NUTRITION IN AMOEBA

1. Ingestion – Amoeba surrounds the food particle using

finger like projections called pseudopodia and forms a
food vacuole.
2. Digestion – Enzymes are secreted into the food
vacuole, breaking down the food into simpler, soluble
substances.
3. Absorption – The digested food is absorbed into the
cytoplasm.
4. Assimilation – The absorbed nutrients are utilized in
various life processes for energy, growth, and repair.
5. Egestion – The undigested food is expelled out of the
body by rupturing the cell membrane at any point.
 NUTRITION IN PARAMECIUM

1. Ingestion – Cilia beat in an organized manner and

sweep food particles into the oral groove.
2. Formation of food vacuole – Food passes along
the oral groove and enters the gullet. A food
vacuole is formed.
3. Digestion – Digestive enzymes are secreted into
the food vacuole and break down the food.
4. Absorption and Assimilation – The digested food
is absorbed into the cytoplasm. Nutrients are
assimilated for energy, growth and repair.
5. Egestion – The undigested food (waste) is
expelled out through the anal pore.
Life Processes – Activities essential for survival and maintenance of life.

Metabolism – Sum of all biochemical reactions occurring inside living organisms.

Important Life Processes:

Nutrition: Obtaining and utilizing nutrients.

Respiration: Obtaining and utilizing energy.
Transportation: Transport of nutrients.
Excretion: Elimination of body wastes.
POINTS TO BE COVERED:

 Digestion

 Digestive system –

Alimentary canal:
Mouth, Pharynx, Oesophagus, Stomach, Small intestine, Large intestine, Anus

Digestive Glands:
Salivary glands, Gastric glands, Liver, Pancreas, Intestinal glans.

 Digestion of food -
Mouth, Stomach, Small intestine

 Absorption of food
DIGESTION:

• Conversion of complex food → simple absorbable nutrients

• Carried out by the digestive system
• Occurs by:
Mechanical digestion (chewing, churning)
Biochemical digestion (enzymes)

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM:

The digestive system consists of:

• Alimentary Canal (food passage)

Mouth → Pharynx → Oesophagus → Stomach → Small Intestine → Large Intestine → Anus

• Digestive Glands (produce digestive juices and enzymes)

Salivary glands, Gastric glands, Liver, Pancreas, Intestinal glands

 ALIMENTARY (nourishment) CANAL/ GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT (GI TRACT)

• Coiled muscular tube extending from mouth to anus.

• Passes through the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.
• About 5–7 m long.

Composed of specialized regions arranged sequentially:

Mouth → Pharynx → Oesophagus → Stomach → Small Intestine → Large Intestine → Anus
MOUTH

• Mouth is the opening of the digestive tract.

• Surrounded by upper and lower lips.
• Opens into the buccal (oral) cavity.

ORAL CAVITY

• Roof – Hard palate – anterior roof.

Soft palate – posterior roof.
• Floor – Muscular tongue
• Teeth
TEETH
• Hard structures present in the mouth
cavity. Teeth Function
• Specialized for mastication (mechanical Incisors (I) Biting
breakdown of food into smaller pieces).
Canines (C) Tearing
TYPES OF TEETH IN HUMANS*: Premolars (P) Grinding
Molars (M) Grinding
1. Milk Teeth (Deciduous Teeth)
• First set of teeth.
Milk teeth dental formula
• Total = 20
2 1 0 2
• 8 Incisors 4 Canines 8 Molars
-------- × 2 = 20
• Premolars absent.
2 1 0 2
I C P M
2. Permanent Teeth (Adult teeth)
• Replace milk teeth by about 12 years of Adult teeth dental formula
age. 2 1 2 3
• Total = 32 -------- × 2 = 32
• 8 Incisors 4 Canines 8 Premolars 12 Molars 2 1 2 3
I C P M
TONGUE

Features:
Muscular sensory organ.
Bears taste buds.

Functions:
Helps in tasting food.
Mixes food with saliva.
Saliva contains enzyme ptyalin (salivary amylase).
Helps in swallowing food.
PHARYNX

• The buccal cavity opens into the pharynx.

• Common passage for food and air.
• Connects:
Buccal cavity → Oesophagus (Digestive system)
Nasal cavity → Larynx (Respiratory system)

OESOPHAGUS (FOOD PIPE/ FOOD TUBE)

•Thin, long, muscular tube.

