⇕ Energy Sources - I ⇕

Contents

Unit 1

1 Non Renewable energy sources 2

1.1 Energy concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Sources in general . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Its significance & necessity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Classification of Energy Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 Primary & Secondary energy sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.6 Commercial & Non commercial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.7 Renewable and Non-renewable energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.8 Conventional and Non-conventional energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.9 Based on Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.10 Importance of Non-commercial energy resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.11 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Assignment-A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2 Fossil Fuels and Nuclear Energy 8

2.1 Fossil Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1.1 Production and extraction of Fossil fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
I. Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
II. Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
III. Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.1.2 Consumption rate and limitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Nuclear energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.1 Production of energy from nuclear fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.2 Usage rate and limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2.3 Issues & challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3 World energy scenario - consumption & necessity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.4 Overview of Indian energy scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.5 Green Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.6 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Activity - 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

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 Energy Sources - I

Module-1
Unit-I
Non Renewable energy sources

1.1. Introduction
It is hard to imagine life without energy. We burn fuel to heat and electrify our homes, light our
streets, and run our cars. Modern industry demand cheap electricity to manufacture the basics of
everyday life, while oil is refined to make numerous household products from plastics to lubricants
and tires to ink, as well as keeping us moving from A to B. There is no turning back the modern,
energy-based lifestyle we all enjoy (our smartphones).
⋆ concept
Energy is the capacity of a physical system to perform work. It exists in several forms such as
heat, mechanical (potential and kinetic), light, electrical or other forms of energy. According to the
law of conservation of energy, the total energy of a system remains constant. However, energy may
transform from one form into another form (light energy converted to electric energy with the help
of solar cell). The SI unit of energy is Joule. Energy is now well recognized as an essential parameter
of socio-techno-economic development of any system and it is presently used as the measure of the
standard of living, quality of life, civilization and culture of a country.

1.2. Energy sources

Energy sources are the origins from which usable energy can be extracted for human use.
For example - Fossil Fuels (Coal, Oil-Petroleum, Natural Gas), Sunlight, Wind, Water, Nuclear
Fuels(U235 , U238 , Pu239 ), gravity due to earth and moon (Possibly sources for wind and ocean wave
energy), energy in chemical bonds (biomass).
Most of the energy available to us comes directly or indirectly from the Sun. The Sun gets its
energy from the nuclear fusion reactions that heat its core to a temperature of ∼ 107 K. Energy is
transported to the Sun’s surface and maintains the surface at a temperature of ∼ 6000 K. The hot
surface acts as a blackbody radiator emitting electromagnetic radiation and it is this radiation or
sunlight that delivers solar energy to the Earth. Sunlight provides us with energy in various ways.
Photosynthesis is a process by which plants and other organisms use sunlight to transform water,
carbon dioxide, and minerals into oxygen and organic compounds(containing Carbon). Fossil fuels
that we burn , including oil, coal and natural gas, were formed over millions of years by the action
of heat and pressure on the fossils of dead plants. Bioenergy comes from biofuels that are produced
directly or indirectly from organic matter, including plant material and animal waste; an example
is rapeseed oil, which produces oil for fuel. Hydroelectric power, wind power and wave power can
also be traced back to the Sun.(Think of Water cycle!)
The annual consumption of energy with respect to energy source varies from country to country
and from year to year. It is believed that over 75% of the energy needs of the earth are provided by
fossil fuels and that among the three major fossil fuel sources (oil, natural gas, and coal, all three
states of matter),oil occupies the preeminent position.

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1.3. Necessity and Significance:
Energy is essential to our lives. Our bodies need energy to function and to perform physical
activities. The technological age in which we live needs a reliable energy supply for heating, lighting,
communication, transportation, food production, manufacturing goods and so on. Because of their
importance, issues such as the supply and cost of energy and the environmental impact make
frequent appearances on the daily news.

1.4. Classification of Energy Sources

Energy sources can be classified based on various criteria:
Based on availability - Primary source and Secondary source
Based on commercial Value - Commercial and Non commercial
Based on renewability - Renewable and Non renewable
Based on conventionality - Conventional and Non conventional
Based on origin - Solar based, Nuclear-based etc.

1.5. Primary and Secondary energy sources

Primary energy sources are found in nature and can be used directly. Common primary energy
sources are coal, oil, natural gas, sunlight, flowing water and biomass (such as wood). Other primary
energy sources available include nuclear energy from radioactive substances, thermal energy stored
in earth’s interior, and potential energy due to earth’s gravity. This only involves extraction or
capture to make use of it. For example, sunlight provides warm and light, coals could be extracted
from open or closed mines, flowing water through rivers etc. These energy sources are available in
raw form and hence known as raw energy sources. Raw energy sources require conversion as per
consumer demand to form a kind of energy consumer need. The conversion of raw energy source
into usable energy source requires some energy input. for example, exploration for coal mines as
well as its extraction requires human workforce, techniques and methods involving energy input.
The energy yield ratio of an energy extraction process is defined as follows:
Energy received from raw source
Energy Yield Ratio =
Energy spent to obtain raw source
Secondary energy sources are derived from primary sources. This energy sources are supplied
directly to consumer for utilization after one or more steps of transformation. e.g. electrical energy,
thermal energy (in the form of steam or hot water), refined fuels such as petrol or synthetic fuels
such as hydrogen fuels etc. The energy yield ratio of secondary sources are less compared to the
raw sources of energy.

