary winding is connected to the
alternating voltage source and the secondary
winding is connected to the load.

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A sinusoidal current flows in the primary winding when
it is connected to an alternating voltage source. This
current establish a flux Ø which moves from the
primary winding to the secondary winding through low
reluctance magnetic core.

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Flux in a Transformer
The current in the primary winding establishes a flux. The flux that
moves from primary to secondary and links both the windings is
called the mutual flux and its maximum value is represented by Øm.
Flux which links only the primary winding and completes the
magnetic path through the surrounding air is known primary leakage
flux. The primary leakage flux is denoted by Ø1L.

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Similarly, secondary leakage flux is that flux which links
only the secondary winding and completes the
magnetic path through the surrounding air. The
secondary leakage flux is denoted by Ø2L. Mutual and
leakage fluxes are shown in Fig. 2.2.

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 The Ideal Transformer

An ideal transformer is one which does not supply any energy to

the load i.e., the secondary winding is open circuited. The main
points of an ideal transformer :
1. The windings have zero resistance; therefore, the I2R losses in
the windings are zero.
2. The core permeability µc is infinite, which corresponds to zero
core reluctance.
Reluctance is the opposition of a magnetic path to magnetic flux, similar to how resistance opposes electric current in an electrical circuit.
3. There is no leakage flux; that is, the entire flux Øc is confined
to the core and links both windings.
4. There are no core losses.

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Figure 2.3a shows an ideal transformer where small magnetizing
current Im will flow in the primary winding when it is connected
to the alternating voltage source, V1. This magnetizing current
lags behind the supply voltage, V1 by 90° and produces the flux
Ø, which induces the primary and secondary emfs. These emfs
lag behind the flux, Ø by 90°. The magnitude of primary induced
emf E1 and supply voltage V1 is the same, but are 180° out of
phase as shown in Fig. 2.3b.

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E.M.F. Equation of Transformer
The primary winding draws a current when it is connected to an
alternating voltage source. This primary sinusoidal current produces a
sinusoidal flux Ø that can be expressed as,

Instantaneous emf induced in the primary winding is,

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Similarly, instantaneous emf induced in the secondary winding is,

By substituting,

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The maximum value of e1 is,

The rms value of the primary emf is,

the expression of the secondary emf is also same. The

primary and secondary voltages can be determined
from Eqs. if other parameters are known.

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 Turns Ratio of Transformer
Turns ratio is an important parameter for drawing an
equivalent circuit of a transformer. The turns ratio is
used to identify the step-up and step-down
transformers. According to Faraday’s laws, the induced
emf in the primary (e1) and the secondary (e2)
windings are,
The magnitude of primary induced
emf E1 and supply voltage V1 is the same,

The magnitude of primary induced

emf E2 and supply voltage V2 is the same,

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In case of N2>N1, the transformer is called a step-up
transformer. Whereas for N1>N2, the transformer is
called a step-down transformer. The losses are zero in
an ideal transformer. In this case, the input power of
the transformer is equal to its output power and this
yields,

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MMF (Magnetomotive Force):
is a measure of the magnetizing force that drives the magnetic
flux through the transformer's core.
• the product of the number of turns in the winding and the
current flowing through the winding:
MMF= N I
• MMF produced by the primary current will be equal to the
magnetomotive force produced by the secondary current and
it can be expressed as,

it is concluded that the ratio of primary to secondary current is

inversely proportional to the turns ratio of the transformer.
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The input and output power of an ideal transformer is,

the output power can be re-arranged as,

it is seen that the input and the output power are the same in
case of an ideal transformer. Similarly, the input and output
reactive powers are,

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The number of turns in the secondary coil of a 22 kVA, 2200
V/220 V single-phase transformer is 50. Find the (i) number of
primary turns, (ii) primary full load current, and (iii) secondary
full load current. Neglect all kinds of losses in the transformer.

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A 25 kVA single-phase transformer has the primary and
secondary number of turns of 200 and 400, respectively. The
transformer is connected to a 220 V, 50 Hz source. Calculate the
(i) turns ratio, and (ii) mutual flux in the core.

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