Prepared by:
Prof. Heba Abdelmowla Ahmed 1
Objectives:
By the end of the lecture, the student should be able to:
❑Define data collection
❑Discuss characteristics of data collection.
❑Describe various methods of collecting structured and
unstructured data.
❑Define Questionnaire
❑ Compare advantage and disadvantages of each method
of data collection.
❑List innovations in data collection tools in nursing
researches
2
Outline:
❑Introduction
❑Definition, purposes of data collection
❑Methods of data collection
❑Self-report methods:
✓Unstructured and semi-structured self-
report techniques.
✓Structured interviews and questionnaires.
3
Outline:
❑Scales
✓Types of scale.
✓Advantages and disadvantages of scales.
❑Observational Methods
✓Unstructured observational.
✓Structured observational methods.
✓Advantages and disadvantages.
❑Biophysiologic Measures:
✓Uses of biophysiologic measures.
✓Types of biophysiologic measures.
✓Innovations in data collection tools in nursing
researches. 4
Introduction
Data is a collection of facts, figures, objects,
symbols, and events from different sources.
Data collection methods are techniques and
procedures for gathering information for
research purposes. The data collected
through different methods can then be
analyzed to support or refute research
hypotheses and draw conclusions about the
study’s subject matter.
5
Understanding data collection methods
❑ Data collection methods encompass a variety of
techniques and tools for gathering quantitative and
qualitative data.
❑ These methods are integral to the data collection and
ensure accurate and comprehensive data
acquisition.
❑ Effective utilization of accurate data collection tools and
techniques enhances the accuracy and reliability of
collected data, facilitating informed decision-making
and strategic planning.
6
Before the researchers begins collecting data,
they must answer three questions first:
❑ What’s the purpose (s) of this research?
❑ What kinds of data are they gathering?
❑ What methods and procedures will be used to
collect, store, and process the information?
7
Purposes of data collection
❑To obtain information regarding
specific topic.
❑To test hypothesis & addressing
research question.
❑To describe the sample.
❑Help to assess costs.
❑Help to interpret results
8
Basic Characteristics of Data Collection Methods
Structure.
Quantifiability.
Objectivity.
1. Structure (structured/unstructured)
•Research data for quantitative studies
are often collected according to a
structured plan (form) that includes a
fixed set of questions to be answered
in a specified sequence and with pre-
designated response options (e.g., agree
or disagree).
10
11
Consider the following two methods of asking
people about their levels of stress.
Structured Unstructured
During the past week,
How stressed or
would you say you anxious have you been
felt stressed? this past week?
1. Rarely or none of the
time,
2. Some or a little of
the time, Tell me about the
3. Occasionally or a
kinds of tensions and
moderately
stresses you have been
4. Most or all the time?
experiencing.
12
2. Quantifiability. قابليه القياس
❑Quantitative data are expressed as an amount
, quantity, or numerical values (i.e., all variables
must be quantitatively measured).
❑On the other hand, qualitative data are
collected in narrative form. In such case, to
quantify this data, responses should be
categorized.
13
3. Objectivity
•Objectivity refers to the
degree to which two independent
researchers can arrive at similar
“scores” or make similar
observations regarding the
concept of interest.
14
Bio-physiologic
1. Self-Report methods
Definition
Participants provide information about
themselves without interference from the
researcher.
Through self-reports, researchers can gather
retrospective or prospective data (about
activities occurring in the past or in the
future.
16
Types of Self-Report methods
Unstructured
• and Semi-structured Structured Interviews and
Self-Report Techniques. Questionnaires
Unstructured and Semi- Structured Self-Report
structured Self-Report Techniques
Techniques. Questionnaire (open ended, close
ended e.g., scales)Interview
Structured self-report techniques
Self-report data are often collected by instrument
Interview Schedule
The questions are asked orally in either a face to face or telephone format
The questionnaire
The respondents complete the instruments themselves in a paper and pencil format.
Question Form
Closed-ended questions. Open-ended questions
Definitions: Questionnaire, interview
19
20
21
Disadvantages of interview
•Time consuming
•Not appropriate for large sample
•Potential bias (subjective)
•Potential inconsistencies
22
Question Form in Interview and questionnaire:
a. Closed - ended questions
b. open ended questions
23
closed-ended questions.
•closed-ended questions require a yes/no
reply or have limited responses (scale) that
the participants can give.
24
Types of closed ended questions:
25
Examples of close end questions include:
Have you ever been hospitalized? Dichotomus
Yes ( )
No ( )
How important for you to avoid pregnancy
currently?
Extremely important ( )
Very important ( )
Somewhat important ( )
Not at all important ( )
26
Multiple Choice Question Examples
1. Which one is your preferred color?
• Yellow
• Red
• Black
• Gold
2. When is your favourite time of the day?
• Morning
• Afternoon
• Evening
• Night
27
Closed-ended versus open ended questions:
Closed-ended Open ended
- Easier to
- Unlimited answers
administer and to
Advantages - Reveals respondents
analyze
thinking process
- More efficient
- The analysis of
- More difficult to
questions are time
construct
Disadvantage consuming, difficult,
- Respondents may
subjective.
feel frustrated.
28
2- Scales a form of closed ended
questions
A scale is a device designed to assign a
numeric score to subject responses
Eg: a scale for measuring people's weight.