1.6. Commercial and Non-commercial energy

Commercial energy sources are available in the market for a definite price. By far the most
important forms of commercial energy are electricity, coal, Natural gas and refined petroleum
products. These forms the basis of industrial, agricultural, transport and commercial development
in the modern world. In industrialized countries, commercialized fuels are predominant sources.
Non commercial energy sources are not available in the commercial market for a price. These are
generally free and locally available. Non commercial energy sources include fuels such as firewood,
cattle dung, agriculture wastes, which are traditionally gathered. Non commercial energy sources
are largely utilized in rural areas of a country, developing country. These helps in reducing the
dependence on commercial fuels for day to day task and promotes energy self-sufficiency. Non

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commercial energy is often ignored in energy accounting. Examples of non commercial energy are
: Wood for fire, bamboo for cottages, solar energy for heating the water, solar cooking, agro waste
in production of biofuel, animal power for transport & irrigation and crushing of sugarcane, cattle
dung for fire, etc.

1.7. Renewable and Non-renewable energy

Renewable energy is energy obtained from sources that are essentially inexhaustible or could be
replenished naturally in short period of time. Examples - Solar energy, wind energy, hydro, biomass,
tidal, geothermal. The most important feature of renewable energy is that it can be harnessed
without the release of harmful pollutants. Given the inexhaustible capacity it is sustainable. High
initial cost, Irregular supply and requirement of large area for collection of energy are some of its
limitation.
Non Renewable energy sources are available in finite amount in nature. Once it is used, it
cannot be quickly replaced. Examples - Fossil fuels (Coal, Petroleum, Natural gas), Nuclear fuels
(Uranium). These are likely to deplete with time. These energy sources provide high energy
output and are much more reliable than renewable sources. Fossil fuels has majorily contributed
to the global energy demands. Harnessing usable energy from these sources results in emissions of
GHG(Green house gases) which in turn causes Global Warming. With ever increasing demand in
energy due to population growth and technological development, the fossil fuels reserves are said
to last about ∼ 200 years.

1.8. Conventional and Non-conventional energy

Traditional and widely used energy sources for many decades are called as conventional energy
sources. These energy sources were in common use around oil crisis of 1973. Examples - Fossil
fuels(Coal, oil, Natural gas), hydropower, firewood,etc. Technology for harnessing the energy from
environment is more enhanced and supply is reliable. Conventional energy may cause pollution and
deplete environmental resources. From economical energy perspective, it has high stakes in carbon
economy.
Non conventional energy sources are the energy sources which are based on newer technology to
extract energy from the environment. These energy sources were considered for large-scale use after
the oil crisis of 1973. Examples - Solar energy, wind energy, biomass, etc. Non conventional energy
sources have infinite energy resources but the lack of technological understanding forms a barrier
in harnessing the energy from the source as is required. They also require high cost for setups.
Though energy extraction from non conventional sources have some difficulty its use is promoted
due to its renewability and sustainability. This has less stake in carbon economy and manages to
bring another economy in picture, hydrogen economy, which produces clean energy for consumers.

1.9. Based on Origin

(a) Fossil Fuels -
Example - Coal, petroleum, and natural gas.
Limitations - Non renewable(limited in supply), Pollutes environment in its conversion to
other usable form of energy(electricity).
(b) Nuclear Fuels -
Example - Radioactive elements such as Uranium and its isotopes(same atomic number but
different mass number), Thorium and Plutonium.
Limitations - Non renewable (Though non renewable the energy output is much much greater

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 than any other sources), High cost, generates radioactive wastes which require proper disposal
or containment.
(c) Geothermal Energy -
Geothermal energy is the generated heat (thermal energy) stored in, or discharged from rocks
and fluids (brines, water, gases) saturated pore space, cavities and fractures and is widely
harnessed in two ways: for power (electricity) generation and for direct use. Therefore,
geothermal energy (Geotherm) is mainly heat energy from within the Earth. Heat is regularly
produced within the earth by the slow decay of radioactive uranium & thorium isotopes/particles
(40 K, 232 Th, 235 U & 238 U) that is natural in all rocks.
Limitations - Limited suitable sites, steam and hot water bursting out of the earth may contain
Hydrogen Sulfide(H2 S), Ammonia (NH3 ), Radon gase etc., Initial capital and installation costs
are very high, drilling operation is noisy.
(d) Solar based - The energy obtained by sunlight is known as solar energy.
Examples - Solar cells(Photovoltaic cell)- a semiconductor device used to convert the sunlight
into electrical energy, Solar cooker- a device, designed to generate heat by using sunlight to
keep food, drink warm.
Limitations - Low efficiency, High initial cost, lack of storage.
(e) Wind energy -
Wind is the natural movements of the air on land or sea. Wind is caused by the uneven
heating and cooling of earth’s surface and earth’s rotation. Wind energy is the kinetic energy
associated with the movement of atmospheric air.
Examples - Windmills: wind electric generator used to generate electricity with the help of
kinetic energy available in wind, Wind turbines are used to generate mechanical power with
the help of wind.
Limitations - Highly variable source of energy generation, Low energy efficiency, lack of
proper storage, High initial cost, Area requirements for building wind farms (habitat loss,
environmental harm).

