ELECTRIC MACHINES II

Unit 2: Three-Phase Synchronous Generator

(Alternator)
Exam-Oriented Study Notes
IOE / Pulchowk Campus – BEL, Electrical Engineering

How to use these notes

Each topic follows: Concept → Derivation → Formulas → Phasor/Circuit Sketch → Advantages/Disadvantages →
Applications → Exam Points → Solved Numericals → Viva Questions → Memory Tips.
ASCII/text diagrams are given wherever a phasor diagram, equivalent circuit, or magnetic sketch is normally drawn on
paper — redraw these neatly in your exam copy.
Boxed formulas are the ones most frequently asked to derive or apply numerically.
Contents
2.1 Working Principle, Necessity of Constant Speed, Speed Governor
2.2 EMF Equation, Distribution Factor, Pitch Factor
2.3 Operation at No-Load and Load Conditions
2.4 Armature Reaction and Its Effects (R, L, C loads) – Phasor Diagrams
2.5 Concept of Synchronous Reactance and Impedance
2.6 Voltage Regulation: EMF, MMF (Ampere-turn) and ZPF Methods
2.7 Parallel Operation of Alternators, Load Sharing, Speed-Droop
2.8 Transient Condition: Transient and Sub-transient Reactance
2.9 Synchronous Generator Connected to an Infinite Bus
2.10 Limits of Active/Reactive Power – Capability Curve
2.11 Losses and Efficiency
Note: Right-click the list above in Word and choose “Update Field” is not needed — this is a plain linked list of the sections that follow in
order.
2.1 Working Principle, Necessity of Constant Speed, Speed Governor

2.1.1 Definition
A three-phase synchronous generator (alternator) is an AC machine that converts mechanical energy into three-
phase electrical energy at a frequency that is rigidly related to the rotor speed and the number of poles. It is
called “synchronous” because it can deliver power only when running at synchronous speed, i.e. the rotor field
and the resultant stator field rotate in synchronism.

2.1.2 Working Principle

Operation is based on Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction. The rotor (field system) is excited by DC and
rotates inside/around the stator carrying a three-phase distributed winding (armature). As the rotor poles
sweep past the stator conductors, they cut across the conductors and induce an alternating EMF in each phase
winding, the three EMFs being displaced by 120° electrical due to symmetric spacing of the phase windings.
• Field (rotor): excited by DC (via slip rings/brushes, or brushless exciter) → produces a stationary flux pattern
with respect to the rotor.
• Armature (stator): three identical windings displaced 120° (elec.) apart in space; EMF is induced by relative
motion between flux and conductors.
• Prime mover (turbine/engine) drives the rotor at synchronous speed Ns.

Construction types

Feature Salient-Pole Type Cylindrical (Non-salient) Rotor

Pole shape Projecting poles, non-uniform air gap Smooth, uniform air gap
Speed Low & medium speed (120–600 rpm) High speed (1500/3000 rpm)
Prime mover Hydraulic turbine, diesel engine Steam/gas turbine
Number of poles Large (4 and above) 2 or 4
Lower (poor for high speed – High (robust, small diameter, long axial
Mechanical strength
windage/centrifugal stress) length)
Reactance Xd ≠ Xq (two-reaction theory) Xd ≈ Xq
Rotor diameter vs
Large diameter, short axial length Small diameter, long axial length
length

Diagram – Basic Layout (cross-section sketch description)

Stator slots with 3-phase winding (a,b,c)

____________________________________________
/ a1 c2' b1 a2' c1 \
| ___________AIR GAP__________________________|
| / N S N S \
| | \ ROTOR (DC field, / \ | |
| | \ rotating at Ns) / \ | |
| \_____/\_________________/\_________\________/ |
| b2' a1' c2 b1' a2 |
 \____________________________________________/
STATOR (armature, stationary)

Rotor driven by prime mover at Ns --> flux cuts stator

conductors --> 3-phase EMF induced, 120 elec. deg apart

Fig 2.1: Salient-pole synchronous machine – simplified cross-section (4-pole shown)

2.1.3 The Synchronous Speed Relation

Ns = 120 f / P (rpm)
where f = frequency (Hz), P = number of poles
This relation is the heart of the machine's name: for a fixed number of poles, frequency and speed are locked
together. Once the alternator is connected to a grid of fixed frequency, its rotor MUST run at exactly Ns – it
cannot “slip” like an induction machine.

2.1.4 Necessity of Constant Speed Operation

Constant speed is not just desirable but essential for a synchronous generator, for the following reasons:
1. Fixed frequency: f = PNs/120. Domestic and industrial loads, transformers, and all grid-connected
equipment are designed for a fixed frequency (50 Hz in Nepal/India). Any speed drift directly changes
frequency.
2. Parallel operation: When two or more alternators (or an alternator and the grid/infinite bus) are connected
in parallel, they must all run at speeds corresponding to the same electrical frequency; otherwise large
circulating currents, hunting, and even pole-slipping (loss of synchronism) occur.
3. Time-keeping loads and protection coordination: many protection relays, synchronous clocks and timing
circuits rely on constant frequency.
4. Stability of voltage and reactive power sharing: reactive power sharing between paralleled machines
depends on excitation, but the whole framework assumes a common, constant synchronous frequency.
5. Turbine/generator design limits: mechanical resonances, blade stresses in steam/gas turbines are designed
around a fixed rated speed; speed excursions risk mechanical damage.

Exam Point
A synchronous generator can only deliver steady, correct-frequency power at Ns = 120f/P. If prime-mover speed
changes even slightly under load, frequency drifts – hence every large alternator MUST have a speed governor.

2.1.5 Speed Governor

A governor is a closed-loop (feedback) speed-control device fitted to the prime mover (turbine/engine) that
automatically adjusts the input (steam/water/fuel valve opening) to keep the rotor speed – and hence
frequency – constant despite changes in electrical load.

Working principle of a (centrifugal/mechanical-hydraulic) governor

• As electrical load increases, the generator draws more torque from the turbine, which tends to slow the
turbine down.
• Flyball/centrifugal weights on the governor sense the drop in speed – they move inward as speed falls.
• This movement operates a pilot valve which increases the gate/steam-valve opening, admitting more
water/steam/fuel.
 • Increased input torque restores speed close to the set value (a small permanent “speed droop” is
intentionally kept – see Sec. 2.7).
• The reverse action occurs when load decreases.

Set-speed reference
|
v
+----+ Flyball/Fly-weight +-----------+ Steam/
|Load|--> Speed Sensor ---> | Governor/ |--> Water
|chng| (senses Ns) | Servo- | Valve
+----+ | | motor + | Opening
\--(feedback)--| Pilot Valve|
+-----------+
|
v
Prime Mover (Turbine) --> Rotor

Fig 2.2: Governor feedback (speed-control) loop – block diagram

Types of governors

Type Principle Typical use

Centrifugal force of rotating flyballs moves a

Mechanical (Watt/Flyball) Small diesel gensets,
sleeve mechanically linked to the fuel/steam
governor older plants
valve
Flyball signal amplified via oil pressure/servo Medium/large hydro &
Hydraulic governor
system for large valve forces steam plants
Modern
Electro-hydraulic governor Electronic speed sensing (magnetic pickup) +
hydro/thermal/gas
(EHG) hydraulic actuation, PID control
turbines
Fully electronic speed sensing and actuator Small/medium gensets,
Electronic governor
control modern digital plants

2.1.6 Advantages / Disadvantages / Applications

Advantages of synchronous generators

• Can generate at any desired voltage/frequency by design (fixed by pole number and speed).
• Can supply or absorb reactive power by controlling field excitation (voltage/VAR control).
• High efficiency at large ratings; used for bulk power generation.

Disadvantages
• Cannot self-start as a motor from rest without extra means (not relevant to generating mode, but relevant
when used as synchronous motor/condenser).
• Strict constant-speed requirement – needs a governor and precise prime-mover control.
• Parallel operation requires careful synchronization; mismatch can cause large transient currents.
Applications
• Central power stations: hydro, thermal (steam), gas, nuclear – virtually all grid electricity is generated by 3-
phase synchronous alternators.
• Standby/emergency diesel generator sets.
• Ship and aircraft power generation.