•Lies posterior (behind) the trachea.
•Lined by non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.
•Extends through the neck and thorax.
•Pierces the diaphragm.
•Opens into the stomach.
STOMACH

• J-shaped, bag-like organ

• Located in the upper left abdominal cavity, inferior to the diaphragm

• Functions:
Stores food (holding reservoir)
Mixes food with digestive juices (Mixing chamber)

• Gastro-oesophageal (Cardiac) Sphincter:

Smooth (involuntary) muscle
Controls the opening between the oesophagus and stomach

• Regions of the Stomach*:

Cardia – Connected to the oesophagus
Fundus – Upper elevated portion
Body – Large central portion
Pylorus – Connects the stomach to the duodenum

• When the stomach is empty, its mucosa forms rugae (folds/wrinkles)

SMALL INTESTINE

• Longest part of the alimentary canal

• About 3 m long and 2.5 cm in diameter

• Extends from the pyloric sphincter of the stomach to the large intestine
• Coiled in the central and inferior abdominal cavity

• Main functions:
• Chemical digestion
• Absorption of nutrients

 Length varies among animals depending on their diet.

 Herbivores (e.g., cows, goats) have a longer small intestine.
 Helps in the digestion of cellulose present in plant food.
 Carnivores (e.g., tigers, lions) have a shorter small intestine.
 Meat is easier and faster to digest than plant material.
REGIONS OF THE SMALL INTESTINE

1. Duodenum
•First part; about 0.3 m long
•U-shaped
•Receives:
• Chyme from the stomach
• Digestive secretions from the pancreas and liver
•Contains Brunner's (duodenal) glands
•Secretes alkaline mucus to neutralize HCl in chyme

2. Jejunum
•Middle part; about 1 m long
•Long and coiled
•Major site of:
• Chemical digestion
• Nutrient absorption

3. Ileum
•Last and longest part; about 2 m long
•Highly coiled
•Opens into the large intestine
•Opening guarded by the ileocaecal valve/sphincter
LARGE INTESTINE

•About 1.5 m long and 6.5 cm in diameter

•Functions:
• Completes absorption
• Produces certain vitamins
• Forms faeces
• Expels faeces from the body

Regions of the Large Intestine

1. Caecum
•Small blind sac
•Hosts symbiotic microorganisms
•Gives rise to the vermiform appendix
• Narrow, finger-like projection
• Contains lymphoid tissue
• Considered a vestigial organ
2. Colon
•Divided into four parts:
•Ascending colon
•Transverse colon
•Descending colon
•Sigmoid colon

3. Rectum
•About 20 cm long
•Straight, muscular tube
•Temporary storage site for faeces

4. Anal Canal
•Terminal 2–3 cm portion of the rectum
•Opens outside through the anus
•Guarded by:
•Internal anal sphincter – smooth muscle, involuntary
•External anal sphincter – skeletal muscle, voluntary
 DIGESTIVE GLANDS

1. Salivary Glands

•Three pairs of salivary glands present in the mouth*:

• Parotid glands – Located in the cheek region
• Submandibular (Submaxillary) glands – Located at
the lower jaw
• Sublingual glands – Located below the tongue

Functions of Saliva–
•Lubricates food and helps in swallowing
•Contains salivary amylase (ptyalin), which partially digests
starch
2. Pancreas
•Lobed, yellow-coloured gland
•Located between the stomach and duodenum
•Secretes pancreatic juice

Pancreatic Enzymes:

•Trypsin → Digests proteins

•Lipase → Digests fats
•Pancreatic amylase → Digests starch
3. Liver
•Largest gland of the body
•Located below the diaphragm in the abdominal cavity

•Gallbladder present on the undersurface of the liver

•Liver secretes bile

•Bile is temporarily stored in the gallbladder
•Bile enters the duodenum through the common bile duct

Function of Bile
•Helps in emulsification of fats (breaks large fat globules into smaller
droplets)
4. Gastric Glands

•Present in the wall of the stomach

•Secrete gastric juice

Components of Gastric Juice -

•Hydrochloric acid (HCl) – Creates acidic medium and kills germs
•Pepsin – Digests proteins
•Mucus – Protects the stomach lining from acid

5. Intestinal Glands

•Present in the wall of the small intestine

•Secrete intestinal juice (Succus Entericus)