(f) Hydro energy1 -

The energy generated from water is known as hydel energy. Hydroelectric power plants use
hydraulic turbines which convert the potential energy of an elevated body of water to rotating
kinetic energy which in turn generates electricity. Its contribution in renewable energy sources
sector is the highest among all others.
Example - hydroelectric power plants, dams etc.
Limitations - hydropower is dependent on rainfall(Climate change could affect its potential),
Building large dams could damage the ecosystem, may bring changes in water cycle etc.
(g) Biomass -
Biomass is solar energy stored in organic matter. All the living plants on earth belong to
the category of biomass. These can be converted to other biofuels through various processes.
Mostly dominant in rural areas for energy supply.
Examples - Fire-wood, cattle dung, agriculture waste(begasse, soya husk, cotton straw, rice
husk, arhar stalk, wheat straw, and peanuts, peanut stalk) etc.
1 [Link]

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 Limitation - Moisture content of the woody biomass reduces the energy output, lower efficiency,
low energy density, causes deforestation, causes air pollution when burns, space requirement.
(h) Gravitational based -
The energy available for harnessing due to the gravitational interaction of earth with Moon,
Sun and the rotation of earth.
Example - Tidal energy- Tides are formed due to the gravitational pulls of the Moon and the
Sun and the rotation of earth. Tidal energy is the utilization of this interaction to generate
usable form of energy here on earth.
Limitations - endangering Marine life by turbines as it could pulled the organisms as it speeds
up, off shore sources of energy form a concern about how the electromagnetic fields and
acoustic outputs may affect the marine organisms, can disrupt sedimentation(the process by
which heavier, insoluble particles in a liquid settle at the bottom due to gravity).

1.10. Importance of Non-commercial energy resources.

Non-commercial energy sources refer to forms of energy derived from natural or renewable
resources that are not primarily produced or traded for profit in commercial markets. Examples
include solar power, wind energy, water, biomass (like fuelwood or agricultural waste), and geothermal
energy when used at a local or community level. These contrast with commercial sources like fossil
fuels (oil, coal, natural gas) or nuclear power, which are often centralized, monetized, and subject
to market dynamics. In many developing regions, non-commercial sources are vital for household
or subsistence use, such as cooking with firewood or solar panels for lighting.

1. Environmental Importance
Non commercial energy sources play a critical role in mitigating climate change and environmental
degradation:
• Reducing GHG emissions : Unlike fossil fuels, which release CO2 and contribute to
global warming, renewables like solar and wind produce little to no emissions during
operation. For instance, the International Energy Agency (IEA) estimates that scaling
up renewables could cut global CO2 emissions by up to 50% by 2050.
• Biodiversity and ecosystem protection : Biomass when sustainably managed, can avoid
habitat destruction. Non commercial alternatives help preserve ecosystems.
• Resource Sustainability : These sources are often inexhaustible or renewable, reducing
the depletion of finite resources like oil reserves.
2. Economic Importance
Economically, non-commercial energy sources offer cost savings and resilience.

• Lower Energy costs : In rural or Off grid areas, sources like solar panels eliminate the
need for expensive fuel imports.
• Job Opportunities and Local Economies : Deployment of solar farms or establishing
biomass farm creates jobs in manufacturing, installation, and maintenance. Exchange of
energy produced by biofuels can help grow local economy.
• Energy Self- Sufficiency : By reducing dependence on imported fuels, countries can avoid
price shocks or mitigate through it.

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 3. Social and Health Importance
These sources can enhance quality of life, especially in underserved communities. These
improves access to energy by providing affordable, reliable power for education, healthcare,
and communication. Biogas or improved stoves in place of firewoods can help stop deaths
due to respiratory disease in people caused by indoor air pollution by burning the firewood.

1.11. Questions
1. Why are renewable resources preferred? (2 Marks)
2. What are primary and secondary energy sources? give examples. (8 Marks)
3. What is meant by renewable energy sources? Explain in brief Solar energy. (7 Marks)

4. What are the advantages and limitations of renewable energy sources ? (5 Marks)
5. Write a short notes on : a) Bio-Mass b) Conventional Sources c) Nuclear energy (7 marks)
6. Give importance of non commercial energy sources. (8 Marks)
7. Enumerate the criteria based on which energy can be classified. (7 Marks)

8. Distinguish between renewable and non renewable energy sources. (8 Marks)

9. What do you understand by commercial and non commercial energy sources? (8 Marks)
10. What are green house gases? (1 Marks)
11. The energy generated from water is known as (1 Marks)

12. Which of the following is considered to be the top grade energy?

a) Chemical b) Mechanical c) thermal d) Electrical
13. Are energy, economy and environment interrelated? (1 Marks)
14. Explain the concept of energy. Give brief overview of energy sources. (8 Marks)

15. What are conventional and non conventional energy sources? (5 Marks)
16. Describe energy classification based on the origin. Give limitations of Geothermal, solar and
wind energy. (8 Marks)

Assignment : [Link] of energy sources.