2.1.7 Viva Questions – 2.1

1. Why is the machine called a “synchronous” generator?
2. Derive/state the relation between speed, frequency, and poles.
3. Why must an alternator run at constant speed? What happens if speed drifts?
4. What is a governor? Explain its working with a block diagram.
5. Differentiate salient-pole and cylindrical rotor constructions with reasons for their application area.
6. What is speed droop and why is a small droop deliberately allowed in governors? (see Sec. 2.7)

2.1.8 Memory Tips

Mnemonic
“NsFP” – Ns = 120f/P: remember as ‘Never Stop Frequency Production’.
Salient = ‘Slow & Sticking-out poles’ (low-speed hydro); Cylindrical = ‘Cylinder-smooth & fast’ (steam/gas turbines).
Governor = ‘Guardian Of Voltage/frequENcy’ – senses speed, acts on the valve, restores balance.
2.2 EMF Equation, Distribution Factor, Pitch Factor

2.2.1 Assumptions for the EMF Equation

• Flux distribution in the air gap is sinusoidal (fundamental component only considered).
• Winding is uniformly distributed and symmetrical in the three phases.
• Speed is constant at synchronous speed Ns.
• Magnetic circuit is unsaturated (linear) unless stated otherwise.

2.2.2 EMF Equation – Derivation

Consider a full-pitch, concentrated coil of N turns linking a sinusoidally distributed flux per pole Φ (Wb). As the
rotor (flux) rotates at synchronous speed, the flux linked by the coil varies sinusoidally with time:

ϕ(t) = Φ cos(ωt), ω = 2πf

Induced EMF per turn is e = -N dϕ/dt. For the whole coil of N turns:

e(t) = NωΦ sin(ωt)

Maximum value: Em = NωΦ = 2πf NΦ. RMS value of EMF per phase for a full-pitch, concentrated winding:

Erms = Em/√2 = (2π/√2) f N Φ = 4.44 f N Φ (per phase, full-pitch &

concentrated)
In an actual machine, the winding is (a) distributed over several slots per pole per phase, and (b) usually short-
pitched (chorded) to improve waveform. Both factors reduce the net EMF slightly below the idealized 4.44fNΦ
value, and are accounted for by the distribution factor Kd and pitch (coil-span) factor Kp.

EPh = 4.44 Kp Kd f N Φ Volts/phase

Kw = Kp × Kd (overall winding factor)
EPh = 4.44 Kw f N Φ

Exam Point
The factor 4.44 = 2π/√2 = π√2. Always show this derivation step when asked to ‘derive the EMF equation of an
alternator’.

2.2.3 Distribution Factor (Kd)

In practice, a phase winding is not concentrated in one slot per pole but distributed in ‘m’ slots per pole per
phase, each coil's EMF being displaced from the next by the slot angle γ (electrical degrees). Because these EMFs
are equal in magnitude but out of time-phase, their phasor (vector) sum is less than their arithmetic sum.

Kd = (phasor sum of EMFs of distributed coils) / (arithmetic sum of EMFs)

Kd = sin(mγ/2) / [ m sin(γ/2) ]
where m = slots per pole per phase, γ = 180°(elec.) / (slots per pole)
Derivation sketch (phasor addition of slot EMFs)

E4
\ γ
E3 \
/\
\ \/ \ Each phasor length = E (per-coil EMF)
E2 \ /\ \ angle between consecutive phasors = γ
\ \ / \ \
E1 \ X \ \ Resultant ER = phasor sum,
\ \ / \ \ \ chord of the arc subtending mγ
\_____\_/___\____\___\

ER (resultant, phasor sum) < E1+E2+E3+E4 (arithmetic)

Kd = ER / (m·E) = sin(mγ/2) / [m sin(γ/2)]

Fig 2.3: Phasor addition of EMFs of m distributed coils (per pole per phase)

2.2.4 Pitch Factor / Chording Factor (Kp)

A full-pitch coil spans exactly 180° electrical (one pole pitch). A short-pitched (chorded) coil spans an angle (180°
− α) where α is the chording angle. Short-pitching is done deliberately to suppress harmonics and save copper
(shorter end connections), at the cost of a slightly reduced fundamental EMF.

Kp = cos(α/2)
where α = angle (electrical degrees) by which the coil is short-pitched
For the nth harmonic, the pitch factor becomes Kpn = cos(nα/2), and distribution factor Kdn = sin(nmγ/2)/[m
sin(nγ/2)]. Because a well-chosen α makes cos(nα/2) ≈ 0 for a troublesome harmonic (commonly the 5th), short-
pitching is an effective harmonic-suppression technique.

Full-pitch coil: side 'a' at 0 deg, side 'a'' at 180 deg (elec)
|<--------- 180 deg (elec) -------->|
a ........................... a'

Short-pitched coil: side 'a' at 0 deg, side 'a'' at (180-α) deg

|<------ (180 - α) deg ------>|
a ....................... a'
|<-- α (chording angle) -->|(missing span)

Fig 2.4: Full-pitch vs short-pitched coil span

2.2.5 Why Distribution and Short-Pitching Are Used

Aspect Distributed winding Short-pitched (chorded) winding

Better utilization of slots, reduces Reduces harmonics (esp. 5th, 7th), saves
Purpose
harmonics, better cooling copper in end connections
Reduces fundamental EMF by factor Kd Reduces fundamental EMF by factor Kp
Effect on EMF
(<1) (<1)
Improves waveform, reduces coil-span
Effect on waveform Improves waveform (more sinusoidal)
related harmonics
Kp ≈ 0.96–0.98 for usual chording (≈ 5/6
Typical value Kd ≈ 0.95–0.96 for usual slot/pole/phase
pitch)
2.2.6 Solved Numerical Examples

Example 1 – Direct EMF equation

A 4-pole, 3-phase alternator runs at 1500 rpm. Each phase has 120 turns, flux per pole is 0.05 Wb, Kd = 0.96, Kp
= 0.97. Find the phase and line EMF (assume star connection).
Solution:

f = PNs/120 = (4 × 1500)/120 = 50 Hz

EPh = 4.44 × Kp × Kd × f × N × Φ
= 4.44 × 0.97 × 0.96 × 50 × 120 × 0.05
= 1240.6 V (approx)

EL = √3 × EPh = 1.732 × 1240.6 ≈ 2148.5 V (star connection)

Example 2 – Finding distribution factor

A 3-phase alternator has 2 slots per pole per phase and slot angle 30° (electrical). Find Kd.

Kd = sin(mγ/2) / [m sin(γ/2)]
= sin(2×30/2) / [2 sin(30/2)]
= sin(30°) / [2 sin(15°)]
= 0.5 / (2 × 0.2588)
= 0.5 / 0.5176 = 0.9659

Example 3 – Finding pitch factor and chording angle

A coil is short-pitched by one slot in a winding having 24 slots and 4 poles. Find the pitch factor.

Slot angle β = 180° × P / S = 180 × 4/24 = 30° (electrical) per slot

Chording α = 1 slot = 30° (electrical)
Kp = cos(α/2) = cos(15°) = 0.9659

2.2.7 Important Exam Points

• Always convert mechanical slot angle to electrical degrees using θelec = (P/2) × θmech before applying Kd
or Kp formulas.
• Kd and Kp are always ≤ 1; overall winding factor Kw = Kd × Kp is also ≤ 1.
• For harmonics, use Kdn and Kpn with 'n' multiplying the angle – a frequent exam trick question asks to
suppress a particular harmonic by choosing suitable pitch.
• Line voltage: EL = √3 EPh (star) or EL = EPh (delta) – always confirm the connection before final answer.

2.2.8 Viva Questions – 2.2

1. Derive the EMF equation of an alternator from first principles.
2. Why is the constant 4.44 used? What does it represent physically?
3. Define distribution factor. Why is it always less than unity?
4. Define pitch factor. What is the benefit of short-pitching despite the EMF reduction?
5. What value of chording angle eliminates the 5th harmonic completely?
6. What is winding factor Kw and how is it used in the EMF equation?