- Scales are more precise means of
measuring phenomena than are
questionnaire. Likert scale 1-5
Semantic Differential 1-7
The 5-point Likert scale
•Designed to determine the opinion or
attitude of a subject.
•Respondents are asked to indicate the
degree to which they agree or disagree with
the opinion expressed by the statement.
After a likert scale is administering to
subjects, the responses must be scored.
30
31
32
Disadvantages of likert scale (bias)
Respondents may select the responses
from the Likert Scale that they believe
to be the most socially acceptable. This
can reduce honesty and may mean that
the reactions are not entirely
representative of the survey pool.
33
B- Semantic Differential (SD).
Used for measuring the meaning of
things and concepts (snider & osgood,
1969). Participants indicate where they
feel a product or experience lies on a
7-point scale between polar adjectives
(e.g., Strong-weak, good-bad)
35
open ended questions
•open ended questions are questions that do
not limit users to one- or two-word answer.
Instead, they have multiple potential
responses,
•N.B: for writing effective open-ended
questions, Begin your question with how,
why, and what
•Examples
Please describe your experience with oral
contraception 36
Unstructured Self-Report Techniques
•Researcher does not have a form of
questions that must be asked in a
specific order and worded in each way.
Instead, the researcher starts with
some general questions or topics and
allows the subjects to tell their stories
in a narrative fashion. 38
Advantages and disadvantages of Unstructured Self-
Report Techniques
• Unstructured interviews are used when a new area of
research is being explored.
• Unstructured interviews may be appropriate to let
people talk freely about their concerns and to take
initiative role in directing the flow of conversation.
• However, unstructured interviews are extremely time
consuming.
39
II. Observational methods
Observational methods can be used to gather a variety
of information, including:
➢ Characteristics and conditions of individuals (e.g.,
the sleep—wake state of patients)
➢ Verbal communication (e.g., exchange of
information during medication administration);
➢ Nonverbal communication (e.g., facial expressions).
➢ Observations can be made in laboratory or in natural settings.
Observational Methods
Unstructured Structured
observational Observational
methods Methods
A. Unstructured observational methods
• Unstructured observational
methods involve the
collection of descriptive
information that is analyzed
qualitatively. (Anecdotes) to
observe certain behavior
• Nurse researchers
sometimes use an
unstructured approach
known as participant
observation to study
nursing problem.
Advantages of Unstructured Observation Method
• Gives a deeper and richer understanding of human behavior
and social situations than is possible with more structured
procedures.
• Flexible and therefore permit the observer freedom to re-
conceptualize the problem after becoming familiar with the
situation.
Disadvantages of Unstructured Observation Method
The possibility of emotional involvement and
bias become important issues. 43
B. Structured Observational Methods
• Structured observation involves the collection of
observational data using formal instruments that
indicate what to observe, how long to observe it,
and how to record the needs information.
Methods of recording structured observation
1. A checklist
2. A rating scale.
Both types of record-keeping instruments specify in advance
the behaviors or events to be observed and are designed to
produce numeric information. 44
Methods of Recording Structured Observation
Checklist
The checklist is generally
formatted with the list of
the behaviors or events on
the left and space on the
right for documenting the
frequency or the duration
of occurrence of
behaviors.
45
Methods of Recording Structured Observation
Rating Scale
Rating scale requires the observers to rate a
phenomenon along a descriptive
continuum that is typically bipolar.
Rating scales can also be used as an
extension of checklists, in which
observers not only record the occurrence
of a behavior but also rate some
qualitative aspect of it, such as its
magnitude or intensity. 46
Rating Scale
47
Advantages of Observational Methods:
If people cannot be expected to
describe adequately their own
behaviors when people are unaware of
their own behavior (e.g., manifesting
preoperative symptoms of anxiety)
when people are embarrassed to
report their activities (e.g., displays of
aggression or hostility)
48
Disadvantages ❑Ethical difficulties
of ❑A high rate of refusal to
observational cooperate.
methods:
❑Observer biases.
49
III. Bio-physiologic Measures
• Require specialized technical instruments and
equipment for their measurement.
Types
In vivo In vitro
measurements are measurements Lab
those performed analysis
directly in or on living are performed outside the
organisms. Examples organism’s body, as in the
include measures of case of measuring serum
oxygen saturation, blood potassium concentration
pressure, and body in the blood.
temperature.
50
51
Classes of laboratory analysis
➢Chemical measurements, such as the measure of
hormone levels, sugar levels, or potassium levels.
➢Microbiologic measures, such as bacterial counts
and identification
➢Cytologic or histologic measures, such as tissue
biopsies.
Innovations in data collection tools in nursing researches
Mobile & internet surveys
Web-based meetings camera
Triangulation to increase accuracy of data
❑Triangulation of data collection methods
Collection of same information using different
methods (closed ended questions, observational
checklist).
❑Triangulation of sources of data
collection
Collection of same information from a variety of
sources (students, nurses, head nurses, doctors).
❑Triangulation of researchers
Collection of same information from more than one
evaluator. IPDET © 2009 54
References
❑Norwood S. Research essentials:
foundations for evidence-based practice. New
Jersey: Pearson education, 2022.
❑Polit D, Tatano C. Essentials of nursing
research: appraising evidence for nursing
practice. 8th ed. China: Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins, 2014.
❑Loisell C, Mc-Grath J. Canadian essentials
of nursing research. 3rd ed. China: Lippincott
Williams & Wilkins, 2011.
55
56