OR
[Link] the world energy reserve data with that of India.

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 Energy Sources - I

Fossil Fuels and Nuclear Energy

2.1. Fossil Fuels

For more than a century, burning fossil fuels has generated most of the energy
required to propel our cars, power our businesses, and keep the lights on in our
homes. Even today, the most industrialised nations, such as USA and China rely
on fossil fuels for their energy needs. USA depends 80% on fossil fuels for its need
(Majorily oil) whereas China1 depends 60% on fossil fuels with major contributions
coming from coal (Though govt is now shifting towards natural gases).2
Coal, Crude Oil, Natural Gas are all considered fossil fuels because they are formed
from the fossilized, buried remains of plants and animals that lived millions of years
ago. These are hydrocarbons(contains Hydrogen & Carbon). These are formed
due to the excessive heat and pressure by mainland layers of earth over geological
time. By burning these fuels they are transformed into usable and convenient
energy(burning of coals to generate electricity in power plants, burning of petrol
powers up your bike etc). The percentage use of various sources for the total energy
consumption in the world is given in table3 below :

Source % Contribution in consumption

Coal 32.5% )
Oil 38.3% 89.8%
Natural Gas 19.0%
Uranium 0.13%
Hydro 2.0%
Wood 6.6%
Dung 1.2%
Waste 0.3%

Table 2.1: % contribution of energy sources

As per the data the World largely relies on fossil fuels for its energy supply, almost
90% of needs are fulfilled by fossil fuels. These are non-renewable sources. As the
1 Did you know China is rapidly advancing in the renewable energy sector by mass producing PVs
2 The data were obtained from [Link] &
[Link]
3 This table was taken from the textbook, Non conventional sources by G.D. Rai, Khanna publisher. Present day

data may vary but the contribution of fossil fuels is still the largest, around 80% of total energy consumption.

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progress is made so the demand for energy increases, which causes significant amount
of depletion of fossil fuels reserves.

2.1.1 Production and extraction of Fossil fuels

The production and extraction of fossil fuels involve locating the reserves, mining(for
coals) and drilling(for oils/Natural Gas). These then go through processing to meet
the standard energy generation.
Coal: Wood was the dominant source of energy in the pre-industrialization era.
It gave way to coal and coke(coal heated to high temperature in the absence of air).
Since the advent of industrialization coal has been the most common source of energy.
Coal is a sedimentary rock that is composed of upto 90% carbon by weight. Much of
the Earth’s coal was formed during the carboniferous period of the Paleozoic era of
geological time during the upper, middle, and lower Mississippian and Pennsylvanian
epochs 354 to 290 million years ago.
As ancient plants and animals died, they were buried in swampy areas and
collected in moist peat bogs. Once buried, over time and under enormous heat
and pressure, these organic remains slowly transformed into coal - It took between
4000 and 100000 years for three feet of peat to accumulate. As these organic deposits
were subjected to increasing pressure, the carbon content of the coal became more
concentrated. Over time, coal becomes harder and blacker and transforms through
a sequence of stages as it ages. The four types of coal are lignite, subbituminous,
bituminous and anthracite. The more primitive forms of coal have a lower energy
content and subsequent lower energy level, whereas higher in rank, the higher the
carbon content, the higher the energy level. Lignite is soft and brown coal having
a low energy output. It is composed of 40% carbon. Subbituminous is higher form
of coal than lignite but lower than bituminous, contains 35% - 45% Carbon, in
appearance it is dull dark brown/black. Sulfur amount in subbituminous grade coal
is very less compared to other higher grade of coals. Thus making it suitable fuel
for steam electric power generation. Bituminous is made up of 45% to 80% carbon.
It is only surpassed by anthracite coal in terms of hardness and carbon content.
It is utilised as primary fuels for electricity generation and steel manufacturing.
Anthracite, dark black highest grade coal, composed of 90% carbon is the hardest
coal found in nature. Most of it is already mined. It contains less amount of volatile
matter which makes it hard to ignite it efficiently but once ignited it burns steadily
for a long time.
Coal deposits exist in many type of environment. High sulphur coal was formed
in saltwater swamps that were once covered by seawater. Coal deposits low in sulfur
content were formed under freshwater areas. Seams of coal can be close to the
surface of the Earth or buried deep underground. When coal deposits are buried
underground, mining for them can be extremely energy intensive and hazardous to
miners.
When coal is used in a power plant, pulverised coal is blown into the furnace when