2.2.9 Memory Tips

Mnemonic
“4.44 KpKd fNΦ” – remember as ‘Four Four Four, Keep People Distant, Find New Flux’.
Distribution → Divides EMFs in space → always reduces EMF (Kd<1).
Pitch → Pulls the coil short → also reduces EMF but kills harmonics (Kp<1).
2.3 Operation at No-Load and Load Conditions

2.3.1 No-Load Operation

At no load, the alternator is running at synchronous speed with the field excited, but no armature current flows
(open-circuited armature or zero load current). The only EMF present is the excitation EMF E0 (also called the
open-circuit EMF), produced purely by the rotor field flux Φf linking the stator winding.
• No armature current ⇒ no armature reaction, no I·R drop, no leakage reactance drop.
• Terminal voltage V = E0 exactly (since I = 0).
• The relationship between field current If and E0 (at constant speed) is the Open-Circuit Characteristic
(OCC), which is essentially the magnetization curve of the machine – linear at first (air-gap line) and bending
over due to saturation.

E0
| ____________
| ______/ Saturation
| ______/ region
| _____/
| _____/ <-- OCC (actual curve)
| _____/
| _____/ ------- Air-gap line (linear)
|____/______________________________________________ If
0

Fig 2.5: Open-Circuit Characteristic (OCC) – E0 vs field current If

2.3.2 Loaded Operation

When a load is connected, armature current Ia flows in each phase winding. This current:
1. produces its own rotating magnetic field (armature reaction) that interacts with the main field – see Sec.
2.4;
2. causes a voltage drop across the armature (effective) resistance Ra;
3. causes a voltage drop across the armature leakage reactance XL (due to leakage flux not linking the main
field).
The terminal voltage V is therefore always different from (generally less than, for lagging PF loads) the no-load
excitation EMF E0:

E0 = V + Ia Ra + j Ia XL + (armature reaction effect, represented as j Ia Xar)

⇒ E0 = V + Ia (Ra + jXL + jXar) = V + Ia (Ra + jXs)
where Xs = XL + Xar = Synchronous reactance (see Sec. 2.5)

Equivalent circuit per phase (loaded alternator)

Ra Xs (=XL+Xar)
E0 o----[/\/\/\]----[ coil )( ]----+-------o V
(~) |
| [Load]
 | |
o----------------------------------+-------o Neutral

Ia flows from E0 through Ra and Xs to the terminal V

Fig 2.6: Per-phase equivalent circuit of a loaded synchronous generator

2.3.3 Behaviour Summary at No-Load vs Load

Condition Armature current Ia Terminal voltage V Key relation

E0 depends only on If, N,

No load 0 V = E0
Φ
E0 = V + IaRa + jIaXs
Resistive load (unity PF) In phase with V V slightly < E0
(small drop)
V drops more Largest drop; regulation
Inductive load (lagging PF) Lags V
(demagnetizing) is largest positive
Magnetizing effect;
Capacitive load (leading
Leads V V may rise above E0 regulation can be
PF)
negative

2.3.4 Important Exam Points

• At no load, E0 = V always (only true condition where terminal voltage equals generated EMF).
• Under load, the difference between E0 and V is due to (i) IaRa drop, (ii) IaXs drop and (iii) armature
reaction, all combined inside the synchronous impedance Zs = Ra + jXs.
• The OCC is obtained experimentally by running the machine at rated synchronous speed on open circuit
and recording terminal voltage against field current – essential first step for the EMF & MMF methods (Sec.
2.6).

2.3.5 Viva Questions – 2.3

1. Why does V = E0 exactly at no load?
2. What causes the terminal voltage to fall (or rise) when the alternator is loaded?
3. What is the Open-Circuit Characteristic and how is it obtained experimentally?
4. Why is the OCC not a straight line at higher field currents?

2.3.6 Memory Tips

Mnemonic
No load = No current = No drop = V equals E0.
OCC bends because of saturation – iron cannot carry infinite flux!
2.4 Armature Reaction and Its Effects with R, L, C Loads – Phasor Diagrams

2.4.1 Definition
Armature reaction is the effect of the magnetic field produced by the armature (stator) current on the main field
produced by the rotor. Since the three-phase armature currents are balanced and displaced 120° in time while
the windings are displaced 120° in space, they produce a rotating magnetic field (by the same principle as an
induction motor) that rotates at exactly synchronous speed – i.e. in synchronism with the rotor field – so the
two fields are stationary with respect to each other and combine into a single resultant field.

2.4.2 Nature of the Effect – Depends on Power Factor

The effect of armature reaction (whether it aids, opposes, or cross-magnetizes the main field) depends entirely
on the phase angle φ between terminal voltage V and armature current Ia, i.e. on the load power factor.

(a) Unity Power Factor (Pure Resistive Load)

Ia is in phase with V (and E0 is only slightly ahead of V). The armature MMF is at 90° to the main field axis at the
instant of peak EMF, giving a cross-magnetizing effect – it distorts the flux wave (strengthens it on one pole tip
and weakens it on the other) but does not significantly change its average magnitude.

E0
/
/ δ (small)
/___________ V
\
\ Ia (in phase with V, φ=0)

Armature reaction: CROSS-MAGNETIZING (distorts flux only)

Fig 2.7(a): Phasor diagram – unity power factor (resistive load)

(b) Lagging Power Factor (Pure/Dominant Inductive Load)

Ia lags V by angle φ. The armature MMF now has a component directly opposing the main field – a
demagnetizing effect. This reduces the resultant air-gap flux, which reduces the generated EMF and hence
terminal voltage falls more steeply with load. This is why lagging (inductive) loads give the poorest (largest)
voltage regulation.

E0
/
/
/________ δ _____ V
\
φ \
\ Ia (lagging V by φ)

Armature reaction: DEMAGNETIZING (E0 must be large;

flux Φ reduced, so V falls a lot as load increases)

Fig 2.7(b): Phasor diagram – lagging power factor (inductive load)

(c) Leading Power Factor (Pure/Dominant Capacitive Load)
Ia leads V by angle φ. The armature MMF now has a component that aids the main field – a magnetizing effect.
This increases the resultant flux and can actually make the terminal voltage rise above the no-load EMF as load
increases – leading to negative voltage regulation, a hallmark symptom of capacitive/leading-PF loads (e.g.
lightly loaded long transmission lines, capacitor banks).

Ia (leading V by φ)
/
/
E0 /φ
/ /
/ δ /
/_______/______________ V

Armature reaction: MAGNETIZING (flux Φ increases; V can

rise above E0 – negative regulation)

Fig 2.7(c): Phasor diagram – leading power factor (capacitive load)

2.4.3 Summary Table – Effect of Load Type on Armature Reaction

Phase relation (Ia vs Type of armature Effect on resultant Effect on terminal
Load type
V) reaction flux voltage

Distorted,
Moderate drop
Resistive (unity PF) Ia in phase with V Cross-magnetizing magnitude ≈
(small)
unchanged
Large drop (poor /
Inductive (lagging
Ia lags V by φ Demagnetizing Decreases positive
PF)
regulation)
May rise above E0
Capacitive (leading
Ia leads V by φ Magnetizing Increases (negative
PF)
regulation)

2.4.4 Two-Reaction Theory (Brief – for Salient Pole Machines)

For salient-pole machines the air gap is non-uniform, so armature reaction MMF is resolved into two
components along special axes:
• Direct axis (d-axis): along the main pole axis, where the air gap is minimum (Xd is larger).
• Quadrature axis (q-axis): 90° (electrical) from the pole axis, where the air gap is effectively larger (Xq is
smaller).

Id = Ia sin(ψ), Iq = Ia cos(ψ) (ψ = angle between Ia and q-axis / E0)

E0 = V cosδ + Ia Ra cosφ + Id Xd (approx., blondel two-reaction form)
For cylindrical rotor machines Xd = Xq = Xs, so the simpler single-reactance (synchronous reactance) model of
Sec. 2.5 is sufficient.

2.4.5 Important Exam Points

• Remember the three-way classification: Resistive → cross-magnetizing; Inductive → demagnetizing;
Capacitive → magnetizing.
 • Demagnetizing armature reaction can be modelled as an additional (fictitious) reactance Xar in series with
leakage reactance XL; together they form Xs = XL + Xar (this is exactly why armature reaction is folded into
synchronous reactance for cylindrical-rotor machines – see Sec. 2.5).
• A common numerical/conceptual question: ‘Why does an alternator's voltage regulation become negative
on leading power factor loads?’ – Answer via magnetizing armature reaction increasing flux.