Functions
•Completes the digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats
•Helps in the final stages of digestion before absorption
 PROCESS OF DIGESTION
1. Digestion in the Mouth
 Mechanical Digestion

Mastication (chewing) breaks food into smaller pieces

Food mixes with saliva to form a bolus

 Chemical Digestion

Salivary amylase (ptyalin) digests about 30% of starch

Converts Starch → Maltose
Salivary amylase
Starch Maltose

Lingual lipase digests triglycerides into diglycerides and fatty acids

Lysozyme in saliva acts as an antibacterial agent
2. Digestion in the Stomach

•Food is mixed with gastric juice by churning movements

•Food remains in the stomach for about 3 hours
•Converted into a semi-liquid mass called chyme

Components of Gastric Juice:

Mucus
•Lubricates food
•Protects stomach lining

Rennin (in infants only)*

•Converts milk into curd

Pepsin
•Digests proteins into peptones
Pepsin
Proteins Peptones

Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)

•Kills bacteria
•Provides acidic medium for pepsin action
3. Digestion in the Small Intestine
In the Duodenum - In ileum -

 Bile Intestinal juice/ Succus entericus

•Yellowish fluid produced in liver and stored in gall ENZYME ACTION

bladder Trypsin Peptones → Amino acids
•Emulsifies fats
Maltase Maltose → Glucose

 Pancreatic Juice Lactase Lactose → Glucose + Galactose

Sucrase Sucrose → Glucose + Fructose
Contain enzymes which acts in an alkaline medium. Lipase Fats → Fatty acids + Glycerol
Alkaline medium is made by bicarbonate ions secreted
by duodenal wall

Pancreatic juice enzymes:

•Trypsin: Proteins → Peptones → Peptides & Amino

acids
•Amylase: Starch → Maltose
•Lipase: Fats → Fatty acids + Glycerol
ABSORPTION OF FOOD
Absorbed Nutrients
•Absorption = Passage of digested food into the bloodstream
Into Blood
•Most absorption occurs in the jejunum •Glucose
•Iron absorbed in the duodenum* •Amino acids
•Vitamin B₁₂ and bile salts absorbed in the terminal ileum* •Vitamins
•Minerals
•No significant digestion occurs in the large intestine and no enzymes are
secreted Into Lacteals
•Absorbs: •Fatty acids
•Glycerol
Water, Minerals and Certain drugs

 Villi

•Inner surface of small intestine contains millions of villi

•Increase surface area for absorption
•Covered by epithelium
•Rich in:
• Blood capillaries
• Lacteals (lymph vessels)
ELIMINATION (DEFECATION)

•Undigested waste forms faeces

•Peristalsis moves faeces to the rectum
•Faeces expelled through the anus (defecation)

•The roughage in the diet helps promote movement of bowels

1. In which test tube do you observe a colour change?
Test tube B shows a blue-black colour after adding iodine.

2. What does this indicate about the presence or absence of starch in the two test tubes?
•Test tube B: Starch is present.
•Test tube A: Starch is absent or greatly reduced.

3. What does this tell us about the action of saliva on starch?

Saliva contains the enzyme amylase, which breaks down starch into simpler sugars. Therefore,
starch is digested in test tube A.
POINTS TO BE COVERED:

 Introduction

 Respiration in aquatic animals

 Parts of human respiratory system

Nose and Nostrils, Pharynx, Larynx, Trachea, Bronchi, Bronchioles and Alveoli and Lungs

 Events in respiration

 Mechanism of respiration (Inhalation and Exhalation)

 Exchange of gases

 Transport of gases

 Control of respiration
AQUATIC ANIMALS

•Use oxygen dissolved in water for respiration.

•Dissolved oxygen in water is much lower than oxygen in air.
•Therefore, aquatic animals need to breathe at a faster rate.

RESPIRATION IN FISHES

•Water enters through the mouth.