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it burns. Water flowing through tubes in the furnace is heated to the boiling point
under pressure, which blasts through a turbine and turns a generator to produce
electricity. After the steam has gone through the turbine it is cooled and condensed
back into water and returned to the furnace once again, completing a pathway
called Rankine cycle. This is the foundational themodynamic model which helps
in measuring the efficiency of any steam operated power plant.
Oil: The key energy source of the 20th century - sometimes referred to as black
gold due to its immense value and black color. Oil, also a hydrocarbon, is formed
from the decomposed remains of ancient plants and animals buried under great heat
and pressure since the Cambrian period 500 million years ago. The organic matter
became trapped on ocean floors, mixing with and being covered by sedimentary
rocks, such as limestone and sandstone. Because the dead plants and animals were
trapped under high pressure without oxygen, bacteria were able to break them down
into hydrocarbons.
Crude oil extraction involves exploration, drilling with rigs to reach reservoirs,
and production, using natural pressure (primary recovery) or water/gas injection
(secondary recovery) to push oil out. The raw oil is then separated from gas and
water at the surface, cleaned (desalted/dehydrated), and transported via pipelines
or tankers to refineries for final processing, including distillation and conversion, to
create usable fuels and products.
Natural Gas: is also a hydrocarbon, but compared to oil and coal it is relatively
clean. Natural gas is formed in porous rock formations, such as sandstone, trapped
under a cap of impermeable rock. Natural gas is often found mixed with oil or floating
on underground reservoirs of oil. The presence of the gas provides the pressure
necessary to bring the oil to the surface. Natural gas deposits are continually being
discovered world wide. Russia (24% of world natural gas reserve), Iran (17%), Qatar
(11%-13%) are the top three countries4 with the world’s largest proven natural gas
reserves.
The extraction of natural gas involves drilling wells into underground using either
conventional methods (relying on natural pressure in porous rock) or unconventional
method such as hydraulic fracturing (fracking). Fracking is a process in which a
mixture of water, sand, and chemicals is pumped at high pressure into the horizontal
wellbore, creating fractures in shale rock which allows the entrapped gas to be
released. Extracted gas then travels through pipelines to processing plant where
purification of gas take place for distribution.
Gaseous fuels can be classified as gases of fixed composition such as acetylete,
ethylene, methane etc. or composite industrial gases such as coke oven gas, water
gas, producer gas.
The following diagram 2.1 easily help in understanding the processes that take place
in a fossil fuel based power plant. The fuels are first brought into combustion chamber
to burn which in turn provides heat energy to Boiler which contains large amount of
4 They are key members of Gas Exporting Country Forum (GECF), which acts along the same line as Organisation

of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) at UN climate conferences.

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 Figure 2.1: Fossil fuel based energy conversion process diagram, source: Yousef SH Najjar

water. Water is heated to its boiling point, changing its phase to vapour. These steam
then with the help of steam valve is made to rotate the turbine. The rotating turbine
then generates electricty which reaches the consumer through transmission lines.
Water vapour is collected and condensed, and put back in boiler. The placement
of the pollution control unit in the schematic diagram highlights the importance of
monitoring the combustion of these fuels.

2.1.2 Consumption rate and limitation

As it is shown in table 2.1, the world remains highly dependent on fossil fuels to
meet its energy needs. The global demand for energy has led to a rapid increase in
fossil fuel consumption, especially in sectors like electricity generation, transportation,
and industry. Developing nations with growing populations and industrial expansion
contribute significantly to rising demand. Despite growth in renewable energy,
fossil fuels continue to dominate due to their availability (Natural gas), existing
infrastructure, and high energy density. The world has consumed fossil fuels for
approximately 225 years and the time frame over which fossil fuels consumed is
orders of magnitude smaller than the time it takes to make fossil fuels from plant
residues. One useful measure of how much economic resource (a resource which can
be economically produced based on current economic conditions) we have currently
available is to examine Reserves to Production Ratio (R/P Ratio). Reserves to
Production Ratio represents the ratio of remaining economic reserves divided in the
current consumption of a resource. In other words, it is a measure of number of
years of remaining economic reserves if we continue to consume at the current rate.
The adjacent Fig.2.2 shows how the R/P Ratio has changed over the last 40 years.
For oil and gas, the R/P Ratio has remained essentially constant at 50; whereas, for
coal, the ratio started in year 2000 at more than 200 and currently is at 150. This
means that based on the current demands of oil, gas and coal, we have 50, 50 and 150

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Fig. 2.2: R/P
over years for
fossil fuels
years of proven reserves for oil, gas and coal respectively which can be economically
produced. That is, with the current technology, we can satisfy the needs of the world
for 50 years for oil and gas and for 150 years for coal. This number is significant
because in the past 40 years, our consumption for oil, gas and coal has increased
significantly. However, even with the increased consumption, each year, we have
discovered either new resource or new technologies to make it possible to make up
all the exhausted resource and some more to compensate for increased need. Past
history tells us that with improved technologies, as long as there is a demand for
fossil fuels, the producers of fossil fuels will be able to satisfy that demand in the
intermediate future.
Figure 2.3 compares Fossil fuel consumption per capita for three countries: US,
China and India. As evident from this graph, compared to US which is in efficiency
period, both China and India are perhaps in infrastructure period. The fossil
fuels consumption continues to increase in both China and India. Being the most
populated countries in the world, although fossil fuel consumption per capita in
both countries is relatively small compared to the US, multiplying by the population
indicates a very large consumption of fossil fuels in both the countries.