2.4.6 Viva Questions – 2.4

1. What is armature reaction? Why does it rotate at synchronous speed?
2. Explain why armature reaction is demagnetizing for lagging PF and magnetizing for leading PF.
3. What is cross-magnetization and when does it occur?
4. How is armature reaction represented in the equivalent circuit of a cylindrical rotor machine?
5. What is two-reaction theory and why is it needed for salient-pole machines?

2.4.7 Memory Tips

Mnemonic
“R-Cross, L-Less(demag), C-Charge(magnetizing)”: Resistive=Cross-magnetizing, Lagging(inductive)=Demagnetizing (V
less), Leading(capacitive)=magnetizing (V charges up).
Lagging PF loads are the worst for voltage support – always need more excitation to compensate demagnetization.
2.5 Concept of Synchronous Reactance and Impedance

2.5.1 Concept
For a cylindrical-rotor (round-rotor) alternator, two distinct magnetic effects oppose/modify the main flux when
the armature carries current:
1. Leakage reactance (XL): due to leakage flux that links the armature conductors but not the main field – slot
leakage, end-connection leakage, tooth-tip leakage, etc. This is a real, physically identifiable reactance.
2. Armature reaction reactance (Xar): a fictitious reactance introduced purely to represent the
demagnetizing/magnetizing effect of armature MMF as an equivalent voltage drop, so that the whole
armature-reaction phenomenon can be handled by simple AC circuit theory instead of magnetic-circuit
analysis.
Because both effects are proportional to Ia and are in quadrature with it (like a reactance drop), they are
combined into a single fictitious reactance called the Synchronous Reactance Xs:

Xs = XL + Xar
Adding armature resistance Ra (in series), we get the Synchronous Impedance Zs:

Zs = Ra + jXs = √(Ra² + Xs²) ∠ tan⁻¹(Xs/Ra)

2.5.2 Fundamental EMF-Terminal Voltage Equation

E0 = V + Ia Zs (phasor equation)
E0 = V + Ia Ra + j Ia Xs
This equation is the working model (‘synchronous impedance model’ or Behn-Eschenburg model) used
throughout Sec. 2.6 for voltage-regulation calculation by the EMF method.

Equivalent circuit (repeated for reference)

Ra Xs
E0 (~)---[/\/\/\]----[)( coil )(]----+----- V (terminal)
|
Load
|
-----------------------------------------------
Zs = Ra + jXs (the whole synchronous impedance)

Fig 2.8: Synchronous-impedance equivalent circuit (per phase)

2.5.3 Why Xs Is Not Constant – Effect of Saturation

Xs depends on the degree of magnetic saturation of the machine (through Xar, which depends on the armature-
reaction MMF's effectiveness in the magnetic circuit). Hence Xs computed from unsaturated conditions differs
from Xs under saturated conditions – this is exactly why different test-based methods (EMF, MMF, ZPF) give
slightly different regulation predictions (Sec. 2.6).
2.5.4 Determination of Zs (Synchronous Impedance Method / EMF method – test)
• Open-Circuit Test: run machine at rated speed, open-circuited armature; vary If and record V (=E0) → gives
OCC.
• Short-Circuit Test: run at rated speed with armature terminals short-circuited through ammeters; vary If
and record short-circuit armature current Isc → gives SCC (usually a straight line, since the iron is
unsaturated at the small excitation needed to circulate rated Isc).

Zs (per phase, at a given If) = (Open-circuit voltage per phase corresponding

to that If) / (Short-circuit current for same If)
Zs = E0(at If) / Isc(at same If)
Xs = √(Zs² − Ra²) (Ra measured separately by DC test, then corrected for
AC/skin-effect if required)

Volts /
Amps | OCC (E0 vs If)
| ________________
| _____/
| ____/ SCC (Isc vs If)
| _/ _______________________
|_/ _____/
|__________________________________________ If
0
Zs (per phase) at a chosen If = (E0 from OCC) / (Isc from SCC) at same If

Fig 2.9: OCC and SCC on a common field-current axis for Zs determination

2.5.5 Solved Numerical Example

On a certain field current, the open-circuit phase voltage of a 3-phase alternator is 1500 V and the short-circuit
current at the same field current is 100 A. Armature resistance per phase is 0.8 Ω. Find Zs and Xs.

Zs = E0/Isc = 1500/100 = 15 Ω (per phase)

Xs = √(Zs² − Ra²) = √(15² − 0.8²) = √(225 − 0.64) = √224.36 ≈ 14.97 Ω

2.5.6 Important Exam Points

• Xs (or Zs) found this way is the unsaturated value if SCC is a straight line – hence the EMF method tends to
over-estimate voltage regulation on lagging PF (pessimistic method).
• Always state clearly: Xs = XL(real, leakage) + Xar(fictitious, armature-reaction equivalent).
• Ra used in Zs must be the effective AC resistance (slightly higher than DC value due to skin effect) –
examiners sometimes give a multiplying factor (1.2–1.5× DC value).

2.5.7 Viva Questions – 2.5

1. What is synchronous reactance and what two effects does it represent?
2. Why is Xar called a 'fictitious' reactance?
3. How do you experimentally determine Zs of an alternator?
4. Why is the SCC of an alternator practically a straight line?
5. Is Xs constant for all loading conditions? Why or why not?
2.5.8 Memory Tips

Mnemonic
Zs = 'Zero-load voltage' ÷ 'Zapped short-circuit current' at the SAME If.
Xs = Leakage (real) + Armature-reaction (fictitious) – both act like reactance, so we just add them.
2.6 Voltage Regulation: Synchronous Impedance (EMF), MMF (Ampere-
turn) and ZPF Methods

2.6.1 Definition of Voltage Regulation

Voltage regulation (VR) of an alternator is the rise in terminal voltage (expressed as a percentage of rated
voltage) when a given load at a given power factor is thrown off, field excitation and speed being kept
unchanged.

%VR = [ (E0 − V) / V ] × 100

E0 = no-load (open-circuit) voltage at the same excitation, V = rated terminal
(full-load) voltage
• Lagging PF load → E0 > V → positive regulation (voltage rises when load is removed).
• Unity PF load → E0 slightly > V → small positive regulation.
• Leading PF load → E0 can be < V → negative regulation (voltage falls when load is removed).

2.6.2 Method 1: EMF Method (Synchronous Impedance Method)

Uses OCC and SCC tests (Sec. 2.5) to find Zs at the field current corresponding to normal excitation, then
computes E0 by phasor addition.

E0 = √[ (V cosφ + Ia Ra)² + (V sinφ ± Ia Xs)² ]

use '+' for lagging PF, '−' for leading PF (inside the sin term)

Phasor diagram – EMF method (lagging PF shown)

E0
/ |
jIaXs |
/ |
/ |
IaRa / |
<------> / |
V ----------/---δ--------- ← V axis
\____φ
\ Ia (lagging V by φ)
\
Construction: from V, add IaRa parallel to Ia; then add
jIaXs perpendicular (leading) to Ia; resultant tip = E0

Fig 2.10: EMF-method phasor diagram (lagging power factor)

Exam Point
The EMF method uses Zs from the (unsaturated) SCC straight line, so it OVER-ESTIMATES Xs and hence gives a higher
(pessimistic) regulation than actually observed – the machine performs better in practice than the EMF method
predicts.
2.6.3 Method 2: MMF Method (Ampere-turn Method)
Instead of working in volts, this method works in terms of field MMF (ampere-turns / field current). Two field
currents are found and combined vectorially:
• F1 (or If1): field current required to generate rated voltage V on the air-gap line of the OCC (i.e., the field
MMF needed to balance the terminal voltage alone, on no load basis).
• F2 (or If2): field current required to circulate rated (full-load) armature current Ia on short circuit (obtained
from the SCC) – this represents the MMF needed to overcome the leakage-impedance drop and to
counteract the demagnetizing armature reaction.

Resultant field current:

For lagging PF: Fr = √[ (F1 + F2 sinφ)² + (F2 cosφ)² ]
For leading PF: Fr = √[ (F1 − F2 sinφ)² + (F2 cosφ)² ]
For unity PF: Fr = √[ F1² + F2² ]
Once Fr is found, the corresponding E0 is read directly off the OCC curve for that Fr (this automatically accounts
for saturation, unlike the EMF method).

Phasor diagram – MMF method (lagging PF)

Fr (resultant field MMF)

/
/
/ θ
F2 sinφ /
<------>/
F1---------/ F2 (at angle 90+φ
\ from F1, lagging
\ F2 cosφ case)
\
F1 taken along the reference (aligned with V); F2 placed at
angle (90° + φ) from F1 for lagging PF.