•Water is forced over the gills.
•Gills provide a large surface area for gas exchange.
•Dissolved oxygen diffuses from water into the blood.
•Carbon dioxide diffuses from blood into the water.
 PARTS OF HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Components:
Nose, Pharynx, Larynx (voice box), Trachea (windpipe), Bronchi, Lungs

Divided into*:
Upper Respiratory Tract – Nose, Pharynx, Associated structures
Lower Respiratory Tract – Larynx, Trachea, Bronchi, Lungs
NOSE AND NOSTRILS
•Pair of external nostrils open above the upper lip.
•Lead into nasal chamber/ nasal cavity through nasal passages.
•Lined by mucous membrane.
•Hard palate forms the floor of the nasal cavity and separates it from the oral cavity*.
•Nasal septum divides the cavity into right and left halves*.
•Functions:
• Warms air
• Moistens air
• Filters air (by fine hairs)
• Olfaction (smell)
• Speech
•Posteriorly communicates with nasopharynx
PHARYNX (THROAT)
•Muscular tube located posterior to nasal and oral cavities.
•Lies superior to larynx.
•Wall consists of:
• Skeletal muscles*
• Mucous membrane lining

•Divided into three regions*:

Nasopharynx Oropharynx Laryngopharynx/Hypopharynx

Upper portion of pharynx. Intermediate portion. Inferior portion.
Located above soft palate. Oral cavity opens into it. Opens into:
Passage for gases. Oesophagus (posteriorly)
Larynx through glottis (anteriorly)

Oropharynx and laryngopharynx conduct both food and air*.

LARYNX (VOICE BOX)

•Connects pharynx to trachea.

•Cartilaginous box*.
•Function:
Sound production
•Epiglottis
Leaf-shaped elastic cartilage.
Prevents food from entering larynx during swallowing.
•Glottis*
Consists of pair of folds of mucous membrane called vocal folds (true vocal cords)
Produce sound as they vibrate
TRACHEA (WINDPIPE)

•Straight tube located anterior to oesophagus.

•Extends from larynx to mid-thoracic cavity*.
•Divides at 5th thoracic vertebra (T5) into*:
• Right primary bronchus
• Left primary bronchus
•Wall consists of:
• C-shaped incomplete hyaline cartilage rings
• Smooth muscle
• Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
•Cartilage rings prevent tracheal collapse.
BRONCHI

•Trachea divides into right and left primary bronchi.

•Each bronchus enters its respective lung.
•Primary bronchi divide into:
• Secondary (lobar) bronchi
• One for each lung lobe
•Secondary bronchi divide into:
• Tertiary (segmental) bronchi
•Tertiary bronchi further divide into bronchioles.
BRONCHIOLES AND ALVEOLI

•Bronchioles branch repeatedly into smaller tubes.

•The smallest bronchioles form terminal bronchioles.
•Extensive branching from the trachea resembles an inverted tree.
•This branching system is called the*:
• Bronchial tree or
• Tracheobronchial tree.
•Trachea, bronchi, and initial bronchioles are supported by incomplete
cartilaginous rings.

Terminal Bronchioles to Alveoli

•Terminal bronchioles divide into respiratory bronchioles.

•Respiratory bronchioles divide into alveolar ducts.
•Each alveolar duct ends in 2–3 alveolar sacs.
•Each alveolar sac is a chamber connected to two or more alveoli.

Alveoli

•Alveoli are the terminal air sacs of the lungs.

•Balloon like structures
•Each alveolus is lined by simple squamous epithelium.
•Each alveolus is supported by a thin elastic basement membrane.
LUNGS

•Paired, cone-shaped organs located in the thoracic cavity.

•Separated by the heart and other structures of mediastinum.
•Base rests on the diaphragm; apex extends upward.

 Pleural Membranes*

•Each lung is enclosed by a double-layered pleural membrane.

• Parietal pleura: lines the thoracic cavity wall.
• Visceral pleura: covers the lungs.
•Pleural cavity between the two layers contains pleural fluid.
•Functions of pleural fluid:
• Reduces friction during breathing.
• Helps pleural membranes adhere to each other.

 Lobes of Lungs*

•Right lung:
• Larger.
• 3 lobes: superior, middle, inferior.
•Left lung:
• 2 lobes: superior, inferior.

•Each lobe is supplied by a secondary (lobar) bronchus.

 Respiratory Membrane*

•Site of gas exchange.

•Very thin (~0.5 µm).
•Consists of:
• Thin squamous epithelium of alveoli.
• Endothelium of alveolar capillaries.
• Basement substance between them.

 Alveoli*

•Approximately 300 million alveoli present.

•Provide a total surface area of about 70 m².

 Functional Parts of the Respiratory System:

Conducting Part -
•Extends from external nostrils to terminal bronchioles.
•Functions:
• Transport of gases.
• Humidification of air.
• Removal of foreign particles.