Fig. 2.3: Fossil fuel consumption per capita for US, China and India.5

5 The data was taken from [Link]

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 Limitations:

• Non- Renewable and finite

Fossil fuels take millions of years to form.
At current consumption rates, reserves are depleting faster than they can be
naturally replaced, making them unsustainable in the long term.
• Environmental Pollution
Burning fossil fuels releases CO2 , SO2 , NOx , particulates, and toxic pollutants.
These emissions contribute to air pollution, acid rain, and global warming.
• Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Fossil fuel combustion is the largest source of greenhouse gases, accelerating
climate change. GHG - Water vapour, CO2 , CH4 , Ozone etc.
• Ecological Damage
Extraction methods (mining, drilling, fracking) damage landscapes, water sources,
and ecosystems.
• Price Volatility
Fossil fuel prices fluctuate due to geopolitical tensions, supply-demand imbalances,
and market instability.
• Health Hazards
Pollutants from fossil fuels lead to respiratory illnesses, cardiovascular diseases,
and premature deaths.
• Limited Long-term Energy Security
Heavy reliance on fossil fuels exposes nations to resource shortages and import
dependence.
2.2. Nuclear energy
For once you have tasted flight you will walk the earth with your eyes turned skywards,
for there you have been and there you will long to return. — Leonardo Da Vinci †

Nothing will be left, nothing in the air, nothing under the earth, nothing in the waters.
All will be exterminated. — Leonardo Da Vinci

According to the modern theories of atomic structure, matter consist of minute

particles known as atoms. This atoms represent enourmous concentration of binding
energy (energy that binds proton to neutron, that keeps electron revolving around
nucleus). Controlled fission (the process where a heavy atomic nucleus splits into two
or more lighter nuclei releasing a tremendous amount of energy) of heavier unstable
atoms such as 92 U235 , 90 Th230 and artificial element 94 Pu239 , liberate large amount of
† American TV screenwriter, John H. Secondari, created the line to express the thought and profound fascination

with the concept of human flight in the educational film - I, Leonardo Da Vinci.

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heat energy. These enormous release of energy from relatively small mass of nuclear
fuels makes this source of energy of great importance. The energy released by the
complete fission of 1 kg of Uranium, is equal to the heat energy obtained by the
4500 tonnes of high grade coal or 2200 tonnes of oil. The heat produced by nuclear
fission of the atoms of fissionable material is utilized in special heat exchangers
for the production of steam which is then used to drive turbogenerators as in the
conventional power plant.
According to the World nuclear association6 , about three-quarters of the world’s
production of uranium from mines is from Australia (28% of world Uranium reserves),
Kazakhstan (10%) and Canada (8%). The production of Uranium in India stands
around 500 tonnes in year 2024. Nuclear fuels extraction, processing, and refinement
involve a highly structured and technologically intensive chain of operations known
collectively as the nuclear fuel cycle. The process of taking nuclear fuel from its raw
geological form and preparing it for use in reactors is far more complex than coal,
natural gas, or oil preparation. Nuclear fuel extraction is not only about mining
and refining but also involves controlling radioactive materials that are hazardous
to humans and the environment. This entire process must follow safety protocols
so rigorous that they are comparable only to aerospace or medical sterilization
standards.
The extraction of nuclear fuel begins with prospecting a geological and geochemical
search for uranium and thorium deposits. The next steps include mining, milling,
conversion, enrichment, and fuel fabrication. Each stage adds value, increases purity,
enhances fissile content, and transforms the fuel into a form usable in a reactor.
Uranium is found in the Earth’s crust at an average concentration of about 2–4
parts per million (ppm), roughly comparable to tin or tungsten. Mining methods of
Uranium depends on geology, depth and concentration of Uranium. Mining could
be Open - pit mining or Underground mining. In-Situ Leach or In-Situ Recovery
technique is the modern, economical, less land utilizing method available. A chemical
solution is pumped underground. It dissolves Uranium from the ore body, this
Uranium rich solution then pumped back to the surface. After some chemical process
the uranium is extracted. The limitation of ISL or ISR is that it only works permeable
sandstone aquifers. There is potential risk of groundwater contamination. After
mining or ISL extraction, Uranium must be concentrated into a usable product.
Milling is the first crucial chemical step in processing mined uranium ore, involving
crushing the ore, leaching out uranium with acid or alkaline solutions, and then
chemically precipitating it to produce a concentrated powder called ”yellowcake”,
U3 O8 . Natural Uranium contains only 0.7% of U235 , but most reactors require 3-
5% of U235 . Enrichment is the process by which the concentration of fissile Uranium
atoms are increased separating them from common U238 . The enriched UF6 (Uranium
Flouride) is made to react with steam and hydrogen, forming a stable ceramic powder
Uranium dioxide (UO2 ) which then are filled in cylindrical pellets, for use as a nuclear
fuel in power plants.
6 [Link]

World-Uranium-Mining-Production

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Challenges in production and extraction
• High capital cost of fuel cycle facilities.
• Environmental concerns at mining sites.
• Radioactive waste management.
• Technological complexity in enrichment.
• Limited uranium reserves without breeder technologies.
• Public opposition due to safety concerns.