Fig 2.11: MMF-method phasor (ampere-turn) diagram (lagging PF)

Exam Point
The MMF method reads E0 from the actual (saturated) OCC, so it gives a more optimistic and generally more accurate
regulation than the EMF method, especially at lagging PF.

2.6.4 Method 3: Zero Power Factor (ZPF) / Potier Method

This is considered the most accurate method because it separates leakage reactance (XL, a real quantity) from
the armature-reaction MMF using an actual test at zero PF, rather than lumping everything unsaturated as in the
EMF method.

Procedure
1. Conduct a Zero Power Factor test: load the alternator with a purely inductive load (or a synchronous motor
at no load, heavily under-excited) so that it delivers rated current at (near) zero lagging power factor, for a
range of field currents; plot the ZPF characteristic (terminal voltage vs If at rated Ia, zero PF) – this curve has
the same shape as OCC but shifted right and down (Potier triangle).
2. Draw the OCC on the same axes.
3. From the point on the ZPF curve corresponding to rated voltage, draw the Potier triangle: horizontal side =
armature reaction MMF (in equivalent If), vertical side = leakage reactance drop Ia XL.
4. Slide this triangle (keeping it congruent, horizontal side parallel to the If axis) so that one vertex touches the
OCC and the horizontal side terminates on the ZPF curve at rated current – this determines both XL (Potier
reactance) and the armature-reaction MMF FAR in field-current units.

V,E
| ________________ OCC
| _____/
| _____/ B
| ____/ /| <- Ia XL (Potier triangle
| / A ______/ | vertical side)
| / ____________/ |
| /__/ <-- FAR --> | ZPF curve (rated Ia)
|/_____________________________________________ If
0
A = point on ZPF curve at rated V; B = corresponding point
on OCC. AB (vertical) = Ia XL ; horizontal leg = FAR

Fig 2.12: Potier (ZPF) triangle construction

Resultant field MMF (as before, using F1 = If for rated V on air-gap line, F2 =
FAR):
Fr = √[ (F1 + FAR sinφ)² + (FAR cosφ)² ] (lagging PF)
E0 is then read from the OCC at If = Fr, and %VR computed as usual.

2.6.5 Comparison of the Three Methods

Regulation
Method Basis Saturation handled? Accuracy result (typical,
lagging PF)

Least
EMF (synchronous OCC + SCC → Zs No (uses unsaturated Highest (over-
accurate,
impedance) (unsaturated) Xs throughout) estimated)
pessimistic
OCC + SCC, but E0 read Partially (via OCC for Better than Lower than
MMF (Ampere-turn)
from actual OCC E0) EMF EMF method
Best (separates Closest to
OCC + ZPF test → Most
ZPF (Potier) leakage vs saturation- actual test
separates XL and FAR accurate
dependent AR) value

2.6.6 Solved Numerical Example (EMF method)

A 3-phase star-connected alternator has Ra = 0.5 Ω and Xs = 4 Ω per phase. It delivers rated current 100 A at
rated phase voltage 1000 V at 0.8 PF lagging. Find % voltage regulation by the EMF method.

E0 = √[(Vcosφ + IaRa)² + (Vsinφ + IaXs)²]

cosφ = 0.8 ⇒ sinφ = 0.6
 Vcosφ = 1000(0.8) = 800; IaRa = 100(0.5) = 50 → sum = 850
Vsinφ = 1000(0.6) = 600; IaXs = 100(4) = 400 → sum = 1000
E0 = √(850² + 1000²) = √(722500 + 1000000) = √1722500 ≈ 1312.4 V

%VR = (1312.4 − 1000)/1000 × 100 = 31.24 %

2.6.7 Important Exam Points

• Sign convention: '+' for lagging, '−' for leading inside the reactance-drop term of the EMF-method formula.
• For unity PF, sinφ = 0, formula simplifies to E0 = √[(V+IaRa)² + (IaXs)²].
• Always specify which method was used when quoting a computed %VR – examiners frequently ask to
'compare' EMF vs MMF vs ZPF results for the same machine.
• Negative regulation (leading PF, light demagnetization/over-magnetization) is a very common conceptual
question.

2.6.8 Viva Questions – 2.6

1. Define voltage regulation of an alternator.
2. Why does the EMF method give pessimistic results?
3. Explain the Potier triangle construction and what each side represents.
4. Which method is considered most accurate and why?
5. Under what condition is regulation negative?
6. What tests are required for the ZPF method that are not required for the EMF method?

2.6.9 Memory Tips

Mnemonic
E-M-Z in increasing order of accuracy: EMF (worst) → MMF (better) → ZPF (best).
'ZPF gives the Zealous, Precise Findings' – because it directly separates real leakage reactance from armature-reaction
MMF using an actual loaded test.
2.7 Parallel Operation of Two Synchronous Generators, Load Sharing,
Speed-Droop

2.7.1 Necessity of Parallel Operation

• To supply a load exceeding the capacity of a single alternator.
• To ensure continuity of supply (redundancy) – one machine can be taken out for maintenance while others
supply the load.
• To improve overall efficiency by running only as many machines as needed to match load (economic
loading).
• To allow future load growth by adding more machines.

2.7.2 Conditions for Synchronizing (Paralleling) Alternators

Before an incoming alternator (G2) can be connected to a bus already energized by another machine or the grid
(G1), the following conditions must be satisfied:
1. Equal terminal (line) voltage magnitude – |V1| = |V2|.
2. Equal frequency – f1 = f2 (achieved by adjusting the incoming machine's prime-mover speed).
3. Same phase sequence – checked once during commissioning (rotation direction of phasors must match).
4. Voltage phasors in phase (zero phase-angle difference) at the instant of closing the breaker – checked using
synchroscope / synchronizing lamps.
These are commonly remembered as the 4 conditions: Voltage, Frequency, Phase sequence, Phase angle.

Synchronizing lamp / synchroscope method (sketch description)

G1 (running, bus) ----[Lamp/Bulb]---- G2 (incoming)

Dark-lamp method: lamps connected across the breaker

contacts go completely dark when phase difference = 0

Synchroscope: pointer rotates slowly; incoming machine

frequency slightly high -> pointer rotates 'fast' direction;
breaker closed exactly when pointer points to 12 o'clock
(zero phase difference) mark.

Fig 2.13: Synchronizing arrangement using lamps / synchroscope

2.7.3 Load Sharing Between Parallel Alternators

Once synchronized, how the total load is shared between the machines is governed by two independent control
actions:
• Active power (kW) sharing – controlled by adjusting the prime-mover input (governor setting / throttle) of
each machine. Increasing the steam/water/fuel input to one machine increases its share of active power
without affecting frequency (as long as the other machine's governor compensates) or without affecting
terminal voltage significantly.
 • Reactive power (kVAR) sharing – controlled by adjusting the field excitation of each machine. Increasing
excitation of one machine makes it supply more lagging kVAR (more magnetizing/overexcited) while the
other correspondingly supplies less, terminal voltage staying essentially constant.

Exam Point
Golden Rule: Governor (prime-mover input) controls kW sharing & frequency; Excitation (field current) controls kVAR
sharing & terminal voltage. These two controls are (to first order) independent/decoupled.

2.7.4 Speed-Droop Governor Characteristic

A governor is not set to hold speed at exactly one value regardless of load (an 'astatic' or isochronous governor)
when multiple machines must share load, because two isochronous governors, both trying to hold exactly the
same fixed frequency, would fight each other and the load division would be undefined/unstable. Instead, each
governor is given a small drooping (falling) speed-vs-load characteristic:

Speed regulation (droop) R = (No-load speed − Full-load speed) / Full-load

speed × 100 %
Typical droop = 2 to 5 %

Frequency
(or speed)
f_nl |\
| \
| \___ Machine A (steeper droop)
| \___
f_op |..........\.....X <- common operating point
| \___
| \___ Machine B (flatter droop)
|_______________________\____________________ kW load
0 PA PB (PA+PB = total load)

Fig 2.14: Speed-droop characteristics of two paralleled governors

2.7.5 Load Division Using Droop Characteristics – Method

When two machines with different droop settings are paralleled on a common bus, both must settle at the
SAME final system frequency. Drawing both droop lines on a common frequency axis, the load carried by each
machine is found where each machine's line intersects the common (settled) frequency.