Respiratory (Exchange) Part -

Consists of alveolar ducts and alveoli.
Site of gaseous exchange.
EVENTS OF RESPIRATION*
[Link] Ventilation (Breathing)
•Intake of O₂-rich atmospheric air into the lungs.
•Expulsion of CO₂-rich alveolar air from the lungs.

[Link] Respiration
•Exchange of gases between alveolar air and blood in pulmonary capillaries.

[Link] of Gases
•Blood transports O₂ and CO₂ between the lungs and tissue cells.

[Link] Respiration (Tissue Respiration)

•Exchange of gases between systemic capillary blood and tissue cells.

[Link] Respiration
•Cells use O₂ to break down (catabolize) food.
•Produces ATP (energy).
•Releases CO₂ as a by-product.
 MECHANISM OF RESPIRATION
Lungs present in thoracic cavity

 Inhalation (Inspiration)
Air enters the lungs.
Lung volume increases.
Thoracic cavity volume increases.
Pressure inside lungs decreases.
Ribs move upward and outward.
Diaphragm contracts and flattens.

 Exhalation (Expiration)
Air is expelled from the lungs.
Lung volume decreases.
During the breathing cycle, when air is taken in
Thoracic cavity volume decreases.
and let out, the lungs always contain a residual
Pressure inside lungs increases.
volume of air so that there is sufficient time for
Ribs move downward and inward.
oxygen to be absorbed and for the carbon
Diaphragm relaxes and becomes dome-shaped.
dioxide to be released.
Normal Breathing Rate*
12–16 breaths per minute in a healthy adult.
EXCHANGE OF GASES
 Site of Gas Exchange
•Alveoli Blood
•Blood Tissues
•Exchange occurs by simple diffusion.

 Exchange Between Alveoli and Blood

•O₂ diffuses from alveoli → blood.
•CO₂ diffuses from blood → alveoli.

 Exchange Between Blood and Tissues

•O₂ diffuses from blood → tissues.
•CO₂ diffuses from tissues → blood.

 Direction of Gas Movement

O₂: Atmosphere → Alveoli → Blood → Tissues
CO₂: Tissues → Blood → Alveoli → Atmosphere
TRANSPORT OF GASES
 Oxygen (O₂) Transport

•In large animals, diffusion alone cannot supply oxygen to all body tissues.
•Haemoglobin acts as the respiratory pigment in humans.
•Haemoglobin is present in red blood cells (RBCs) and has a high affinity for oxygen.
•It carries oxygen from the lungs to body tissues.
•97% of O₂ is transported as oxyhaemoglobin (HbO₂).
•3% of O₂ is transported dissolved in plasma.*

 Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) Transport

•Carbon dioxide is more soluble in water than oxygen.

•70% of CO₂ is transported as bicarbonate ions (HCO₃⁻).
•23% of CO₂ is transported as carbaminohaemoglobin (HbCO₂). *
•7% of CO₂ is transported dissolved in plasma.*
CONTROL OF RESPIRATION*

•Breathing movements are controlled by the respiratory centre in the medulla oblongata of the
hindbrain.
•The respiratory centre is stimulated by the CO₂ level in the blood.
•Higher CO₂ concentration → Faster breathing rate.
•Lower CO₂ concentration → Slower breathing rate.
•Breathing is mainly an involuntary process.
•The breathing rate can be voluntarily increased or decreased for a short time.
•A person cannot hold their breath indefinitely because rising CO₂ levels stimulate the
respiratory centre and force breathing to resume.
Observation:
•Lime water into which you blow exhaled air turns milky faster.
•Lime water through which ordinary air is passed using a syringe/pichkari turns milky more
slowly.

Reason:
Exhaled air contains more carbon dioxide (CO₂) than atmospheric air. CO₂ reacts with lime
water to form insoluble calcium carbonate, making the solution milky.
Ca(OH)𝟐 + CO𝟐 → CaCO𝟑 + H𝟐 O
Observation:
After some time, the lime water turns milky.

Reason:
During fermentation, yeast breaks down sugar and releases carbon dioxide (CO₂) gas. The
CO₂ passes through the bent glass tube into the lime water and reacts with it, making it
milky.
Ca(OH)𝟐 + CO𝟐 → CaCO𝟑 + H𝟐 O