2.2.1 Production of energy from nuclear fuels

There are two primary ways to harness energy from nuclear fuels.
• Nuclear Fission
Nuclear fission is a transmutation process of atomic nuclei in which the atoms
of heavy element (Fissile material) split into two or more light atomic nuclei
with some byproduct particle along with the energy.

When a 235 U nucleus captures a neutron, the total energy is distributed among
the 236 nucleons in the nucleus. The nucleons become unstable and can fission
into fragments with the release of 2 or 3 neutrons. This keeps the continuity in
fission reactions as each neutron produced after the fission reaction will further
give rise to fission reaction and thus, the chain reaction will occur. In this
chain reaction, process energy is liberated, which is used for power production
in a different type of fission-based reactors. Following are the different types of
Fissile based nuclear reactors:
Pressurised Water Reactor (PWR), Boiling Water Reactor (BWR), Fast Breeder
Reactor (FBR) etc.
• Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear fusion is a nuclear process in which two light atomic nuclei are allowed
to fuse at extreme temperature and pressure to form a heavy element of atomic
nuclei by liberating a huge amount of energy. e.g. The Sun. However at present
fusion based nuclear reactors faces paramount engineering challenges. (ask your
Assistant to look into it)

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 2.2.2 Usage rate and limitations
Nuclear energy is the most reliable source of future demand as it has low carbon
emission along with large productivity; also it has the potential to overcome fossil
fuel dependency. The technology is mature and costly. Only about 10% of electricity
generation is done with the nuclear based power plant with france being the poster
boy generating almost 70% of its electricity from nuclear reactors. More than 400
nuclear reactors are operating in 40 countries worldwide. However, more than 60 are
under construction.
India has modest reserves of Uranium, mostly located at Jadugoda, Jharkhand.
Thorium is available in abundance in India in the form of Monazite (ore) in sand
beaches of Kerala. India is the seventh nation to have the technology to build and
operate a breeder reactor after USA, UK, France, Japan, Germany and Russia. There
are 21 nuclear reactors at 7 plants located at Narora, Kakrapar, Kaiga, Kalpakkam,
Kudnulam, Rawatbhatta and Trombay. As on July-2015, nuclear power installed
capacity is 5780 MW which is 2.1 percent of total installed electricity generating
capacity. As of January 30, 2025, India’s nuclear capacity is 8180 MW. Nuclear
energy is the seventh largest energy source in electricity generation.
Limitations
There are safety and technical issues with nuclear energy. Major problem associated
with nuclear energy are as follows:
The waste material generated in nuclear power plants has radioactivity of dangerous
levels; it remains above safe limit for a long period of time and thus is a health
hazard. Its safe disposal which is essential to prevent radioactive pollution, is a
challenging task. Also the disposed radioactive waste is required to be guarded for a
long period of time (till its radioactivity level comes down to the safe limit∼ 1 mSv,
varies by group) in order to prevent against going in wrong hands.
Possibility of accidental leakage of radioactive material from reactor (as happened
in Chernobyl, former USSR in April 1986 Or Fukushima Nuclear accident, Japan on
11 March 2011).
Uranium resource, for which the technology presently exists, has limited availability.
Sophisticated technology is required for using nuclear resources. Only few countries
possess the required expertise to use nuclear energy.

2.2.3 Issues & challenges

Nuclear energy is the leading power sector toward sustainable development due
to its high energy density and increasing fuel production. The major challenge with
nuclear energy is to change public perception as people thought that commercial
nuclear plants are dangerous and unstable. The last nuclear accidents created fear
among the people along with the claims of uranium to be associated with nuclear
weapons. High capital cost in setting up power plants. An independent department
(AERB) governing the sector which eases the norms and fasten the process for
establishment of nuclear reactors. Supply chain is limited, creates dependency. Also
its utilization as Bomb keeps countries on edge in exchanging nuclear fuels.