If governor characteristic is linear: f = f_nl − k·P (k = droop slope = R ×

f_rated / P_rated)
At common operating frequency f_op: P1 = (f_nl1 − f_op)/k1 , P2 = (f_nl2 −
f_op)/k2
Total load: PL = P1 + P2 (solve simultaneously for f_op, then get P1, P2)

2.7.6 Solved Numerical Example

Two alternators operate in parallel. Machine A: no-load frequency 51 Hz, droop such that at full load (100 MW)
frequency is 49 Hz. Machine B: no-load frequency 50.5 Hz, droop such that at full load (100 MW) frequency is
49.5 Hz. Total load is 150 MW. Find load shared by each.
 kA = (51 − 49)/100 = 0.02 Hz/MW
kB = (50.5 − 49.5)/100 = 0.01 Hz/MW
At common frequency f: PA = (51 − f)/0.02 , PB = (50.5 − f)/0.01
PA + PB = 150
(51 − f)/0.02 + (50.5 − f)/0.01 = 150
Multiply through by 0.02: (51 − f) + 2(50.5 − f) = 3
51 − f + 101 − 2f = 3 → 152 − 3f = 3 → f = 49.667 Hz
PA = (51 − 49.667)/0.02 = 66.65 MW
PB = (50.5 − 49.667)/0.01 = 83.3 MW (check: 66.65+83.3 ≈ 150 MW ✓)

2.7.7 Advantages of Droop (vs Isochronous) Operation

• Guarantees stable, well-defined and predictable load division between paralleled machines.
• Simple to implement mechanically/electronically.
• Only ONE machine on a system (or a special isochronous unit / load-frequency control centre) needs to
hold frequency tightly; the rest can droop and still share load sensibly.

2.7.8 Important Exam Points

• 4 synchronizing conditions: Voltage magnitude, Frequency, Phase sequence, Phase angle – always list all
four.
• kW sharing → governor (speed/input); kVAR sharing → excitation (field current). Do not mix these up.
• A flatter droop characteristic means the machine takes a LARGER share of any load change (it is 'stiffer').

2.7.9 Viva Questions – 2.7

1. List and explain the conditions necessary before synchronizing two alternators.
2. What happens if two alternators are paralleled with incorrect phase sequence?
3. How is active power shared between two paralleled alternators? How is reactive power shared?
4. Why can't two isochronous (zero-droop) governors be paralleled successfully?
5. Define speed regulation (droop) of a governor.
6. If Machine A has a flatter droop than Machine B, which machine picks up more of a sudden load increase?

2.7.10 Memory Tips

Mnemonic
“V F P A” – Voltage, Frequency, Phase sequence, Angle: the 4 synchronizing checks (like 'Very Few Pilots Abort').
“Governor = Watts, eXcitation = VARs” (G→W, X→V) – easy pairing to avoid confusion.
2.8 Transient Condition: Transient and Sub-transient Reactance

2.8.1 Background – Why Steady-State Xs Is Not Enough

The synchronous reactance Xs (Sec. 2.5) describes the machine's behaviour only in steady state, i.e. after all
transient flux changes have died out. But if a sudden disturbance occurs – typically a three-phase short circuit at
the terminals, or sudden large load change – the flux linkages of the rotor field winding and any
damper/amortisseur windings cannot change instantaneously (by Lenz's law / constant flux-linkage theorem).
This produces induced currents in the rotor circuits that shield the main flux from sudden change, making the
machine's effective reactance MUCH SMALLER (and armature current much LARGER) immediately after the
disturbance than the steady-state value.

2.8.2 The Three Regimes of Short-Circuit Current

• Sub-transient period (0 to ~2 cycles, few tens of ms): damper/amortisseur winding currents (in salient
machines) and rotor eddy currents oppose flux change most strongly → lowest reactance X″d (double-
prime), hence highest current.
• Transient period (up to a few hundred ms / several cycles): damper winding currents have decayed, but
field winding current continues to oppose the flux change → intermediate reactance X ′d (single-prime).
• Steady-state period: all transient rotor currents have died out; only the normal synchronous reactance Xd
(=Xs) remains → lowest current (highest reactance).

X″d < X′d < Xd (sub-transient < transient < synchronous)

I″ > I′ > I(steady-state) (currents behave inversely)

Envelope of a 3-phase short-circuit current waveform

i(t)
|\ <-- sub-transient envelope (decays fastest, τ″)
| \ /\ /\
| \/ \/ \ /\ <-- transient envelope (decays slower,τ′)
| \ \/ \ /\ /\ /\ /\ /\ /\ /\ /\ /\ /\
| \ \/ \/ \/ \/ \/ \/ \/ \/ \/ \/
|______________________________________________________ t
0 sub-transient transient steady state
period (few period (up to (I_ss = E/Xd)
cycles) ~0.5 s)

Fig 2.15: Symmetrical short-circuit current envelope showing three decay regions

2.8.3 Definitions and Formulas

Sub-transient reactance: X″d = E0(prefault line-to-neutral) / I″ (rms value of

initial sub-transient current)
Transient reactance: X′d = E0 / I′ (rms value of the transient component,
extrapolated back to t=0 after sub-transient decays)
Synchronous reactance: Xd = E0 / I(steady state)
Graphically, X″d and X′d are found from the oscillographic (or log-scale) short-circuit current envelope by
extrapolating each decaying component back to t = 0 and subtracting successive components (standard 'three-
line construction' on semi-log graph paper).

Extraction procedure (semi-log method) – description

1. Plot (envelope amplitude − steady-state value) on a log scale vs time on linear scale for the recorded short-
circuit oscillogram.
2. The tail of this plot (after sub-transient component has died) becomes a straight line on semi-log paper –
extrapolate it back to t=0 to get the transient component's initial value → gives I ′.
3. Subtract this extrapolated transient line from the actual total envelope for early time → remaining points
again form a straight line on semi-log paper (the sub-transient component) – extrapolate to t=0 to get (I″ − I
′) → combine to get I″.

2.8.4 Typical Per-Unit Values (for reference/exam)

Reactance Typical p.u. range (on machine rating) Time constant

X″d (sub-transient) 0.07 – 0.20 p.u. τ″d ≈ 0.02 – 0.05 s

X′d (transient) 0.15 – 0.40 p.u. τ′d ≈ 0.5 – 1.5 s
Xd (synchronous) 1.0 – 2.0 p.u. steady state (no decay)

2.8.5 Application – Why This Matters

• Circuit-breaker and protective-relay rating: breakers must interrupt the (much larger)
sub-transient/transient fault current, not the eventual steady-state current – using Xd alone would grossly
under-rate switchgear.
• System stability studies: transient reactance X′d is used in swing-equation / transient stability analysis of the
power system immediately following a fault.
• Sub-transient reactance X″d is used for fault-current calculations (short-circuit MVA) at circuit breakers
close to the generator.

2.8.6 Solved Numerical Example

A generator with per-phase EMF (line-to-neutral) 6350 V has X″d = 0.15 p.u. and Xd = 1.2 p.u. on its own base of
6350 V, 1000 A. Find the initial sub-transient fault current and steady-state fault current for a bolted 3-phase
fault at the terminals (neglect resistance).

Base current = 1000 A (given)

I″ (p.u.) = E(p.u.)/X″d = 1.0/0.15 = 6.667 p.u. → I″ = 6.667 × 1000 = 6667 A
I(steady) (p.u.) = 1.0/1.2 = 0.833 p.u. → I = 0.833 × 1000 = 833 A

2.8.7 Important Exam Points

• Order to remember: X″d < X′d < Xd (always increasing); currents decrease in the same order of periods.
• Sub-transient effects are due to damper windings + rotor surface eddy currents; transient effects are due to
the field winding alone.
• DC offset (unidirectional component) also appears in real short-circuit currents due to the R-L nature of the
circuit, but is separate from the AC symmetrical decay discussed here – don't confuse the two when asked
 to sketch the fault current waveform (an exam favorite: total current = symmetrical AC (with the 3-
envelope decay) + a decaying DC offset).

2.8.8 Viva Questions – 2.8

1. Why is the initial short-circuit current of an alternator much larger than the steady-state value?
2. Define sub-transient and transient reactance.
3. Which rotor circuits are responsible for sub-transient behaviour? Which for transient behaviour?
4. Why are these reactances important for switchgear rating?
5. Sketch and explain the three-region decay of the short-circuit current envelope.

2.8.9 Memory Tips

Mnemonic
“STS” order: Sub-transient, Transient, Steady-state – reactance goes small → medium → large; current goes large →
medium → small.
Damper winding = fastest reaction = sub-transient; Field winding = slower reaction = transient.
2.9 Synchronous Generator Connected to an Infinite Bus

2.9.1 Concept of Infinite Bus

An infinite bus is an idealized bus (or grid) whose voltage magnitude V and frequency f remain absolutely
constant, unaffected by any amount of power injected or absorbed by a single generator connected to it. It
represents a very large power system (compared to the single machine under study), whose own inertia and
control are so large that one small generator cannot influence it.
• V = constant (fixed magnitude, unaffected by the machine's loading).
• f = constant (fixed frequency, hence the small machine's rotor speed is rigidly fixed at Ns once connected).
• The machine's field excitation controls only its own reactive power exchange with the bus; its prime-mover
input controls only its own active power output; neither materially affects the bus voltage/frequency.

2.9.2 Power-Angle (Torque-Angle) Relation

Once synchronized to the infinite bus, active power delivered by the alternator is controlled entirely by the
power angle δ (also called torque angle or load angle) – the angle between the excitation EMF E0 and the bus
voltage V. Increasing prime-mover input torque advances the rotor (and hence E0) further ahead of V, increasing
δ and hence power output, without changing speed (since speed is locked to bus frequency).

P = (E0 V / Xs) sinδ (per phase; for cylindrical rotor, neglecting Ra)
P(3-phase) = 3 (E0 V / Xs) sinδ (using phase values)
Q = (E0 V cosδ − V²) / Xs (reactive power delivered by generator to bus)

Phasor diagram – machine on infinite bus, overexcited (delivering lagging VARs)

E0
/
jIaXs
/
/ δ
V _________/____________ (bus reference, fixed)
\
φ \
\ Ia

δ = power (torque) angle between E0 and V – grows as prime

mover input (and hence P) increases.

Fig 2.16: Phasor diagram of a synchronous machine on an infinite bus

2.9.3 Power-Angle Curve

P
| Pmax = E0V/Xs
| .-'''-.
| .' '.
| .' '.
 | .' '.
| .' '.
|.'_______________________'.____________________ δ (deg)
0 30 60 90 (=δmax stability limit) 120 150 180

Fig 2.17: Power-angle (P vs δ) curve – sinusoidal, maximum at δ = 90°

Exam Point
Steady-state stability limit occurs at δ = 90° where P = Pmax = E0V/Xs. Beyond 90°, further increase in δ actually
DECREASES deliverable power → machine loses synchronism (pole slipping) if pushed past this point. Practical
operation keeps δ well below 90° (often < 30– 45°) for stability margin.

2.9.4 Effect of Changing Excitation at Constant Load (on Infinite Bus)

Since P is fixed by the prime mover and P = (E0V/Xs) sinδ with V, Xs constant, increasing E0 (over-exciting) must
decrease sinδ (and hence δ) to keep P the same – but E0 cos-component changes cause the reactive power
exchanged to change:

E0 vs (V + IaXs, unity-PF
Excitation condition Reactive power Analogy
reference)

Machine ABSORBS lagging VARs

acts like a
Under-excited E0 relatively small (behaves inductive, like an
reactor
under-excited motor)
pure real
E0 just balances V at given P,
Normally excited Zero reactive power exchange power
unity PF at terminal
transfer
acts like a
Machine DELIVERS lagging VARs
capacitor /
Over-excited E0 relatively large to the bus (supports bus
voltage
voltage)
support

2.9.5 V-Curves
A plot of armature current Ia (magnitude) vs field current If, at constant real power output, is called a V-curve,
because the current dips to a minimum (at unity PF, minimum Ia for that P) and rises on either side (under- and
over-excited) – giving a V-shape. A family of such curves for different constant P values gives the complete V-
curve chart, with unity-power-factor points joining to form the 'compounding curve'.

Ia
| \ /
| \ Under-excited Over-exc. /
| \ (lagging VAR ABSORBED) / (lagging VAR
| \ / DELIVERED)
| \_ higher P _/
| \_ curve _/
| \___ ___/
| \______UPF_____/ <- minima = unity PF
|______________________________________________ If

Fig 2.18: V-curves of a synchronous machine (family for different P)

2.9.6 Important Exam Points
• On an infinite bus, speed/frequency of the machine CANNOT change – governor action only redistributes
power angle δ, not speed.
• Real power ↔ prime-mover input / δ; Reactive power ↔ field excitation – same decoupling principle as
parallel operation (Sec. 2.7), but now the 'other machine' is the whole grid.
• Static stability limit is at δ = 90°; practical stability margin requires δ to stay comfortably below this.

2.9.7 Viva Questions – 2.9

1. What is an infinite bus? State its two idealized properties.
2. Derive/state the power-angle equation for a synchronous generator on an infinite bus.
3. What is the physical significance of δ = 90°?
4. What happens to reactive power output if excitation is increased while holding real power constant?
5. Sketch and explain the V-curve of a synchronous machine.

2.9.8 Memory Tips

Mnemonic
“Infinite Bus = Immovable Boss” – V and f never change no matter what you do.
‘P from Prime-mover & angle δ, Q from Quantity of excitation’ – P↔δ, Q↔If.
2.10 Limits of Active and Reactive Power Generation – Capability Curve

2.10.1 Purpose
The capability curve (or operating chart) of a synchronous generator is a plot, on P-Q (real power vs reactive
power) axes, of the safe operating region of the machine, bounded by several independent physical limits. It
tells the plant operator the maximum P and Q the machine can deliver simultaneously without violating any
thermal or stability constraint.

2.10.2 The Governing Limits

(a) Armature (Stator) Current Limit

Determined by the maximum permissible I²R heating in the stator winding, i.e. a fixed maximum |Ia| = Ia,rated.
Since apparent power S = 3VIa = √(P²+Q²) (per convenient per-unit base), this limit is a CIRCLE of radius S_rated =
V·Ia,rated centered at the origin of the P-Q plane.

P² + Q² ≤ (V · Ia,rated)² = S_rated² (stator/armature heating limit – circle

about origin)

(b) Field (Rotor) Current Limit

Determined by maximum permissible I²R heating in the field winding, i.e. a fixed maximum excitation Ef (or E0).
Using the phasor relation E0² = (V + Q Xs/V)² + (P Xs /V)² (derived from P, Q, V, Xs, E0 relations), this limit turns
out to be a CIRCLE in the P-Q plane, but centered NOT at the origin – centered on the negative Q-axis at Q =
−V²/Xs, with radius E0,max·V/Xs.

P² + (Q + V²/Xs)² ≤ (E0,max · V / Xs)² (field heating limit – circle centered

at (0, −V²/Xs))

(c) Prime-Mover (Turbine) Power Limit

The turbine (steam/gas/hydraulic) has a maximum mechanical power it can deliver, essentially independent of
Q. This appears as a HORIZONTAL straight line P = P_max(turbine) on the capability chart.

(d) Practical/Under-excitation (Stability) Limit

At very low (under-) excitation, the machine approaches the theoretical steady-state stability limit (δ → 90°, Sec.
2.9); in practice a safety-margined curve is drawn short of this theoretical limit, restricting how much leading
(absorbed) VAR the machine may draw.

Combined capability curve (typical shape)

Q (leading MVAR, absorbed) | Q (lagging MVAR, delivered)

|
(under-excitation/ | Field-current limit
stability limit, ________|_____ (circle, offset center
curved boundary) / | \ at Q=-V²/Xs)
/ | \
 -----------------+-------------O-------+-------- P (MW) ------
\ | /
\_________|______/ Armature current
| limit (circle at
Turbine limit origin, radius S)
(vertical line at Pmax capping the top)

Fig 2.19: Composite generator capability curve (P on x-axis, Q on y-axis)

2.10.3 How the Curve Is Used

• For any desired real power P, the maximum lagging (delivered) Q is the smaller of: what the stator-current
circle allows, and what the field-current circle allows.
• The overall safe operating boundary is the INNER envelope of all four individual limit curves.
• Operators use this chart to decide how much reactive power support (voltage regulation service) a
generator can provide at a given active loading, e.g. during peak demand when voltage support is critical.