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2.3. World energy scenario - consumption & necessity
World energy outlook 2025 shows a world thirsty for energy. Global demand has
grown by nearly 60% since year 2000, with all the increase coming in emerging and
developing economies. Every commodity purchased by a consumer has associated
energy inputs related to it. The largest share of global energy consumption goes into
producing vehicles, buildings, appliances, clothes and food.
Electricity plays an increasingly important role in the functioning of modern economies,
powering advanced manufacturing, high value-added services, the digital economy
and AI. In the last decade, electricity demand increased two-times faster than overall
energy demand. Global electricity demand is projected to reach about 37,800 terawatt-
hours (TWh) by 2035, representing an increase of roughly 40% compared to today
and a faster rate of growth than observed over the past decade. This rise is driven
by a combination of factors: while the electrification of emerging end-uses such as
transport and space heating progresses at a more moderate pace, this is counterbalanced
by slower improvements in energy efficiency in rapidly expanding sectors, including
space cooling and data centres.
2.4. Overview of Indian energy scenario
Observe the charts from here
[Link]
India is a major force in the global energy economy. There has been a rapid increase
in energy consumption due to a growing population and rapid economic growth. The
growing demand is met through various energy sources, such as coal, oil and solid
biomass. Coal has underpinned the expansion of electricity generation and industry,
and remains the largest single fuel in the energy mix. Oil consumption and imports
have grown rapidly on account of rising vehicle ownership and road transport use.
Natural gas and modern renewable sources of energy have started to gain ground,
and the rise of solar photovoltaic (PV), in particular, has been spectacular. India is
currently the world’s 3rd largest consumer of oil, 3rd largest LPG consumer, 4th largest
LNG importer, 4th largest refiner and 4th largest automobile market. India stands
4th globally in Renewable Energy Installed capacity, 4th in Wind Power capacity and
5th in Solar Power capacity (as per the International Renewable Energy Agency —
Renewable Capacity Statistics 2024).
India has been responsible for almost 10% of the increase in global energy demand
since 2000. India’s energy demand in this period has almost doubled, pushing the
country’s share in global demand up to 5.7% in 2013 from 4.4% at the beginning
of the century. The primary energy demand in India has grown from about 441
Mtoe(Million tonnes of oil equivalent, a unit for measuring large energy in global
statistics representing the energy released from burning one million tonnes of crude
oil) in 2000 to about 775 Mtoe in 2013. This demand is expected to increase to
about 1250 (estimated by International Energy Agency) to 1500 (estimated in the
Integrated Energy Policy Report) million toe in 2030. India’s energy consumption
has almost doubled since 2000 and the potential for further rapid growth is enormous.
Yet the increase in domestic energy production is far below than India’s consumption
needs. By 2040 more than 40% of primary energy supply will be imported, up from

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32% in 2013. It may also be noted that no country in the world has been able to
achieve a Human Development Index of 0.9 or more without an annual energy supply
of at least 4 toe per capita. Consequently, there is a large latent demand for energy
services that needs to be fulfilled in order for people to have reasonable incomes and
a decent quality of life.
Indian power sector installed capacities7

Fig. 2.4: Power at Glance - All india

Follow this footnote to see geographical map of india showing power plants spread
across india for its energy generation8
Another useful resource - WEC India Energy Handbook
WEC India Energy Handbook mobile application is a compendium of Indian and
Global energy statistics. The application provides consolidated information on different
sectors like power, coal, oil & gas, nuclear and renewable in the form of user interactive
graphs & charts. The application also gives insight to global and Indian scenarios by
7 [Link]
8 this govt site [Link]

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organisations like IEA, EIA and WEC. The mobile application is available on both
Google play store and App store.
2.5. Need of eco-friendly & green energy & their related technology.
The term “green power” is used to describe sources of energy which are considered
environment friendly, non-polluting; and therefore may provide a remedy to the
systemic effects of certain forms of pollution, and global warming. This is in fact
the renewable energy sourced from the sun, the wind, water, biomass and waste, etc.
However, all these have certain limitation to provide uninterrupted energy supply.
Solar energy is associated storage challanges, wind energy with specifics locations,
hydrogent energy challanges yet to be seen at the commercial level.
Green energy is commonly thought of in the context of electricity, heating, and
cogeneration, and is becoming increasingly available. Consumers, businesses, and
organizations may purchase green energy in order to support further development,
help reduce the environmental impacts associated with conventional electricity gen-
eration, and increase their nation’s energy independence. Renewable energy certi-
ficates (green certificates, or green tags) have been one of the ways for consumers
and businesses to support green energy.
2.6. Questions
1. Explain the production and extraction of fossil fuels, with special reference to coal,
oil, and natural gas. Discuss the technological challenges involved.
2. Discuss the consumption rate of fossil fuels in the world. Explain the concept of
Reserves to Production (R/P) ratio and its significance.
3. Describe the limitations of fossil fuels as energy sources. Explain their environmental,
economic, and health impacts.
4. Explain the principle of nuclear energy production. Describe the nuclear fuel cycle,
from mining to fuel fabrication.
5. Discuss the usage rate and limitations of nuclear energy. Highlight the major safety
issues and challenges associated with nuclear power plants.
6. Explain the world energy scenario, focusing on energy consumption trends and future
energy necessity.
7. Give an overview of the Indian energy scenario. Discuss the role of green and eco-
friendly energy technologies in meeting India’s future energy demand.

Activity : Take a smartphone as an example of an energy storage system. Estimate the

amount of energy stored in its battery and relate it to daily human energy needs. Compare
personal energy consumption with global energy demand and discuss the importance of
sustainable energy sources.
ALL THE BEST

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