2.10.4 Summary Table

Limit Physical cause Shape on P-Q plane Region affected

Circle centered at origin, Both lagging and

Armature current limit Stator I²R heating
radius S_rated leading Q, high P
Mainly lagging
Circle centered at (0,
Field current limit Rotor I²R heating (over-excited)
−V²/Xs)
region
Turbine/engine mechanical High P region
Prime-mover limit Horizontal line P = Pmax
rating (caps the top)
Under-excitation / stability Steady-state stability Curved boundary near Leading (under-
limit margin (δ near 90°) leading-Q axis excited) region

2.10.5 Important Exam Points

• Armature-current-limit circle is centered at the ORIGIN; field-current-limit circle is centered BELOW the
origin (on the negative/leading Q axis at −V²/Xs) – a very common exam distinction.
• The practical safe operating area is the intersection (inner envelope) of all individual limit curves, not any
single curve alone.
• Under-excited operation (absorbing VARs) is limited more by stability considerations than by heating.

2.10.6 Viva Questions – 2.10

1. What is a capability curve and why is it needed?
2. Why is the armature-current limit a circle centered at the origin?
3. Why is the field-current limit a circle NOT centered at the origin? Where is its center?
4. What determines the horizontal (top) limit of the capability curve?
5. Why is there a special limit in the leading power factor (under-excited) region?
2.10.7 Memory Tips

Mnemonic
“A for Armature, Around the origin”; “F for Field, Falls below origin (at -V²/Xs)”.
Four limits = 4 T's: Thermal(stator), Thermal(rotor), Turbine, sTability(under-excited).
2.11 Losses and Efficiency

2.11.1 Classification of Losses

Like any rotating machine, the losses of a synchronous generator are broadly classified into constant (fixed)
losses and variable losses.

(a) Constant (Fixed) Losses – independent of load current

• Core (Iron) losses: hysteresis loss (∝ f × Bmax^1.6) and eddy-current loss (∝ f² × Bmax²) in stator
laminations, occurring due to the alternating flux; depends on flux density and frequency, essentially
constant since V/f is held constant.
• Mechanical losses: friction (bearings) and windage (air resistance of rotating parts, fan losses) – depend on
speed, which is constant at Ns.
• Field circuit (excitation) loss: I²fRf loss in the field winding due to DC excitation current – for a fixed
excitation level (fixed terminal voltage / no-load), this is roughly constant; strictly it does rise a little with
loading as more excitation is needed, so sometimes classified separately.

(b) Variable Losses – depend on load (armature) current

• Armature copper loss: I²aRa per phase, total = 3 Ia²Ra for three phases (Ra = effective AC resistance per
phase, including skin-effect correction).
• Stray load loss: additional eddy-current and other losses in the iron/conductors caused by leakage flux
under load (harder to measure precisely; often estimated by test or taken as a fixed percentage in exam
problems).

2.11.2 Power Flow Diagram

Mechanical input Constant losses: Variable losses:

(from prime mover) Core loss + Friction & Armature Cu loss
Pin (shaft power) Windage + Field Cu loss (I_a^2 R_a) + Stray
| | |
v v v
+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+
|
v
Electrical output Pout = 3 V Ia cosφ (delivered to load)

Fig 2.20: Power-flow diagram of a synchronous generator

2.11.3 Efficiency

η = Pout / Pin = Pout / (Pout + Σlosses)

= (3 V Ia cosφ) / (3 V Ia cosφ + Pcore + Pfriction&windage + Pfield-Cu +
3Ia²Ra + Pstray)
Since constant losses (Wc) do not depend on load while variable (copper) losses (Wcu = 3Ia²Ra, growing with Ia²)
do, efficiency at a given power factor is maximum at the load where constant losses equal variable losses (same
principle as in transformers):

Condition for maximum efficiency: Wc (constant losses) = Wcu

(variable/copper losses) = 3 Ia² Ra
⇒ Ia (at max efficiency) = √(Wc / 3Ra)

Efficiency vs load current curve

η (%)
| ____________
| __/ \___
| _/ \__
| _/ \_
| / \
| /
|__/______________________________________________ Ia (load)
0 Ia(max eff.) rated Ia
(where Wc = Wcu)

Fig 2.21: Efficiency vs armature (load) current

2.11.4 Determination of Efficiency – Direct vs Indirect Method

Method Description Suitability

Only practical for small

Actually load the machine (with a resistive/inductive machines (large loss of
load bank or by belt-coupling to a calibrated energy, difficulty
Direct loading test
brake/dynamometer) and directly measure Pin arranging a large load
(mechanical) and Pout (electrical) bank for MW-size
machines)
Individual losses (core, friction & windage, field Cu, Standard method for
Indirect method (loss armature Cu, stray) are measured separately by no- large alternators; much
summation) load, retardation, DC-resistance and other small less energy wasted,
tests; efficiency computed as Pout /(Pout+Σlosses) more practical
• Friction & windage loss: obtained by driving the (unexcited) machine at synchronous speed with a small
motor and measuring the input to the driving motor (retardation/run-down test is an alternative).
• Core loss: obtained from the open-circuit test power input (after subtracting friction & windage) at the
rated no-load voltage.
• Field Cu loss: I²fRf, using field resistance (corrected for temperature) and field current at the operating
point.
• Armature Cu loss: 3Ia²Ra, using effective (AC, skin-effect corrected) armature resistance per phase.

2.11.5 Solved Numerical Example

A 3-phase alternator supplies a load of 500 kW at 0.8 PF lagging. Constant losses = 20 kW, armature resistance
per phase = 0.1 Ω, rated line current = 300 A (star connected, Ra referred per phase). Find efficiency (ignore
stray and field Cu loss for simplicity, i.e. include them in the 20 kW figure).
 Armature Cu loss = 3 Ia² Ra = 3 × 300² × 0.1 = 3 × 90000 × 0.1 = 27000 W =
27 kW
Total losses = 20 + 27 = 47 kW
Pin = Pout + losses = 500 + 47 = 547 kW
η = Pout/Pin × 100 = (500/547) × 100 ≈ 91.4 %

2.11.6 Important Exam Points

• Maximum-efficiency condition (constant loss = variable/copper loss) is analogous to that of transformers –
a favorite 'link the concepts' viva question.
• For large alternators, only the indirect (loss-summation) method is practical – direct loading tests are
limited to small machines due to the enormous load banks that would be required.
• Efficiency of large modern alternators is typically very high, often 95–99% at rated load, because of the
large kVA base relative to losses.

2.11.7 Viva Questions – 2.11

1. List all the losses in a synchronous generator, classifying them as constant or variable.
2. State the condition for maximum efficiency of an alternator.
3. Why is the direct-loading test impractical for large alternators?
4. How is friction & windage loss measured separately from core loss?
5. Draw and explain the power-flow diagram of an alternator.

2.11.8 Memory Tips

Mnemonic
“CFA-S” for the five losses: Core, Friction&windage, field-cu (Armature-excitation), Armature-Cu, Stray.
“Max efficiency when Constant = Copper” – same rule as transformers and DC machines.

Quick Revision Sheet – Whole Unit 2 (Master Formula Table)

Topic Key formula

Synchronous speed Ns = 120f/P

EMF equation EPh = 4.44 Kp Kd f N Φ
Distribution factor Kd = sin(mγ/2) / [m sin(γ/2)]
Pitch factor Kp = cos(α/2)
Synchronous impedance Zs = Ra + jXs ; Zs = E0/Isc (same If)
EMF method regulation E0 = √[(Vcosφ+IaRa)² + (Vsinφ±IaXs)²]
% Voltage regulation %VR = (E0−V)/V × 100
Speed-droop R = (f_nl − f_fl)/f_fl × 100 %
Power-angle equation P = 3 E0V sinδ / Xs
Topic Key formula

Reactive power on infinite bus Q = 3V(E0cosδ − V)/Xs

Reactance order X″d < X′d < Xd
Armature current capability P²+Q² ≤ S_rated² (circle at origin)
Field current capability P²+(Q+V²/Xs)² ≤ (E0maxV/Xs)²
Max efficiency condition Constant loss = Variable (Cu) loss